Leather in Late Iron Age Scandinavia from Elk-Traps to Cheese-Glue

Department of archaeology and ancient history

Leather in Late Iron Age Scandinavia From elk-traps to cheese-glue

Stella Carlson

BA thesis 15 credits in Archaeology Spring semester 2021 Supervisor: John Ljungkvist Campus Gotland

Abstract

Carlson, S. 2021. Leather in Late Iron Age Scandinavia – From elk-traps to cheese-glue. Carlson, S. 2021. Läder i den sena järnålderns Skandinavien – Från älgfällor till ostlim

Leather is a material that throughout history has been very important for humankind. Up until recently is has often however, together with other organic materials, not been given the attention it might deserve. This essay investigates how leather from the Late Iron Age in Scandinavia can be studied, if specialisation within leather related crafts can be identified and what this can tell us about how crafting skills were spread in a society. First a broader analysis is made of related crafts in the Late Iron Age, which is then put into relation to three chosen Vendel Age graves from the Valsgärde burial ground. Both leather production through hunting and tanning, and item production techniques like for example sewing and scabbard making are reviewed. Problems with preservation are discussed and possible alternative ways to study the subject are explored. The essay concludes that leather crafting included many techniques spread in society, practiced by common people. Still, several explicit specialisations also existed, which created high-quality leather products. Finally, suggestions for future research are made. Keywords: Valsgärde, Vendel Period, leather, tanning, Late Iron Age, organic materials

Läder har som material varit mycket viktigt genom hela den mänskliga historien. Fram tills nyligen har det, tillsammans med andra organiska material, dock ofta inte fått den uppmärksamhet det kanske förtjänar. Den här uppsatsen undersöker hur läder från den sena järnålderns Skandinavien kan studeras, om specialisering inom läderhantverk kan identifieras och vad detta kan berätta för oss om hur hantverkskompetens var spritt i ett samhälle. Först görs en bredare analys av relaterade hantverk under den sena järnåldern, vilket sedan sätts i relation till tre vendeltida gravar från gravfältet i Valsgärde. Både produktion av läder genom jakt och garvning, och tekniker för produktion av föremål såsom sömnad och tillverkning av svärdsskidor granskas. Problematik med bevarandeförhållanden diskuteras och alternativa sätt att studera ämnet utforskas. Slutsatserna av uppsatsen är att läderhantverk inkluderade många olika hantverkstekniker, som var spridda i hela samhället och praktiserades av vanligt folk. Flertalet explicita specialiseringar existerade dock också, vilket gav upphov till högkvalitativa läderprodukter. Slutligen ges förslag till framtida forskning. Nyckelord: Valsgärde, Vendeltid, läder, garvning, sen järnålder, organiska material

Kandidatuppsats i Arkeologi 15hp. Handledare: John Ljungkvist. Ventilerad och godkänd 2021-06-15. © Stella Carlson Institutionen för arkeologi och antik historia, Uppsala universitet, Campus Gotland, Cramérgatan 3, 621 67 Visby, Sweden

Cover photo: Detail of the sword scabbard from Valsgärde 8. Photo by Stella Carlson.

Special thanks

I want to begin by thanking my supervisor John Ljungkvist, for both feedback and good advice during the writing process, but above all for inspiring conversations about everything between oak bark and how to make seal oil. Thank you, curator John Worley, for help in the search for leather between swords and mummies in the archives at Museum Gustavianum. I also want to thank Matt Bunker. You reminded me that history is full of exciting surprises and inspiration for new crafting experiments. Last, but far from least, thank you Micaela Janatuinen. Without you this essay would not have happened.

Content

1. Introduction ...... 1 1.1. Purpose and research questions ...... 1 1.2. Material and demarcations ...... 2 1.3 Method and theory ...... 2 2. Earlier research ...... 4 3. Trade, crafts, and crafting techniques in leatherworking ...... 5 3.1 Tanning ...... 5 3.2 Common crafting techniques ...... 7 3.3 Crafts and specialised crafts people ...... 8 3.4 Trade ...... 9 5. The Valsgärde boat graves ...... 11 5.1 Valsgärde 8 ...... 11 5.2 Valsgärde 7 ...... 14 5.3 Valsgärde 5 ...... 16 6. Discussion – Interpreting archaeological leather ...... 19 6.1 What is left? ...... 19 6.2 The graves at Valsgärde ...... 19 6.3 Who was the leather worker and where can they be traced? ...... 21 6.4 Future research ...... 22 7. Conclusions ...... 23 8. Bibliography ...... 24 9. Illustrations ...... 28 Appendix 1: Artefacts with preserved leather from Valsgärde 8 according to the published report. .. 29 Appendix 2: Artefacts with preserved leather from Valsgärde 7 according to the published report. .. 30 Appendix 3: Artefacts with preserved leather from Valsgärde 5 according to the unpublished report...... 31

1. Introduction

Hides and leather have been of great importance for as long as humanity has had a material history. A great variety of objects have been made from these materials, from clothes to equipment and decoration. As materials they are both strong and flexible. The earliest uses were likely raw hide objects of different kinds, like shoes and stiff fells to keep warm. But step by step humans learned to cure and tan leather. Raw hide becomes very hard when it dries, but through a tanning process leather can be made into incredibly soft items resistant to water, wind, and decay. Apart from being such a versatile material it is also readily available wherever there are animals. This study is based upon material from the Valsgärde burial ground. It is one of the most interesting archaeological sites in Sweden. Not only because of what the rich high statues burials tell us about the Late Iron Age society, but also because of an unusually high quantity of preserved organic material. Leather, wood, and textile are often not preserved in archaeological context simply because of the natural decomposition process. Objects made from inorganic materials such as stone, metal, and glass survive the touch of time in a completely different way and have therefore received more attention in the earlier archaeological research. This leaves a gap in our understanding of the past. Another perhaps even more important aspect is that undisturbed inhumation graves are rare for most parts of the entire Iron Age. Cremation burial was the standard practice, and among the relatively few inhumation burials, many have been plundered, particularly in the Migration Period. Intact, well documented inhumation burials, such as those at Valsgärde, are few and therefore very important for our understanding of the material culture, especially concerning organic material. The period that will be discussed in this essay, the Late Iron Age, and particularly the Vendel Period (ca. 550–750/800 CE) has been given its name from what has been previously regarded as its most defining material, iron. But in reality, perishable materials like fabrics, wood and why not leather dominated the material culture and were essential parts of the material wealth. The metals did of course play a crucial role, but they were far from alone on the stage. This essay is an attempt to investigate how leather is preserved, and what we can learn about and from the leather craft in the Late Iron Age society. It will focus on a selection of graves from the Late Iron Age in Uppland, Middle Sweden, but also make reflections on the basis of other sites, in order to present a broader context and perspective.

1.1. Purpose and research questions

The main reason as to why leather is not as well investigated as for instance metal objects might be because of its physical properties. It is an organic material which is only preserved under specific circumstances. Another reason could be priorities or simply a lack of a dynamic research environment. By studying the archaeological material from a number of boat graves in Valsgärde, this essay will not only try to encircle the problems of preservation circumstances, but also, to some extent, investigate the importance of leather. Who might have worked with it, used it, and for what? To conclude, this essay will evolve around the following questions: • In which archaeological contexts do we find preserved leather and what kind of objects were made from this material? • Which crafting processes can we tie to leatherwork?

• Is it possible to identify specialisations within leather crafting or was it every man’s work? In other words, who was the leather craftsperson and what role did the material play in the society? • How can we study archaeological leather, now and in the future? The aim of the essay is to elevate leather in archaeological contexts. This material was used for many different objects and had a role of great importance in the everyday life. It is also a material from which we can learn about how crafting skills were spread in a society. Quantity and quality of the finds discussed in the essay does not only contribute to show the diversity of leather products, but also a great proficiency which suggests specialisation within a profession. It is intended as a springboard for further studies of leather and its significance during the Late Iron Age and early Middle Ages.

1.2. Material and demarcations

This essay focuses on leather material from the Vendel Period (approx. 560/70–750/800 CE). Other related soft organic materials that can be found in corresponding, contemporary contexts are various kinds of fur, feathers, bast and textiles. These materials are related to each other in their nature of being organic materials worked by humans and in how and for what they were used. For instance, the Valsgärde graves contained pillows with textile, feathers and animal hide represented in the same object (Malmius 2020: 1). Much of what is argued here about leather can to a greater or lesser extent be applied to these materials as well. They will however not be discussed in depth in this essay as it would then become a far too wide subject. Before the Iron Age the archaeological leather finds are few. This is a dynamic period of transformation, commerce, and wealth. Changing economic and social patterns give an idea of how the hunting and trading with animal resources changed from a relatively small-scale business to a rather large industry (Hennius 2021: 16, 121f). This in turn could indicate that the view on, and possibly availability of, leather objects changed as well. The Valsgärde boat graves are some of the most famous Iron Age sites in Scandinavia. They present a remarkable wealth. In addition to the rich inventory in the shape of ornated helmets, swords, and other metal objects, they are also rich in wood, textile, and other organic remains. Even feathers from the bedding are preserved (Berglund and Rosvold 2021: 1f). They also contain a number of impressive leather objects, such as sword scabbards and bridles, as well as an abundance of smaller fragments connected to other items. This gives a broad picture of both quality and quantity of leather products present during this period.

1.3 Method and theory In order to answer the research questions this essay will have both a theoretical and a practical perspective. The theoretical discussion first briefly examines the current state of the field and earlier research. To approach the presented questions, tanning methods which were likely used in the Vendel Period are discussed and evaluated. This is then compared and put into context with the nature of decay of leather under different conditions. To further address the questions of crafts and the role of leather as a material in society, the essay compares specialised and non- specialised crafts. Related artefacts and activities which could indicate the occurrence of leather, even when the leather itself cannot be seen in the archaeological material are also taken into consideration. This part is primarily based on the current knowledge of the Vendel Age society, with some comparisons made with Medieval and prehistoric finds. The essay also discusses how the high-status graves of Valsgärde can provide valuable insights for the material culture of a broader society, despite representing a small, elite portion of the population. To put the questions surrounding the leather into a practical context, three graves from 2

Valsgärde were investigated. Valsgärde 5, 7 and 8 were selected because of their rich organic material content. The material in the two latter cases were studied through their published reports by Greta Arwidsson. For grave 5, which currently is unpublished, inventory lists and unpublished sources like excavations diaries and manuscripts for the upcoming publication has been used, as well as a number of artefacts and discussions with the authors for the publication. Primarily a selection of recorded leather in the graves was reviewed in order to examine the preservation for various objects and the potential for further research. During this research a few objects were also reviewed that ‘should’ be associated with leather but where none was mentioned, like belt buckles and strap endings. The method allows for an interdisciplinary study of empirical data and an abstract discussion heavily inspired by post-processual archaeology and Entanglement theory as presented by for example Ian Hodder (2016: 9). Humans throughout all history have been strongly affected by their surroundings and locally available material. Both the physical and social environment has a great impact on everything from how we choose to dress to what we eat and think. In an agrarian society like Vendel Age Uppland, which also clearly has contacts with the north of Sweden, typically known for its rich hunting grounds, it is evident that animal skins were an important natural resource. The essay will discuss differences between how leather was used in different parts of society, being an essential everyday material in many ways, but just as well something exclusive and a source of wealth in others. It also argues that we do not always need the physical object or material to study it. Despite the leather itself being lost in many cases, it is still visible through its connections to associated objects, tools, traditions, and trade and exchange.

2. Earlier research

In recent years, the study of organic materials has had a lift within archaeology. Textile and clothing practices have a long tradition in the field, but focused mostly on woven materials, styles, and appearance. With recent advantages within the natural sciences, new research has been made possible. Chemical analyses and studies of ancient DNA have provided new insights that earlier could just be dreamt of. This also opens for new opportunities for the study of leather, which earlier has been relatively limited. The research of pre-medieval leather has been sparse, to a great extent due to lack of material. As will be discussed later, leather is only preserved under certain circumstances. Before the vegetable tanning became widespread there is very little material left at all. In some extraordinary cases pre-historical leather items have been preserved well enough to study the original tanning, such as in the case with Ötzi the Iceman. (Groenman-Van Waateringe et al. 1999) Through experiments and pollen analyses the prehistoric tanning methods for Ötzis clothes could be determined to fat- and smoke tanning. A small number of finds have been made in the Hallstatt salt mines, from oak-log coffins and peat bogs (Groenman-Van Waateringe et al. 1999: 1). In these cases, other mechanisms of preservation than the original tanning has been present. In the mines it is the salt that provides an environment which inhibits decay (Harris 2006: 69). The peat bogs present a suitably acidic and anaerobic milieu as well as plant material containing tannins, and the oak is known for its tanning properties. Thus, these objects have been preserved through secondary tanning processes, and it is impossible to tell the original preparation method (Groenman-Van Waateringe et al. 1999: 884). The lack of finds, and altered state of those few in existence, means that there is a huge body of artefacts that are completely invisible in the archaeological material. Willy Groenman van Waateringe has done much research mainly focusing on prehistoric footwear. This of course includes leather but does not do the material justice, as it had a far broader usage. Concerning the Anglo-Saxon world Quita Mould has written extensively about leather craft at the beginning of the Middle Ages, and the Scandinavian influences in towns such as York and Dublin (Mould et al. 2003; Mould 2015; Mould & Cameron 2015). As preserved fragments of leather can be scarce in the archaeological record, it is vital to look for evidence in other ways. Inger Zachrisson has written about skin scrapers from rich Iron Age contexts as evidence of skin preparation (Zachrisson 2014). Recent research of trade patterns, pit-fall systems for hunting and the extensive exploitation of the outlands (Lindholm & Ljungkvist 2016; Hennius 2018; Hennius 2021) proves that the Iron Age exploitation of inland and costal resources, including skin and leather, was more advanced than previously thought. Through the lens of these connected industries, the leather production and trade can be perceived. In 2019 Tuija Kirkinen wrote her dissertation on animal skins in Fennoscandian burial contexts. While discussing trade and hunting of both animals typically hunted for their furs and those which skin was more likely used for production of leather, her dissertation focused on fur skins and the preservation of hair. It demonstrates the amazing potential of knowledge that can be found in the area of animal hides, fur and leather. While mainly focusing on boat grave textiles in her dissertation from 2020 Anita Malmius also lifts fur and leather as important materials during the Scandinavian Iron Age. She writes about tanning processes, production, and trade. In her text she has chosen to broaden the term “archaeological textile” to include not only woven materials but also non-woven, such as leather, birch bark and bulrush. This opens for new ways to approach the materials, and while she does not extensively study leather, she paves way for future research. 4

3. Trade, crafts, and crafting techniques in leatherworking

Broadly speaking there are three main processes that have to take place before there can be a finished leather object. First of all, the raw material has to be obtained either by hunting wild animals or raising livestock. The raw material then has to be turned from raw hide into leather through the process called tanning. The last step is to create the finished product. Between these areas of activity we have exchange of products. This chapter will describe these different areas of activity.

3.1 Tanning The tanning of animal skins is a chemical process, done in order to change the physical properties of the raw skin to make it resistant to decay. The tanning process has a lot of other impacts on the change from raw material to finished product as well, but exactly which is dependent on the tanning method. If the aim is to make a durable shoe sole, a completely different method will be chosen compared to if the goal is a soft and flexible glove, saddle, armour piece, or water skin. Fat or oil-based methods create softer and ‘fluffier’ leather, while vegetable-tanning makes it more dense, tougher, and gives it a smoother surface. Choosing the right tanning method is just as important as the choice of animal the skin comes from. Leather is the skin of any vertebrate animal, prepared in a way that renders it non- putrescible under warm, moist conditions. A true leather retains its properties after repeated wetting and drying (Thomson 2006b: 3). By this definition vegetable-tanning produces true leather, while many fat/oil-tanning processes, as well as smoke tanning, works more like a thorough impregnation. Some fats, like brain and fish oil, do chemically react with the skin and creates a sort of pseudo-tanned product (Anon 2018: 12). The terminology on the subject is somewhat unclear, and the terms “tanning” and “curing” (for preparation methods that do not create ‘true’ leather) are used sometimes interchangeably, sometimes with very narrow and specific definitions. In this essay I will use the term tanning for the process of chemically preparing a skin, be it with oil, smoke or vegetable agents. I will however when it is relevant make a clear distinction between ‘fat-tanned’ and ‘vegetable-tanned’ leather. Curing and pseudo-tanning unlike true tanning is reversible which is the reason as to why there are so few archaeological traces left of leather objects from the periods before vegetable tanning was introduced (Groenman-Van Waateringe et al. 1999: 886; Harris 2011: 57). Leather with its high nitrogen content and consisting mostly of proteins is a highly desirable nutritional source for microorganisms. This is the main reason for degradation. Due to not fully chemically bonding to the skin, fat- and smoke-tannings are reversible, and under wet conditions the tanning will eventually be washed away, leaving the skin highly susceptible to decay. As with other organic materials, the most rapid decay takes place in oxygen-rich environments. In anaerobic environments skin products can still be decayed by bacteria, but vegetable-tanned leather survives to a greater extent (Huisman, Os, et al. 2009: 64). Especially under waterlogged conditions it can be preserved rather well as the static water provides an anaerobic environment. (Anon 2018: 12). The presence of metals can also have a conserving effect on organic materials, especially copper alloys and iron. Copper dissolved in water is toxic and therefore prevents or slows down the decay by microorganisms. If tannins in the leather are exposed to iron oxides it can form iron-tannin compounds. While this preserves it also turns the leather black and stiff. In some cases leather on iron objects can leave impressions in the rust, even after the leather itself has degraded completely (Huisman, Joosten, et al. 2009: 85). 5

Before the tanning process can begin, the skin must go through a number of preparations. First of all, the animal has to be skinned. This is easiest done as soon as possible after the animal is killed. Finds of almost complete fox and wolf skeletons, with only the paws missing, from the palaeolithic suggests that the hunting of animals explicitly for their hides has been practiced far back in human history. For practical reasons, metacarpals are often left attached to the skin during the skinning stage (Serjeantson 1989: 139, 141; Vretemark 1997: 56–57; Harris 2011: 59; Harjula 2015: 163). 3rd phalanges can be left even on the finished product, as is seen with bear and lynx skins in Iron Age graves (Lindholm & Ljungkvist 2016: 2f). If the tanning process cannot be started immediately the skin can be conserved by for instance being dried, frozen or salted. The next step is to scrape the flesh side of the skin clean from fat and membranes, and then to remove the hair. Ash has traditionally been used for this by both the Sami and Native Americans by either rubbing it directly on the skin or using lye. The simplest and least tool demanding method is to simply let the skin soak in (preferably running) water or cover it with snow until the hairs detach. After this process, the actual tanning takes place. Depending on the nature of the specific tanning agent this part can differ a bit. Oils would be rubbed into the flesh side of the hide, it could be hung over a fire to be smoked, or soaked in a bath together with bark cuttings. The time span necessary differs from a few days, as in the case of fat or smoke, to up to several months as in the case of bark tanning. After this process the skin is washed and last of all, mechanically softened (Rahme 2003: 54f, 67, 75, 84f). Impregnating skins with fats or oil, and then possibly smoke them are the oldest methods of preparing leather (Rahme 2003: 8; Harris 2011: 57f). It is possible that the first crude form of deliberately processed leather was produced this way as early as a million years ago (Thomson 2006a: 66). Wood smoke contains aldehydes and quinones which acts as tanning agents, and smoke can be used both as a tanning method on its own, and as a complement to other methods to create a softer and more water-resistant end product (Rahme 2003: 69). Fats suitable for tanning come in different forms. One of the best fats comes from the brain and is likely the earliest method. Apart from being an excellent tanning agent on its own, brain substance also contains phospholipids which helps other fats to bind to the skin. It is said that the brain of an animal is just the right amount for tanning its skin. Other fats used can be for example seal oil, rapeseed- or olive oil. Exactly when vegetable tanning started to appear is not entirely clear, but at the latest it was spread during the Iron Age (Goubitz et al. 2001: 29; Harris 2011: 57, 64). Vegetable tanning chemically changes the hide in an irreversible manner which is the reason why this is the kind of leather we find today (Goubitz et al. 2001: 29, 379; Harris 2011: 57). The tanning agents are called tannins and are present in for example most of the Scandinavian trees. It is the inner bark that contains the highest concentrations, but also wood, roots, and fruit contain tannins (Rahme 2003: 70). Historically oak has been most commonly used, but for example spruce and willow have excellent tanning properties. Less common but non the less useful are for example heather, bog myrtle and bearberry. All of these are examples from the Scandinavian flora, but plants containing tannins grow all over the world (Rahme 2003: 71). The above mentioned plants do in no way form a complete list, tannins can be found in most tree species and in an abundance of other plants. It is in other words readily available wherever one might decide it is the time and place to prepare a skin. Today most leather internationally is tanned with the toxic heavy metal chrome (Covington 2006: 23; China et al. 2020: 3). With a rising interest in sustainability and environmentally defensible methods, traditional tanning and especially vegetable tanning is currently on the rise. The potential of traditional methods is becoming more and more recognized.

3.2 Common crafting techniques

In the Iron Age society practical crafting skills were much more central in the everyday life than it is to most western people today. Being able to sew, work with wood, take care of animals and in general being able to create the items necessary for a normal day was a matter of survival. Many crafts required special skills, but most people had a basic understanding of several crafts. In the late Iron Age society, it is difficult to recognize exactly when a craft became complicated and ‘important’ enough to require professional specialisation. The society was on the brink of a dawning urbanisation but there were not yet the kind of medieval towns which were to grow in the following centuries and could support large numbers of craftspeople permanently. Neither is there any evidence of guild systems or similar that can support a widespread specialisation (Ljungkvist 2008a: 187). The variety of objects made from leather was very wide. Some required a high level of skill, as will be shown in the chapter about the Valsgärde finds, while many objects were much simpler and did not necessarily require a lot of experience or specialized skill to create. Sewing clothes and bags, twine thread and cutting straps for belts and other similar things should by all reason be crafts that were performed within a household. A craft that is very specialized today but historically is likely to have been rather common is basic shoemaking. The oldest known shoe was found in a cave in Armenia in 2008, and is radiocarbon dated to the 4th millennium BC (Pinhasi et al. 2010: 2f). It is made from a very simple design, a single piece of leather is gathered around the foot and tied together with a string of sinew. Shoes like the one found in Armenia are very rare in archaeological contexts as they were made from leather cured with fat and smoke, or even completely untanned hides all together (Mould 2015: 126). As discussed above this means that they quickly deteriorate and disappear except under exceptional circumstances. The simple techniques in both construction and choice of material suggests that these shoes were homemade. They would wear out quickly, but also be cheap and easy to replace (Mould 2015: 129). The same type of single piece shoes continued to be made and used throughout the Iron and Middle Ages, and well into the 20th century, for example in the Faroe islands (Mould 2015: 125f), even though archaeological evidence from the Netherlands suggests that shoemaking as a professional trade emerged during the 7th century (Goubitz et al. 2001: 104). This indicates that shoemaking was a common skill practiced side by side with the professional trade of shoemaker. Even when it comes to more sophisticated shoes, medieval Finnish sources suggest that after shoemaker and cobbler (which worked specifically with repairing shoes) became established professions, many people still repaired their own shoes at home (Harjula 2015: 168). In modern times leather sewing is considered a specialised technique and associated with special tools such as triangular needles. These make the sewing process significantly easier as the needles are sharpened to cut rather than press through the material but are in no way necessary if the leather is thin. A normal, sufficiently sharp, round sewing needle for cloth works perfectly fine. The triangular design comes to its full right when the material starts to get thicker, or several layers are involved. When the leather gets even thicker, the use of an awl is required. When working in leather compared to cloth there is in general a difference in the use of stitches and seams. However, these techniques are not exclusive either. Studies of the birch bark canopies from the Valsgärde boat graves by Karolina Pallin show that very similar techniques were used in their creation. Joining seams and mends are made with techniques that today are considered typical for leather working and the stitching holes are triangular in shape suggesting the use of a typical ‘leather’ needle (Pallin 2016: 8, 14f). The canopies also show similarities in the line ornamentations to the bridle leather from Valsgärde boat grave 7. These

ornaments are however very simple forms of decoration and does not necessarily support any connections between the crafts. This suggests that what is today considered typical leather crafting techniques have historically been used for other materials and crafts as well.

Figure 1. Part of birch bark canopy from Valgsgärde 8, find nr 201. Gustavianum archives, Arwidsson 1954, Taf. 38. Daniel Sahlén (2020: 185f) discusses trade specialisation during the Iron Age. While focusing on metal crafts he also briefly mentions textile, leather, bone/antler, glass, and wood. According to Sahlén the old notion of a clear division between these crafts and their respective production sites must be dismissed. He also argues that it is highly likely that the same person practiced several crafts. Further evidence supporting this idea can be for example the Mästermyr find with its broad set of metal and wood working tools. Another is the possible overlapping between tanning and textile dying in early medieval Turku (Harjula 2015: 170). However, the finds at Valsgärde still indicates the existence of true specialisation, as will be discussed below, which demonstrates the complexity of the subject. Many crafts were practised on a broad level in the households. Many side by side, and often by the same person. Specialisation became more prominent with the urbanisation, beginning in the late 8th century. However, this does not mean that home production of necessary items ended. Basic curing and tanning techniques, as well as sewing, simple shoe production, making cords, ropes and straps, and other basic crafts were likely to have been practiced to a great extent in most homes or at least villages.

3.3 Crafts and specialised crafts people As discussed above, many crafting techniques were widespread throughout the Iron Age society. A craft specialisation seems to be related with the urbanisation process. Still, judging from the quality and complexity of many objects, crafting specialisation clearly existed. In this section examples will be given of those crafts that required a higher level of skill than the general practitioner would achieve. Looking at the Valsgärde boat graves the splendid craftsmanship is striking. The helmets with their garnets and remarkably detailed ornamentation, equally decorated swords, armour pieces, and the abundance of ornamented metal fittings shows great proficiency with many different metal crafts. The graves contain various wooden items, shields, boxes, eating and drinking vessels, and of course the boat itself. Many of these, including the boats, were decorated with carved ornaments (Arwidsson 1954: 82f, 88f, 120; Arwidsson 1977: 71). The graves also contained remnants of fine fabrics, both in regard to material of high quality wool and flax, and weaving techniques (Malmius 2020: 102f). In the light of this, it seems unlikely that a similar specialisation within leather craft would not exist. Evidence of this in the Valsgärde graves can be for instance the shield coverings, the ornamented bridles and sword

scabbards. The type of flowing, intertwining spiral and animal head patterns that decorate the rest of the material world in the Vendel Period decorates many of the leather artefacts as well, tying them together with the rest of the stylistic world. As stated above, guilds or other evidence of specialist organisation does not exist for the Iron Age in Scandinavia. This does not mean that specialisation did not exist. Parallels can be drawn to the Scandinavian-influenced towns on the British Isles in the early Middle Ages. Street names indicate that specific crafts were practiced in different parts of town, clustering similar trades together, for example leather production, gluemaking, antler- and boneworking etc. In 13th century York several street names connected to leatherwork occur in Scandinavian form, the oldest being “Barkergate”, dating to ca 1230 (Fellows-Jensen 2003: 3226). This indicates both tanning as an already well-established trade in the early Middle Ages, and a clear Scandinavian presence in the city. Some other examples of trades connected to leather craft represented in the street names are for instance tanner, glover, girdler, saddler and shield maker just to mention a few (Fellows-Jensen 2003: 3226). This clearly supports an established specialisation. A specific style of Scandinavian-influenced knife sheaths in 11th century Dublin also supports a strong Scandinavian leather tradition (Mould & Cameron 2015: 152). The sword scabbards in Valsgärde 5, 7 and 8 are all beautifully decorated. Especially sword 1 in grave 7 has a very intricate and finely made ornamentation (fig. 7). The method for creating this seems to be a kind of foundation moulding. The design is carved into the wooden surface of the sheath and then very thin leather is applied on top, pressed down and glued onto the wooden surface (Arwidsson 1977: 40f, 94). According to modern experiments with this process, performed by Matt Bunker, cheese glue, as described by Theophilus, seems to have been the most likely adhesive. On the sword in grave 8, the leather cannot have been more than 1 mm thick. For sword I in grave 7, it must have been even thinner considering the exceptionally delicate details. Leather can be skived down very thin, or possibly some kind of untanned or only partially cured skin was used, the equivalent of parchment or such, he describes in an e- mail conversation (Bunker 2021, personal communication, 30 April). Creating sword sheaths like these requires several specific skill sets. In addition to having the theoretical knowledge of how to make the wooden core, carve it, make glue and work the leather, the crafter also has to have the time necessary to master the skills hands on. Both theoretical and practical training is required. Another layer of the craft is also that these are luxury items. The Valsgärde boat graves are widely recognized as having belonged to warriors from the social elite (Ljungkvist 2006: 44f; Harrison 2009: 67–69). This type of weapons, armour and up to four bridles are not the kind of items required for an ordinary life or even an ordinary soldier. Almost all leather found in large enough fragments show traces of being decorated. This means that the leather items are explicitly made not only to be functional, but to also be beautiful and impressive. Not only did the person who created them have time to master the craft, they also had enough time to put into the creation process to go beyond just ‘well-made and neat’, and step well into the area of splendid craftsmanship. This clearly supports the idea of an existing specialisation within the leather craft during the Vendel Period.

3.4 Trade

According to an article from 2016 the Scandinavian Iron Age saw an extensive trade with bear skins (Lindholm & Ljungkvist 2016). In addition to looking at phalanges found in burials from the middle and southern parts of Sweden, the study also discusses the wide-spread pit fall systems in the north as an indication of extensive hunting and exploitation of the land, which together provide evidence of established skin trade routes between the two areas. The pit fall systems and outland exploitation is also thoroughly investigated by Andreas Hennius in his dissertation from 2021, supporting well-established trading contacts. Another common item in the Iron Age burials is the antler comb which can be found in every second grave. The combs are very common but found in regions where the raw material for their production is not present.

Animals like elk and wild reindeer are however native to the regions where the before mentioned pit fall systems were used (Lindholm & Ljungkvist 2016: 4, 18). This further supports a continuous trade between the north and middle Sweden. In the northern parts of the country there are also finds of large ovens which have been interpreted as used for drying large amounts of meat for export (Zachrisson 2014: 60). So, during the Iron Age there were well- established trade routes dealing with fur, antler and bone. We can also find production sites for these materials as well as meat preparation. The idea that hides should not also have been a part of this export industry is highly unlikely. Based on finds of what she interprets as scrapers for skin preparation Inger Zachrisson suggests that skin trade was as important for the economic wealth as hunting for meat and antler. These scrapers are found in rich graves, often together with tools and hunting equipment. Especially rich locations are for example Stora Drocksjön where no less than seven scrapers were found, together with a variety of other tools and weapons (Zachrisson 2014: 45–46). Another example where these have been found is Transtrand, Dalarna. While the tools themselves were found in male graves, the connected female graves showed a wealth on par with the central regions of Scandinavia (Lindholm & Ljungkvist 2016: 18). The skin trade, with and without fur, seems to have had an undeniable and lucrative place in the economic system. The Viking Age is the last and probably most famous part of the Scandinavian Iron Age. Despite the Vikings’ reputation of being plundering warriors they were to a greater extent tradesmen. The iron trade has earlier been given the biggest role when explaining the growing Scandinavian wealth, but recent studies suggest that other parts of the economy might be even more significant. Andreas Hennius (2018) discusses tar production and outland exploitation as profoundly important for the Viking Age economy. Apart from being paramount in the local sail production, he lifts evidence from e.g Ribe in Denmark which demonstrates an old tradition of long-distance tar trade, reaching beyond the Viking Age. Anita Malmius takes it even further in her dissertation from 2020 discussing the origin of the Valsgärde wealth. My interpretation is that the men buried in the boat-graves gained their economic surplus from trade in hides, leather and furs, and that the furs may have come mainly from northern Sweden, i.e. from Sámi areas. Furs, leather and hides are easy to travel with, by contrast with iron, and hides and furs were probably processed here, as indicated by the proposed iron tannery tool in the Valsgärde 7 grave (Thålin-Bergman 1980, 199). My belief is that the people at Vendel and Valsgärde worked together to trade in furs, leather and hides, and maybe also slaves (as discussed by Seiler (2003) and that horses (according to Jordanes, the Svear were famous for their horses) transported them southwards to the Continent, from where they received patterned fabrics along with glass, weapons, etc. in return. (Malmius 2020: 187) The Scandinavian trade with furs is well documented from at least the 6th century onward (Hennius 2021: 72). Considering the evidence discussed above with elaborate hunting systems and tools from closely connected crafts such as antler working and skin scrapers, it is a reasonable conclusion that hides for leather production were a widely exploited resource as well. Further research is however needed concerning the specific trade with skin for leather production rather than just fur.

5. The Valsgärde boat graves

The Valsgärde burial ground is located on the eastern banks of the Fyris river. It contains at least 62 cremation burials, and fifteen inhumation and chamber graves, but is best known for its fifteen boat graves. Some of these contain extraordinarily well-preserved organic material including for example feathers, fabrics, leather, wood, bulrush, and birch bark. The cemetery was used from the 3rd century BC to the 11th or 12th century AD. Most graves have been dated to the Vendel Period and Viking Age. These periods present the richest graves (Ljungkvist 2008b: 13f). Examined below will be grave 5, 7 and 8. They are all boat burials dated to the Vendel Period, which takes place between approximately 550–850 AD. Based on the weapons and armour finds they are all interpreted as male burials. All graves contain a helmet and a spear. Grave 5 and 7 has three shields and two seaxes respectively, while grave 8 only has two shields and one seax. Grave 7 also contains two swords with highly decorated scabbards, while 5 and 8 only has one sword each. Animals have been sacrificed in all three graves. Among the finds are horses, cows, pigs, wild and tame birds, and sheep. Grave 8 has a significantly smaller number of finds overall compared to the other two and no animals except for two horses. The graves also contain household equipment, wooden bowls, drinking vessels of glass, wood, horn and metal, gaming sets and more. They likely contained large amounts of textile as well, though this is not fully visible in the archaeological record. The same patterns can be seen in these gifts, grave 8 seems to both have fewer grave goods, and of slightly lower quality. The preservation of the organic material is however good in this grave.

5.1 Valsgärde 8 Boat grave 8 was found in 1936 at the south end of the Valsgärde grave hill. It was initially dated to around 625–650 AD based on the archaeological finds and comparisons to the boat graves in Vendel (Arwidsson 1954: 11, 140). In later years however, the dates have been revised both in the 1980’s, the late 2000’s and again in 2021. The grave seems somewhat hard to date from the finds which point to the earlier stage of the Vendel Period, but recent C14-tests suggests the late 7th century. A possibility is that the grave goods were already quite old when put in the grave which is consistent with the interpretation that this grave is not as lavish as 5 and 7. It can be imagined that the grave was for a less important person or relative rather than for a ruler in the area.

Figure 2. Detail of sword, with the woven bast band and animal style carvings on the sword sheath. Find nr 206. Photo by Stella Carlson.

The sword is a so-called ring-sword named after the ring fastened to the top of the pommel. The blade seems to be rather simple with no fuller or indications of pattern welding. It was found broken into several pieces laying over one of the boat frames. The scabbard consists of two wooden pieces covered in leather. Arwidsson does not mention the type of wood. The sword does not have any metal fittings along the scabbard, except for a small indication of an attachment for a belt. The sword seems to have been wrapped in a piece of fine cloth and a woven bast ribbon. The leather is very fragmentary but just under the hilt ornamentations can be seen in the form of an animal head. Based on a small fragment of skin with a “hair-like structure” Arwidsson also theorises that the inside of the scabbard could have been lined with fur (Arwidsson 1954: 60f).

Figure 3. Detail of sword. Arrows point at the metal fastening, and indent likely caused by a second strap around the scabbard. Find nr 206. Photo by Stella Carlson.

Figure 4. Detail of sword with metal fastening and indent marked. Find nr 206. Photo by Stella Carlson.

The leather is slightly indented in one or possibly two places, indicating that there has been a strap attached, just below the belt connection. At the end of the scabbard skiving is visible. The sword is not in very good condition due to how it has been stored in modern times. It is currently mounted on a metal frame created for an exhibition, which has caused an uneven stress on the blade that in turn has created new points of breakage. The sword is currently too fragile to remove the frame. The sword from grave 7 which was exhibited the same way but taken down from the frame afterwards is in much better condition. Parts of the handle for shield I comes with preserved pieces of leather and textile. This is one of the few pieces of leather in the grave that is not connected to metal. It is however lying just underneath the shield and it is possible that tannins from the wood is what helped preserve it. Though not mentioned in the report’s inventory list, there are also several leather pieces which have been part of a covering for the shield. Arwidsson describes them in the running text and writes that they were found on both the front- and backside of the shield. She also describes them as being in bad shape with no hairs visible, making it impossible to determine the animal species, though this showed not to be true. Several of the pieces have fragments of hair preserved, even visible to the naked eye.

Figure 5. Part of shield covering with hairs still visible. Find nr 2129. Photo by Stella Carlson. In addition to the finds described above the grave contains a number of items that suggests leather has been used, even though we do not find it in the archaeological material today. A seax and two knives all with wooden sheaths are likely to have had the same kind of leather coverings as the scabbard for the sword. The seax scabbard had fragments of tightly packed hair attached. This could be remnants of a sheath made from animal skin with the fur still attached, but according to Arwidsson it does not necessarily have anything to do with the scabbard at all. More likely it comes from a fell or hide that lay on top as a covering (Arwidsson 1954: 77). Beside the seax there are also shackles indicating a belt or other kind of attachment

Figure 6. Example of buckle from the armour, with fragments of a leather strap still connected. Find nr 803. Photo by Stella Carlson.

device. The grave also contains several parts of a dog’s leash. In the publication, only one of the pieces is mentioned as having attached leather fragments. But Arwidsson argues that it was originally constructed from six or seven iron links and extended with a leather strap. There are also remains of a collar that was attached to the leash through a swivel (Arwidsson 1954: 77). The collar was also most likely made from leather, with iron studs as decoration and reinforcement. Connected to the armour pieces and a buckle that belonged to it are small leather fragments. Looking at similar lamellar armour from other locations it is safe to assume that the entire garment was constructed on a leather base.

5.2 Valsgärde 7 Valsgärde 7 was excavated in 1933 and situated in the middle of the hill together with boat grave 5 and 6. It has been dated to the 7th century (Ljungkvist 2008b: 18). It seems to have been richer compared to Valsgärde 8, with significantly more grave goods, both in terms of animal sacrifices, weapons, and other items. Sword I is a pattern welded ring-sword. The scabbard is made from two thin wooden pieces made from hardwood. It is covered in thin, ornamented leather, and impregnated with rust which makes it stick to the blade. The decorations in the leather are formed in three fields. On the front side the upmost depicts a man seemingly tied up at the neck, arms, and feet by the surrounding spiral ornament, as shown in fig 7. Below him is the metal fitting for the belt hanger, which is sided by simple line ornamentation, and under this the rest of the scabbard is decorated with time-typical animal ornamentation. The back of the sheath is also decorated along its entire length in three corresponding fields, but with much simpler line and fishnet ornamentation. Arwidsson describes that the leather is best preserved around the areas close to the metal fittings, both the mouth of the sheath, the belt fastening and the chape. The fastening for the belt displays an extra interesting piece, where a leather strap around the scabbard is preserved.

Figure 8. Left: Leather strap found beside sword II. Right: drawing of the pattern from the decorated leather strap. Find nr 1144. Gustavianum archives, Arwidsson 1977, Taf. 15. Enhanced by Stella Carlson. Figure 7. Detail of sword I, picturing a man seemingly tied up by the neck, waist and feet. Find nr 962. Gustavianum archives, Arwidsson 1977, Abb 59. Enhanced by Stella Carlson. 14

The second sword is a longsword with a simpler, but rather well-preserved scabbard. Ca 35,5 cm below the grip a seam is visible straight across the scabbard. Along its entire length line- pattern decoration is visible. X-rays of the sword show no sign of rivets, so it is probable that the leather covering also held the sheath together, either by a seam or glue. Next to sword I lay 10 rectangular fittings of bronze, two animal head strap ends, and two pyramid buttons. Arwidsson writes that these without doubt were part of a sword belt. She estimates it to have been around 100 cm long based on how the fittings were placed. Only small fragments of actual leather remain, and are preserved on the backside of, or attached to the bronze. Sword II also seems to have had a belt, but not decorated with metal. Instead Arwidsson interprets the rather large strap fragment found under shield I as having belonged to the belt. It was found in the conservation lab after the excavation, having been pressed down into a pile of feathers laying under the shield. The strap is ca 2 cm wide, 10,5 cm long and beautifully decorated with a pressed spiral pattern, fig 8. Several larger pieces of leather from the bridles are preserved. All the metal elements on the bridles, both practical and decorative, were made from either iron or bronze as a base. Many were also plated with tin or in a few cases gold. Leather fragments are found on the backside or attached to these. On bridle II large enough strap pieces are preserved so that line ornaments along the straps can be observed. At least the browband and noseband were decorated in this way. The lengthways lines in two groups of 3-4 lines are very similar to those found on the birch bark canopies. Both bridles II and III have a rather large number of decorative rivets attached to the straps between the fittings.

Figure 9. One of the decorated leather pieces from bridle III. Find nr 232. The light brown leather to which it is attached is modern. Find nr Photo by Stella Carlson. Small fragments of leather were observed on the saddle, for instance underneath some of the bronze fittings. Arwidsson theorises that the leather could have worked as reinforcements for the fittings as the metal seems to be bent around the edge of the leather pieces. The four bridled horses suggest plenty of missing leather. Several small fragments of leather can be found attached to fittings belonging to the bridles. Comparing with other similar graves it can be theorised that the horses were used to pull the boat from the river shore up to the grave spot in which case they would need harnesses of some sort and reins, all of which was probably made from leather. This does however not currently show up in the archaeological material but is a clear indication that there is more to be discovered about the use of leather in the Iron Age.

Another indication of skin and/or leather production is the blunt arrows. Two conical arrowheads made from bone were preserved together with the other regular, sharp iron arrowheads. This kind of arrow has flat tops in order to not pierce and thus damage the skin of the hunted animal. It was used to hunt smaller animals such as squirrel and birds. Bones, and as recently presented, feathers (Berglund & Rosvold 2021: 10) from a wide variety of wild birds found in the grave further supports this.

Figure 10. Blunt arrow for hunting birds and small game. Find nr 1077. Photo by Stella Carlson.

The downmost part of a knife sheath presents one of the most well-preserved fragments in the grave. It still has seam holes visible along both edges. No decorations are visible on the fragment.

Figure 11. Piece of knife sheath with seam holes still visible. Find nr 1210. Photo by Stella Carlson.

5.3 Valsgärde 5 Valsgärde 5 was excavated in 1930 as the first of the famous-to-be boat graves. Despite this, it has not yet been published. A full report is however on the way and the grave has therefore been examined recently, which makes it interesting for this essay. Overall, it is in poorer condition than the two previous graves, but it still has a significantly higher number of mentions of leather among the finds. See appendix 1, 2 and 3 for comparison. The grave is dated to the second half of the 7th century (Ljungkvist 2008b: 18). Just like grave 6 and 7, which it forms a small cluster together with, it was a very rich grave, both seen to the amount of grave goods, and the quality. An example is for instance the gilded bridle. The sword is a long sword with a hilt richly decorated with gold and garnets. The scabbard is however very fragmentary and only very vague traces of leather could be observed.

Figure 12. Detail of the sword from Valsgärde 5. Find nr UMF5905:0991m. Photo by Stella Carlson. The gilded bridle is still impressive in its well-preserved condition. There is however very little leather left. Both are likely effects of the gilding itself, and perhaps conservation efforts. Gold is an unreactive metal which has both protected the underlying bronze from corrosion, but also prevented it from acting as a preserving agent for the leather. Some small fragments are visible at the backside of a buckle, perhaps where the gilding has been worn away and exposed the bronze underneath.

Figure 13. Gilded bridle prats from Valsgärde 5. Photo by Stella Carlson.

Figure 14. Backside of gilded buckle with small fragments of leather. Find nr UMF5905:1160. Photo by Stella Carlson.

The grave contains a high number of leather fragments connected to for example rivets, fittings, and shield boards. Most of them are however in relatively poor condition. Below are examples of a rivet and a strap piece with double rows of small cut decorations.

Figure 15. Rivet with leather fragments. Find nr UMF5905:0809. Photo by Stella Carlson.

Figure 16. Strap fragment with double rows of cut decorations. Find nr UMF5905:1157:o:001. Photo by Stella Carlson.

6. Discussion – Interpreting archaeological leather

6.1 What is left? Being located on a sandy hill none of the Valsgärde graves presents the possibility of either extremely dry, cold, or waterlogged conditions. The leather here is found under more normal conditions, which represents something closer to the conditions to be expected in a regular excavation. They do therefore represent a good template of where to begin looking for leather in future excavations, and for that matter, where to look for leather in the archives. Apart from tanning methods and the physical relation between leather and metals, the leather itself may have an impact on the preservation. Very thin leather is likely to decay faster than thicker leather. Thin leather would presumably be used for things like clothes, pouches, and upper parts of shoes, none of which has been found in the investigated graves. Moreover, thin leather would not be sturdy enough to be suitable for the kind of relatively heavy rivets found with preserved leather. It could therefore be the case that the rivets not only present preserved leather fragments because of the conserving effects of the metals, but also because the leather they were attached to was relatively thick from the beginning. Speaking against this theory is the leather on the sword sheaths, but again, this was tightly pressed, and probably even glued, onto wood, which could act as a preserving agent. Iron oxides from the sword blade, leaking into and through the wood could also possibly contribute. To conclude, any leather laying free will decompose, but thin leather much faster. Further, the type of objects that are made from thin leather are typically those which are not associated with the preserving metal or wooden elements. Looking at the leather that is left for us today, and the ‘invisible’ leather, it is clear that it had a significant role in the material world of the Vendel Age person, high and low alike. The often-discussed luxurious metal objects and fine textiles were important in their societal context, but leather had a much greater importance in normal life, and thus tells us more about the actual people; the persons behind the veil of time. The leather objects were not only created for show and for bragging purposes, only to be worn on special occasions. They were used, loved, repaired, and eventually disappeared after being totally worn out. They were clothes protecting from harsh weather, bags and pouches to carry water and things, tack used for the farm animals, saddles, shoes, and so much more. Studying prehistoric leather does not only teach us about how things were, but also how they could be. The modern leather industry is immensely destructive to both the people working in it and the environment. Perhaps looking backwards and learning from the Vendel Age people and their world can help us look to the future and build a better, more sustainable one for us.

6.2 The graves at Valsgärde The Vendel Period in Middle Sweden had a highly hierarchical society, and the people buried at Valsgärde belonged to an elite. They do not represent the broad populace in the Vendel Age, but while this is true, the high amount of metal objects that follow the status is what makes the preservation of so much organic material possible at all. Regarding the leather, it is more likely that quality and ornamentation is what differentiates the elite from the commoner, not the type of objects. One can even imagine that leather was more broadly used by common people than the elite. In its versatility it can replace several other raw materials for common items such as hinges, flasks, armour, and tent cloth just to mention a few. Leather is both wind- and water 19

resistant which makes it excellent for outer garments. Compared to fabric, which is extremely time consuming to create, and therefore expensive if one would try to buy, it could at times be a cheaper and better alternative. The first thing that can be noticed about the leather finds in the Valsgärde graves is that almost all of them, with very few exceptions, are found attached to or in direct contact with either metal or wood. This is consistent with the findings presented by Tuija Kirkinen (2019: 50) who in her dissertation writes that about 75% of the fur and hair-finds she investigated are found in association with metal artefacts. The outliers in the Valsgärde graves are two strap pieces, one from Valsgärde 5 and one from Valsgärde 7. The one from Valsgärde 7 is interpreted by Arwidsson as part the sword belt to sword II. The strap was discovered during the conservation work after the excavation. It had been embedded in a pile of feathers, but on top lay the buckle of shield I (Arwidsson 1977: 48), which of course means that both metal from the buckle and wood from the shield itself was present in the direct vicinity. It seems that under the conditions the boat grave contexts present, either wood or metal is necessary for leather to survive the touch of time. In all three graves, most of the preserved leather are small fragments attached to metal fittings, studs or rivets. Examples from Valsgärde 8 are the dog leash and several of the pieces from both bridles, and the armour piece. Larger preserved pieces are the shield handle from shield I and the sword scabbard. In grave 5 plenty of small leather fragments have been preserved in between metal sheets on strap endings and under rivet heads and mounts for particularly shield I and II. There is however a significant difference in the quantity of recorded leather finds, with a much higher number in this grave compared to the other two. In grave 7 the same pattern can be seen, but with a higher level of preservation. In comparison with Valsgärde 8, the leather finds also seem to be better documented in the report with both more pictures and illustrations. Whether this is due to a lack of finds in grave 8 or because leather has been given more attention during the excavation of grave 7 is hard to say. As discussed above, most of the leather is found in between metal sheets and therefore it is possible that grave 8 actually contains more fragments than what is presented in the printed report. Apart from the small fragments attached to rivets, studs and fittings in grave 7 there are a few larger pieces preserved. Bridle II has several larger strap pieces, big enough to see that they have carried smaller metal decorations along the strap, apart from the larger fittings as seen in fig. 9. There are also well-preserved strap pieces from the belt of sword I. The grave contains two swords, and both have elaborately decorated scabbards covered in thin leather over a wooden base. All the graves are located on a small hill just beside Fyrisån and have very similar preservation conditions. Grave 8 is located in the southmost part of the hill, while grave 5 and 7 lies just beside each other, and together with Valsgärde 6 creates a small cluster roughly in the middle of the hill area. Hence it can be ruled out that the location has a considerable impact on the conditions of grave 7 compared to grave 5. The conditions in grave 8 could possibly be argued to differ, but all in all the variations should not be of too great magnitude in this case either. Most likely the differences seem to be a result of excavation and registering practices. The finds from grave 5 have as recently as this year been thoroughly investigated in preparation for the publication of the excavation. In comparison to the previous two graves, more attention has been given to both finding and registering small fragments of organic material, including leather. In grave 7 and 8, leather finds are primarily mentioned when it appears in larger pieces or is decorated. In grave 5 approximately half of the mentioned leather finds or fragments are small remains found inside strap endings, underneath rivet heads or on the back side of shield boards. It is plausible that similar amounts of leather fragments could be found on the metal and wooden finds from the other Valsgärde graves as well, if just given attention and time to investigate.

6.3 Who was the leather worker and where can they be traced? When looking at the quality of the artefacts in the graves it is clear that at least some of them were produced by specialists. In these graves the sword scabbards in particular are examples of this. The level of theoretical knowledge and practical skill necessary to produce these objects takes years of training to obtain. It is also a process unlikely to be invented by a person without thorough experience with several of the materials involved. The craftsman had to be able to handle both leather, wood, metal and presumably adhesives. All elements in the separate crafts show such a high quality and are yet so far from each other in their nature that I find it unlikely to be created by someone who is self-taught. One person could possibly learn all the necessary crafts to this level in a lifetime, but not without a teacher. And while this may be possible, I also find it unlikely that all parts for the scabbards were indeed created by the same person. Drawing parallels from medieval guilds and modern crafters, it was more likely a collaboration of at least 2–3 people. A tanner for creating the specific type of leather necessary, a metalworker for the buckles and decorations, and a person for creating the scabbard itself. Perhaps the ‘end producer’ and the tanner could be the same person, perhaps the end producer and the metalworker. But more likely a scabbard maker ordered the specific quality of leather suitable for the project from a tanner, the buckles and fittings from a metal specialist and so on. The list of leather-related professions, besides the actual tanning, during the Middle Ages can be made long. Some of them are relatively obvious, like shoemaker, girdler (belt-maker) and saddler. Other are perhaps less obvious but show the great diversity of items that leather was used for, like buckler-maker (shield-maker) and bookbinder. There is a clear spatial division between the different types of activities. Tanning, glue-making, shield-making etc. are located at the outer edge of the towns. These are the more labour-intensive and ‘dirtier’ types of leather work. Gilders, bookbinders and glove-makers, the ‘clean’ crafts, are instead located in the middle of town. This of course has practical reasons, tanning and boiling glue can be rather smelly procedures to say the least. But this division also tells us that it is different people specialising in the different parts of the process. In some cases, the division is very specific. Legal documents from 12th century York mentions tanners and curriers (Liddy 2003: 3222f). While the tanners tan skins, the curriers are the ones softening them, dyeing and such. This shows that even the process from raw hide to usable leather was carried out by distinctly different professionals. Having such a variety of leather-related, documented professions already during the early Middle Ages is an indication of an older already well-established tradition, one that very well could have been present during the Vendel Period. An interesting question to ask is which animals were used to make leather during this period and in this region. So far it is most often assumed that it was made from domesticated animals, based on research of the Middle Ages and osteological finds, but no real investigations of the Iron Age have actually been made. Kirkinen (2019: 54f) found that the majority of hair samples from the Finnish burials came from meat intensive wild animals, such as cervidae and seals. Domesticated animals were only slightly more common than wild predators and animals hunted specifically for their fur. Wild species were found in 80% of the graves she investigated which presented identifiable hairs. This stands in strong contrast with osteological finds in which the domesticated animals dominate. Connecting this to Hennius’ research on pit fall systems, and the hunting of said large meat intensive game, it is clear that these animals were not only hunted for their meat and bones, but also valued for their skin. Both bone and meat can be heavy and therefore unnecessarily complicated to transport. In the case of wild animals, it would make more sense to divide the game, take only the valuable pieces and leave the rest, alternatively process the meat and hides in the catchment area. They were hunted and butchered in the outlands and sold on as the respective products. Domesticated animals were instead locally sourced and therefore present in the graves ‘unworked’. There are some points in this direction in the Valsgärde graves. The sacrificed animals buried in their entirety are domestic animals, with a few exceptions, but these are either small animals like birds, or seem to have some ritual meaning, like the headless owl in Valsgärde 7. Still there are feathers present from wild birds and blunt arrows for hunting fur animals. The people of Valsgärde used the wild fauna around

them to get bone, feather, meat, and ritual items. It is only natural that they would use the opportunities for leather production as well. Perhaps the use of wild animals for both leather and other things were much greater and more complex in the Vendel Period than we presently know.

6.4 Future research Previously it has been quite complicated to research what animals were used to make leather, but current technology is developing new effective methods. In 2019 a danish research team (Amsgaard Ebsen et al. 2019) investigated leather from three danish sites dated between the 11th and 14th century. The aim was to compare two methods of species identification for shoe leather. The two methods were morphological analysis of grain pattern by stereomicroscopy and zooarchaeology by mass spectronomy (ZooMS). Grain pattern analysis works by studying the surface of the leather. Different animal species have different patterns by which the hair in the fur is attached and thereby allows for identification. The method is non-invasive, but somewhat time consuming and requires a well-preserved surface to investigate. This makes for example sole leather and buckskin, where the grain is removed, impossible to identify by this method. ZooMS analyses the collagen in the leather which has specific markers for different species. In some cases, collagen might not be preserved but the surface allows for grain pattern analysis and vice versa. In this study the ZooMS was effective on a higher number of samples, but the methods complement each other well. Similar studies of Swedish finds could tell if the Finnish tendency towards use of wild animals was prevalent here as well, and when the medieval tradition of mainly using domesticated animals took over. The growing field of ancient DNA promises more interesting investigations in the future, as well as trace element analysis. If not already there, we are only a few years away from the possibility of finding out more about both what animals and tanning methods were used in the Vendel Age.

7. Conclusions

The Valsgärde graves provide evidence that people in the Late Iron Age both tanned, crafted, and traded with leather to a great extent. Before the Middle Ages we find leather fragments almost exclusively in contact with metal or wood. This does not however provide a true picture of how widely used the material was. Clothes, armour, water skins, ropes, belts, saddles, books, and many more objects were crafted from this material. It is possible to see several crafting processes connected to leather. From the hunting and farming of animals, preparation and tanning of the skin, dyeing the finished leather, creating objects from it and exchange of trade goods between all of these steps. Many of these are in turn separated into more specialised activities and professions. Judging from the quality of the leather material at Valsgärde a specialisation undoubtedly existed. In order to have the high-end competence there must however have existed a broad base of crafts people with a more basic understanding. In the Iron Age society much of the crafts necessary for everyday life were practiced in or in close vicinity to the homestead. This is by all reason true for leather as well. Evidence suggests that leather crafting has an old tradition, and should have been practiced by common people. As a material leather played many roles, from strictly functional for basic strapping and clothing to decoration and display of wealth, the leather crafts person was both the commoner or artisan for regular every-day objects, and the highly specialised professional creating high-end, luxury items. The post-processual approach to archaeology revolves around self-awareness and this is an approach archaeologist must take on leather. The first thing to be done for future research is to simply acknowledge the existence of leather in archaeological contexts. Archaeologists need to actually look for the leather, and perhaps even more importantly document it. Lots of leather remains are not mentioned in reports and the likes. The greatest obstacle when studying archaeological leather is that much of the material is not preserved, especially before the introduction of vegetable tanning. The ‘invisible’ material is vast, and this is something we will never be able to see. We can however still study tools and adjacent materials that have been preserved and through it see where the leather once has been. It is entangled as a thing with other things, with processes and with people. Several new and exciting analytical methods are being developed such as aDNA, ZooMS, grain pattern analysis, and different trace element analyses. In the future it will be possible to find out more about what animals were used, tanning methods and move further into this, for the Scandinavian Vendel Age, uncharted territory.

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9. Illustrations

Figure 1. Part of birch bark canopy from Valsgärde 8. Gustavianum archives, Arwidsson, G. 1954. Taf. 38. Photo by Stella Carlson 2021. Page 8. Figure 2. Detail of sword, with the woven bast band and animal style carvings on the sword sheath. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 11. Figure 3. Detail of sword. Arrows point at the metal fastening, and indent likely caused by a second strap around the scabbard. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 12. Figure 4. Detail of sword with metal fastening and indent marked. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 12. Figure 5. Part of shield covering with hairs still visible. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 13. Figure 6. Example of buckle from the armour, with fragments of a leather strap still connected. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 13. Figure 7. Detail of sword I, picturing a man seemingly tied up by the neck, waist and feet. Gustavianum archives, Arwidsson 1977, Abb 59. Drawing by Max Roosman. Photo and additional enhancement by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 14. Figure 8. Photo and drawing of leather strap found beside sword II. Gustavianum archives, Arwidsson 1977, taf. 15. Original photo by Olle Lindman. Drawing by Anita Gordh. Photo and enhancement by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 14. Figure 9. One of the decorated leather pieces from bridle III. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 15. Figure 10. Blunt arrow for hunting birds and small game. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 16. Figure 11. Piece of knife sheath with seam holes still visible. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 16. Figure 12. Detail of the sword from Valsgärde 5. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 17. Figure 13. Gilded bridle prats from Valsgärde 5. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 17. Figure 14. Backside of gilded buckle with small fragments of leather. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 17. Figure 15. Rivet with leather fragments. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 18. Figure 16. Strap fragment with double rows of cut decorations. Photo by Stella Carlson, 2021. Page 18.

Appendix 1: Artefacts with preserved leather from Valsgärde 8 according to the published report.

Find number Artefact Comments

206 Sword Scabbard with decorated leather 413 Leather, shield handle Seems to be preserved together with fabric and wood. Small fragments of leather preserved connected to a buckle. Possibly more fragments on some of the 426 Lamella from armour lamella. 510- 520 Bridle I Reasonably made from leather in its entirety 521- Iron and bronze plates 529 and studs Small fragments of leather preserved on the inside of a 551 Dog leash strap fitting Bridle II, possible leather fragments, hard to tell only 812 Iron stud from the picture

Appendix 2: Artefacts with preserved leather from Valsgärde 7 according to the published report.

Find Artefact Comments number

5 Bridle I At least one of the fragments looks to still have preserved leather connected 56-62 Bridle II Several parts seem to be attached to preserved leather. 56, 59, 60, 62. 64 Bridle II Iron fitting and leather strap 228 Bridle III Strap piece with bronze fitting 232 Bridle III Leather strap, metal decorations 236 Bronze (?) No clear explanation or picture. There seems to be a piece of fitting, wood, wood and part of a leather strap connected to the fitting. leather 249 Bronze (?) In the drawn illustration it is clearly connected to a leather decoration strap, but in the photograph there is only a metal plate. plate 250 Bridle III Buckle, leather fragments 251 Metal plate Leather fragments on the back? con. t. snuffle, leather 944 Strap with Part of sword belt. Connections to scabbard preserved. Parts bronze specified as 955-957, 964,967, 968, 1126-1128. decorations 955- Bronze fitting According to illustration 63 leather fragments are still 957 for sword belt connected. 962 Sword Scabbard with elaborately decorated leather 964, Bronze fitting According to illustration 63 leather fragments are still 967 for sword belt connected. 1080 Buckle, iron Part of dog leash. Looks like preserved leather between the folded metal 1115- "Wood, leather, No clear description or picture. Propably part of a comb 1116 iron fitting" according to Arwidsson. 1139, Seax I, Seax II Decorated scabbard 1140 1144 Sword I Scabbard with elaborately decorated leather 1210 Knife sheath Stitching holes preserved 30

Appendix 3: Artefacts with preserved leather from Valsgärde 5 according to the unpublished report.

Appendix 3 is published in its original language, Swedish, due to time shortage in translation. Find number Artefact Comments

UMF5905:0774 Huvudlag III, Två större och tre små fragment av pälsbeklädd pälsbeklädd skinn/läderrem i båtens längdriktning. Låg i kant läder/skinnrem mot förmultnat trä, UMF5905:0809 Huvudlag III, Cu-legerings-överdragna nitar av järn. 4 st - diam rembeslag och 0,9 mm och 1 st stor 1,8 mm. Två små nitar har remändebeslag, suttit på det bronsöverdragna järnbeslaget. klammer Läderrester på minst två fragment. En klammer av CU-leg med kullrigt nithuvud av silver. Ett remändebeslag och ett rembeslag av järn. Fragment av järn och Cu-leg UMF5905:0873 Sölja, järn Med textilrester. Rester av läder? [Se dagbok för ritning.]

UMF5905:0873:001 Sölja, järn Med textilrester. Del av sölja 873. Rester av läder? [Se dagbok för ritning.] UMF5905:0873:002 Sölja, järn Med textilrester. Del av sölja 873. Rester av läder [Se dagbok för ritning.] UMF5905:0879 Sölja, järn Del av 891. Läderrester mellan beslag. Se specialplaner sidan 13. UMF5905:0891 Sölja, järn Del av sölja 879. Läderrester mellan beslag. I samma låda som 891. [Se dagbok för ritning.] UMF5905:0914 Sköld I, ribba Fyra fragment. Läderrester på undersidan. Trärester under lädret på ett av fragmenten. Även textilrester.

UMF5905:0917 Sköld I, ribba Nithuvud med underliggande plåt, rester av läder med nit på undersidan och textil på ovansidan. UMF5905:0921 Sköld I, ribba Minst tre fragment av ribba, större välvd nit på med nit järnbleck med trä och läder på undersidan samt ytterligare småfragment av järn. Baksida nästan helt täckt av läder. Med textilrester. Med textilrester.

UMF5905:0930 Sköld I, ribba Läderrester 2UMF5905:0973 Sköld I, ribba Rester av sköldribba. Flera fragment verkar saknas, se 2021. Med fastkorroderade textil- och läderrester- bronsstift, 2 st Låg på ovannämnda ribba, endast järnfragment i samling UMF5905:0988 Sköld I, ribba Ribba med läder på baksidan

UMF5905:0998 Sköld I, ribba Läderrester på baksidan

Sköld I, ribba

UMF5905:1045 Hjälm, läder Indivd hjälmkammen UMF5905:1101 Trä, päls och Remsa av trä, päls och läder eller skinn. Avlång läder/skinn form, möjligen p.g.a. att det legat under sköldhandtaget. UMF5905:1116:o Huvudlag I, Två fragment varav ett med rest av CU-leg. läderrem Remtyg? UMF5905:1118 Huvudlag II, Rika spår av päls- eller växtfibrer på båda sidor. rembeslag Ornerat läder på baksidan. UMF5905:1128 Huvudlag II, Tydliga spår av läder på baksidan.

rembeslag UMF5905:1157:o:0 Läderrem Del av läderrem med två parallella raders 01 sömnadshål, rader täta sömhål. UMF5905:1158:o Pilskaft, näver, Pilskaftsfragment och näver med samma nr läder (1157:o:002). UMF5905:1159 Huvudlag X, Cu-leg med silver och läderrem remändebeslag UMF5905:1162 Huvudlag X, Endast undre platta av Cu-leg med läderrester. remändebeslag Vitmetall på baksidan. UMF5905:1163 Huvudlag X, Av silver (främre bleck) och Cu-leg (bakre bleck) remändebeslag med klammer i Cu-leg, trä och läder emellan

UMF5905:1164 Rem, Cu-leg med läderrester. Vitmetall på baksidan. hästutrustning, remändebeslag UMF5905:1168 Rem, 1165-1168 ornering nedåt. Träfaner klätt med hästutrustning, läder, omslutet av Cu-beslag med vitmetall. remändebeslag UMF5905:1174 Huvudlag X, Av silver (främre bleck) och Cu-leg (bakre bleck) remändebeslag med klammer i Cu-leg, trä och läder emellan

UMF5905:1177 Huvudlag X, Träfaner, omslutet av Cu-beslag, läder i remfästet. remändebeslag Ursprungligen med försilvring som låg nedåt, mycket avbrutet Nit Nithuvud. Saknas

UMF5905:1181 Huvudlag I Två flata nitar med bricka. Läderrester mellan eller II, remnit, bricka och huvud?. En nit med kullrigt huvud, lik 3 st 1169. [Se dagbok för ritning.] UMF5905:1183:2 Huvudlag X, Remändebeslag från huvudlag X: Träfaner klätt remändebeslag, med läder, omslutet av silverbleck samt fragment järnfragment, av små järnfragment och trärester. 4 st skållor av stift, 4 st CU-leg med kullrigt huvud som kan höra till huvudlag I. UMF5905:1209 Sköld I, ribba Ribba med omvikt järnstift på baksidan. Rest av läder.

UMF5905:1228 Sax II Komplett sax med slida. Två textilklädda, tvärgående järnbeslag, en på skidans övre del och en på mitten. Belagen avslutas med öglor på eggdelen.. Ev. rester av läder längs skidans ryggsida. [Se dagbok för ritning.] UMF5905:1284 Järnnit Kullrigt huvud. Spår av läder? Nära Sax I och svärdet. UMF5905:2039 Järnfragment, Järnfragmentet har ev. läderrester på ena sidan. bronsstift, näver UMF5905:2045 Cu-leg beslag, Fragment av skållor, kantbeslag och bleck. Läder rembeslag av på rembeslag av järn. järnfragment UMF5905:2060 Pilskaftsfragme Trä och läderrester. Ev. textilrester. Fragment av nt eller mindre pilskaft eller mindre träföremål. Hittades under träföremål?, niten nr. 361. Fragment i påse. läder UMF5905:2077 Preparat, under Preparat i flera delar av det som legat under svärdets doppskon. Utöver jord, rester av trä och troligen doppsko läder, utan på det finns textil. Spår av CU-leg längs doppskons kant.