“The Evolutionary Course of the Qur'an” the Cultural Foundation Of

An Introduction to Mehdi Bazargan’s “The Evolutionary Course of the Qur’an”

The Cultural Foundation of Mehdi Bazargan

Table of Contents

Preface (The Cultural Foundation of Mehdi Bazargan) Introduction: Mehdi Bazargan – Life, Thought and Works (Bagher Asadi) The Evolutionary Course of the Qur’an (Bagher Asadi) - The Genesis of an Idea - Part I – Temporal Evolution - Part II- Thematic Evolution - Part III - Substantive Evolution Bibliography Annexes (Tables) The Chronology of the Qurʾān: A Stylometric Research Program

(Behnam Sadeghi)

Preface

“The Evolutionary Course of the Qur’an” (Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an), a two-volume work, is widely considered as one of the major intellectual works of the late Mehdi Bazargan (1907-1995), the prominent reform-minded Muslim thinker, university professor, public servant, entrepreneur, political activist, and the first prime-minister of the post-revolutionary Iran. He wrote the book – in Persian - during the years 1344-45 (1965-1966) while serving a ten-year sentence as a political prisoner under the Pahlavi regime. The first volume was published in 1355 Solar Hijri (1977). The preparation of the second volume, comprising charts and curves, by Bazargan’s elder son, Abdolali Bazargan, took a number of years and came out in early 1981. Bazargan’s method of research, and more importantly, his illuminating findings in deciphering – and explaining - the evolutionary course in the revelation of the Holy Qur’an, goes beyond all historiographical works in the Muslim world as well as those of prominent Western Orientalists such as Theodore Nöldeke and Regis Blachere. It represented a major step forward in this important field at the time. The work is the product of rigorous research with historical significance and import; equally a solid foundation for further exploration and analysis. Despite some valuable efforts during the past decades to translate the book into English, most notably in the 1980s by Dr. Ali Asghar Agah, a Muslim researcher and activist in the United States, it has not yet been made available to English-speakers. A Turkish translation of the book was published in 1998. An Arabic translation has also appeared in recent years. The Cultural Foundation of Mehdi Bazargan (established 1995), in charge of collection of his works, has thus far compiled and published 30 volumes, inclusive of books, pamphlets, essays, articles, and lectures, and expects to publish 4 more volumes within the next two years. Following an 8-year expert review, including through the use of advanced computer softwares, all the quantitative data, statistical tables and charts, and curves in the original 2-volume version of “The Evolutionary Course of the Qur’an,” have been checked and reviewed to ensure accuracy in reproduction. The outcome of the review has been compiled and re-arranged in Volumes 12 and 13 of the Collected Works. Volume 12, containing volume I of the “Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an,” includes the ‘temporal sequence of the Qur’an’ and all relevant tables and diagrams, and the rationale for their calculation. Volume 13 includes ‘thematic evolution’ and ‘substantive evolution’ of the Qur’an (See Note 2 on page 12). The Cultural Foundation, acutely aware of the obvious lacunae in regard with an English translation of the late Bazargan’s work, has addressed the matter at different junctures of time. However, considering the fact that an English rendition of the detailed two-volume book – now Volumes 12 and 13 -- replete with numerous mathematical equations, hundreds of tables, charts and diagrams, and corresponding complex argumentation, could simply prove too technical and cumbersome for general, non-technical readership, the Foundation ultimately resolved to settle for a brief, compact introduction of the work. The principal objective of the preparation of the present book is to open a window into Bazargan’s intellectual journey. The Foundation believes the synopsis presented in this book, based on the material in Volumes 12 and 13, will serve to familiarize non-Persian-speaking readers, both Muslims and non-Muslims, and more specifically, Qur’anic scholars, with a succinct expose of Bazargan’s valuable contribution and his quite

3 enlightening findings and conclusions. And, needless to say, the elaborate presentation of Bazargan’s intellectual journey, as fully demonstrated in Volumes 12 and 13, will remain the enduring, and sole authoritative source on the detailed discussions of the subject matter. The Foundation has also decided to include in the present volume the rather recent research article of Dr. Behnam Sadeghi entitled “The Chronology of the Qur’an: A Stylometric Research.” The Foundation deems it necessary to express its gratitude to Dr. Seyyed Ali Mahmoudi for his kind cooperation in the preparation of the present volume. We are also thankful to Amb. Bagher Asadi, a retired career Iranian diplomat, for his dedication and hard work throughout the preparation of this book, including, in particular, for writing: 1- a compact Introduction on the life and thought of Mehdi Bazargan as the necessary background for the volume, and 2 - the synopsis of Bazargan’s seminal work. A special word of thanks is also owed to Dr. Agah, for his invaluable effort in translating the bulk of the original work in the 1980s which, for a host of reasons, was left incomplete and never saw the light of the day. We also express our deep appreciation to a number of Iranian academics, inside the country and in diaspora, including Mr. Abdolali Bazargan, who have also read the draft synopsis and made extremely useful comments and observations of a lingual and substantive nature. Their valuable contribution has indeed helped enrich the final outcome.

The Cultural Foundation of Mohandes Mehdi Bazargan Tehran

Mehdi Bazargan – Life, Thought, and Works

Bagher Asadi*

Life Mehdi Bazargan (1907-1995), born to a traditional merchant family in Tabriz in the heydays of the Constitutional Revolution (1906-1911), grew up to become a prominent reform-minded religious thinker, a reformist political activist, prime minister of the transitional government in the early days of the 1979 Revolution, and a vocal, principled critic of the post-revolutionary governance until his demise in January 1995. His long journey would, in a sense, epitomize the political and ideological challenges and struggles of the Iranian society in the 20th century. All through his long and eventful life, both as an individual and also as a Muslim thinker- political activist/statesman, Bazargan lived as a man of principle, piety, integrity, moderation, frankness with a peculiar touch of humor, and honesty – with himself and with the society at large. He practiced – strictly and scrupulously – what he preached. Over and above his quite pronounced intellectual impact as a prominent thinker of religious modernism on the thinking and politics of Muslim forces and currents prior to and after the 1979 Revolution, he has indeed left a legacy of an enduring, untarnished exemplary figure. The religious devotion and clear anti-dictatorial sentiments of Bazargan’s father against the rule of the Pahlavis - and later support for Dr. Mossadegh and the oil nationalization in the late 1940s and early 1950s - left an indelible imprint on his mind and helped mould his fundamental beliefs and character. Young Mehdi, a hard- working and high-ranking high-school graduate, was awarded a government scholarship in France in 1927. He returned to Iran in 1934 with an advanced degree in thermodynamics – hence ever since known with the title ‘Mohandes’ (Engineer) Mehdi Bazargan. Having served as a professor of mechanical engineering at the Faculty of Engineering, Tehran University, including as the dean of the Faculty for a number of years, Bazargan was appointed in 1951 by Dr. Mossadegh as the managing director of the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC), which he successfully carried out against all odds under the turbulent circumstances after the hurried departure of the British. Following the August 1953 coup which toppled Dr. Mossadegh and restored Mohammad Reza Shah to the throne, Mohandes Bazargan returned to teaching at the university and was appointed as the director of Water Board in the

5 capital city Tehran – which also proved to be another example of his successful public service performance.

Bazargan’s second opportunity for public service – and in fact, the last until the fall of monarchy in February 1979 – soon came to an almost abrupt end when he and a number of other pro-Mossadegh activists openly criticized the un-democratic nature of the first post-coup parliamentary elections. He was subsequently fired from the Water Board and dismissed from the university. Later in 1953, he, along with Ayatullah Mahmud Taleqani and Dr. Yadullah Sahabi, co-founded the National Resistance Movement (Nehzat-e Muqavemat-e Melli - NRM), which was active until 1961 and provided the umbrella political formation for resistance against the increasingly repressive policies of the Pahlavi state. During the same period, he also engaged himself with establishing a number of private engineering firms – which remained operative during the following decades.

Following a rather unsuccessful attempt at reviving the ‘National Front’ of the Mossadegh era – under the title of ‘Second National Front’ – in 1960 and as a result of growing fissures with the secular-minded nationalists, Bazargan, Taleqani and Sahabi decided to establish the “Nehzat-e Azadi-e Iran” (Freedom Movement of Iran - FMI) in May 1961 as an Islamic-nationalist political formation, which still continues to exist – even if officially banned since mid-1980s. In 1962, the three founders and a group of activists of the new party were arrested and tried in a military tribunal. Bazargan received a ten-year prison term. Having served half of his jail term – mostly in Borazjan Prison in southern Iran, he was released in 1967. Interestingly enough, he wrote his major intellectual work - “Seyr-e Tehawwul-e Qur’an (The Evolutionary Course of the Qur’an) – during the years 1344-45 SH (1965-66) while incarcerated in Borazjan Prison.

Between 1968 and 1977 - the period which witnessed the beginning of revolutionary guerilla armed struggle against the Pahlavi state and simultaneous increasing political repression on the part of the regime – the space for reformist political action all but disappeared. During these years Bazargan, although not in jail, was mostly preoccupied with his entrepreneurial activities and writing. In 1977, following the appearance of a somewhat relaxed political atmosphere in the country, Bazargan co-founded the Iranian Human Rights Association ( IHRA) – providing

6 another umbrella organization inclusive of secular nationalists and Islamic liberals for open, active opposition to the Shah’s rule.

The next chapter in Bazargan’s active political life coincided with the months leading to the victory of the popular revolution in February 1979 – under the leadership of late Ayatollah (Imam) Khomeini. As a highly-revered- trusted politician among all political currents active in the revolutionary movement, Mohandes Bazargan was picked by the Leader of the Revolution to serve as the head of the post- revolutionary provisional government. He served as the first prime minister of the newly-established Islamic Republic, despite increasing differences on major, fundamental issues of the revolution with other multiple, rival centers of power, until early November 1979 when he resigned over the controversy that arose around the seizure of the US Embassy in Tehran.

Having relinquished government service, Bazargan ran in the parliamentary (Majlis) elections in 1980 and was elected with the highest vote in Tehran. He, along with a number of like-minded religious-nationalist and liberal-democrat Majlis deputies, used the parliamentary platform as a voice of moderation and rationalization in Iranian politics – in both domestic and foreign arenas. His vocal, albeit principled, opposition to the clergy-dominated power structure was not tolerated and he was disqualified to run for the 2nd Majlis and for presidential elections in 1985. Pushed to the margin of politics, he engaged himself mostly with writing and the limited space for the political activities of the Freedom Movement of Iran, of which he was – and remained – secretary-general until January 1995, when he suffered a fatal heart attack at Zurich airport – Switzerland - on the way to the US for seeking medical treatment.

Thought

(Mohandes) Mehdi Bazargan is widely recognized as the leading Iranian reform-minded Muslim thinker of the 20th century, dedicated to the promotion of ‘religious modernism’ in the country. He wrote and published pamphlets as early as 1940s, which started with “Religion in Europe.” In his long catalogue of writings, which continued until his demise in 1995 half a century later, he pursued a consistent and yet evolving line. His approach to the understanding of Islam, as reflected in and corroborated by his line of reasoning, was anchored in rationality, drawing on the writings and teachings of such figures as Jamal al-Din Asadabadi (1838-1897), one of 7 the earliest pioneers of reform in the Islamic world, and Ayatollah Mirza Hussein Na’ini, a prominent constitutionalist Mujtahid – whose seminal work “Tanbih al- Ummah va Tanzih al-Millah (Exhortation of the Faithful and Purification of the Nation) – has long been credited with laying the theoretical foundation of Iran’s Constitutional Revolution. From Asadabadi, Bazargan took to heart the need for ridding Islamic teachings of quite rampant and deeply-institutionalized superstition as well as the imperative of adapting religion and its teachings to the needs of the modern world. And from Na’ini, he learnt the imperative of struggling against arbitrary rule and despotism (Istibdad), as well as the defense of the rule of law and freedom. Young Bazargan’s thinking was also shaped on the one hand, by his direct encounter with the West (1927-34) and the factors accounting for the Western progress, including the impact of Enlightenment, and on the other, by the challenges emanating from the post-Constitutional Revolution modernization in Iran, especially during the 20-year dictatorship of Reza Shah Pahlavi (1921-1941). The predominance of a secular mentality among the political elite and intellectuals in Iran at the time, in particular with a pronounced leftist-Marxist line (all pushing for modernizing a traditional society with strongly-embedded religious beliefs and outlooks and the simultaneous apathy and inaction of the bulk of the traditional, quiescent clergy) convinced him of the urgent need for the introduction and promotion of a reformed religious (Islamic) outlook and ethos; which could also be interpreted as ‘revitalization’ of Islam through a new, modern reading of the Qur’an and other original sources of the faith (Tradition). Acting on this fundamental pillar of his understanding and analysis, Bazargan set out to develop a new line of reform-minded reasoning for the wide range of issues bearing on Islamic teachings and the actual, practical needs of a fast modernizing society. In other words, he desired to make a reasonable reconciliation between the findings of modern science and Islamic teachings. While, as discussed earlier, he was actively engaged in the anti-dictatorial struggle against the Pahlavi state, he devoted his energy to addressing Islamic issues/concepts from the vantage point of his cardinal belief in reform – both in thinking and in action. This is, in fact, the hallmark of Bazargan’s long intellectual journey from the mid-1940s all the way through mid- 1990s. The very titles of the long catalogue of his oeuvre bear clear witness to his wide range of concerns and preoccupations, which albeit quite varied, move in a consistent manner premised on reason, gradualism and reform. Bazargan’s trajectory of thinking included such modern concepts as progress, prosperity, equality, rights, freedom, dignity, justice, fighting dictatorship (despotism), rule of law, and reform – some of which happened to be among traditional concepts addressed and discussed by and among Muslim ulema (both 8

Shi’ite and Sunnite), and other which belong to the modern, post-Enlightenment era. A closer look at this trajectory, especially once placed within the context of his political praxis and the particular challenges in each period in the anti-dictatorial struggle against the Pahlavi state (1921-1979), would reveal a stronger, more pronounced, and more focused emphasis on more concrete concepts as the rule of law, political freedom, and human rights. The same emphasis is clearly discernible in his political pronouncements immediately before and after the victory of the February 1979 Revolution, both during the 9-month-old premiership of the Provisional Government and afterwards until his demise. His particular emphasis in his post-1979 speeches, lectures, and writings – while a Majlis deputy and subsequently in his capacity as the secretary-general of LMI – on such concepts as the rule of law, human rights, democratic rule, and good governance - do indeed reflect the concrete challenges emanating from the 1979 Revolution and the direct rule of the Shi’ite clergy under the Islamic Republic [Government of the Velayat-e Faqih/Jurisconsult]. It would be of interest to note that, having directly experienced the actual parameters of the full-fledged, Shari’a-based rule of the Shi’ite jurisprudents (Fuqaha), Bazargan closed the full cycle of his long intellectual journey of religious thinking with the publication in 1992 of a piece entitled “The Purpose of the Mission of Prophets (Hadaf-e Ba’that-e Anbiya’a), in which he took clear distance from a system of government based on religion and anchored around the direct rule of the clergy (ulema). In the final reckoning, he appears to have reached the conclusion of the inevitability of a separation between the institution of religion and state.

Major Works (Books and Pamphlets, in chronological order of publication)

1940s

• Namaz (Prayers), 5th edition, 1943 • Ikhtiar (Authority), 1949 (first published in 1956) • Mazhab dar Uropa (Religion in Europe), (reprinted) Sherekat-e Sahāmī-e Enteshar, Tehran, 1965 • Mutahharat dar Islam (Purities in Islam), (reprinted) Sherekat-e Sahāmī-e Enteshar, Tehran, 1966 • Pragmatism dar Islam (Pragmatism in Islam), (reprinted) Sherekat-e Sahāmī-e Enteshar, Tehran, 1965

• Kar dar Islam (Labor in Islam), (reprinted) Book Distribution Center, Houston, USA, 1978 • Rāh-e Tey Shodeh (The Paved Path), (reprinted) Book Distribution Center, Houston, USA, 1978 1950s • Az Khodaparasti ta Khodparasti (From Worshipping God to Self-Worship), 1953, Bulletin of the Islamic Association of University Students • Eshq va Parastesh ya Thermodynamism-e Ensan (Love and Worshipping or Human Thermodynamism), (reprinted) Book Distribution Center, Houston, USA, 1978 • Ehtiāj-e Rooz (Today’s Need), (reprinted) Book Distribution Center, Houston, USA, 1977 • Bazi-e Javanan bā Siasat (The Game of the Youth with Politics), Aftab Press, Tehran, 1952

1960s • Amoozesh-e Qur’an (Teaching Qur’an), 3 volumes, vol. 1 and 2 published 1961, and vol. 3 published in 1964, Sherekat-e Sahami-e Enteshar • Bad va Baran dar Qur’an (Wind and Rain in the Qur’an), 1965, Dar-ul-Fekr Publiations, Qum • Bar-resi-e Nazariyeh-ye Eric Fromme (Assessing Eric Fromme’s Theory), 1977 • Zarrey-ye Bi-Enteha (The Infinite Particle), Sherekat-e Sahami-e Enteshar, Tehran, 1965 • Sarcheshmeh-e Esteqlal: Serr-e Aqab Oftadegi-e Melal-e Musalman (The Origin of Independence: The Secret to the Backwardness of Muslim Nations), Sherekat-e Sahāmī-e Enteshar, Tehran, 1966 • Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an (The Evolutionary Course of the Qur’an), Sherekat- e Sahāmī-e Enteshar, Tehran, 1977 (See Note 2 below) • Elmi Boodan-e Marxism (How Scientific is Marxism?), (reprinted) Book Distribution Center, Houston, USA, 1978 • Be’that va Ideology (Prophethood and Ideology), (reprinted) Book Distribution Center, Houston, USA, 1977

• Sazegari-e Irani (Iranian Spirit of Conciliation), originally written during the 1963-64 period in Qasr Prison, and first published as an addendum to the book “Rooh-e Mellat-ha (The Spirit of Nations), 1964, Sherekat-e Sahami-e Enteshar • Nehzat-e Azadi-e Hend (The India Liberation Movement), 1964, Mohammadi Books • Islam yā Communism (Islam or Communism), Sherekat-e Sahāmī-e Enteshar, Tehran, 1969 1970s • Khoda Partasti va Afkar-e Rooz (God Worshipping and the Current Ideologies), Book Distribution Center, Houston, USA, 1978 • Mobarezat-e Siasi va Mobarezat-e Mazhabi (Political Struggles and Religious Struggles), Liberation Movement of Iran, Missouri, USA, 1974 • Modafe’at dar Dadgah-e Gheir-e Saleh-e Tajdid Nazar-e Nezami (Defence at the Incompetent Military Court of Appeal), Liberation Movement of Iran, Missouri, USA, 1977 1980s • Enqelab-e Iran dar do Harekat (Iranian Revolution in Two Directions), Nehzat- e Azadi-e Iran (Freedom Movement of Iran), Tehran, 1983 • Moshkelat va Masael-e Avvalin Sal-e Enqelab (The Difficulties and Problems of the First Year of the Revolution), Nehzat-e Azadi-e Iran (Liberation Movement of Iran), Tehran, 1983 • Shuray-e Enqelab va Dowlat-e Movaqqat (The Revolutionary Council and the Provisional Government), Nehzat-e Azadi-e Iran (Liberation Movement of Iran), Tehran, 1982 • Gomrahan (The Misled), Nehzat-e Azadi-e Iran (Liberation Movement of Iran), Tehran, 1983 * Nagoftehay-e Be’athat (The Untold of Prophethood), 1987 (not allowed to be published at the time, subsequently compiled in Vol. 26, Collected Works • Akherat va Khoda: Hadaf-e Resalat-e Anbiya’a (The Hereafter and God: The Goal of the Mission of Prophets), 1993, Bulletin of the Islamic Association of Engineers • Be’that va Azadi (Prophethood and Freedom), the very last lecture of the late Bazargan, early January 1995 (20 days before his demise), compiled in Vol. 17, Collected Works

* Amb. Bagher Asadi, retired career Iranian diplomat, lives in Tehran

Sources (in English): -- Mehdi Noorbaksh, Mehdi Bazargan: A Biography, www.bazargan.info/la_english/english.htm

-- H.E. Chehabi, Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism: The Liberation Movement of Iran under the Shah and Khomeini, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 1990 -- Charles Kurzman, Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook, New York, 1998

Sources (in Persian) Bazargan’s Works (cited above)

Note 1: The Cultural Foundation of Mohandes [Engineer] Mehdi Bazargan, established in 1995, is in charge of compiling and publishing the complete works of the late Bazargan, comprising around 450 items, inclusive of his books and pamphlets (listed above), essays, lectures, and speeches. Thus far, 30 volumes have been published, and the Foundation expects to collect, compile, and publish the remaining material, most probably in 4 volumes, during the next 2 years. The Foundation is also engaged in undertaking studies and research activities related to various aspects of Bazargan’s life, thought, intellectual interests, and works, in particular Islamic studies and Qur’anology. Note 2: During his prison term in Borazjan in mid-1960s, the late Mohandes (Engineer) Bazargan came across a volume of the Qur’an which contained a table showing the year of revelation of each Surah (Chapter). The table so intrigued him that he undertook the two-year journey, while in prison, to explore the actual chronology of the revelation of the Ayahs (Verses) and Chapters of the Qur’an. The next essay in the present volume takes a detailed look at how Bazargan arrived at the concept of the “Evolutionary Course of the Qur’an” and the book that subsequently emerged under the title of “Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an.” Given the quite substantial volume of statistical tables and corresponding curves included in the body of the work, as well as technical printing limitations at the time, the complete two-volume book was published in 1975. As already indicated in the Preface, following the establishment of the Bazargan Cultural Foundation (1981), an updated version of the

12 book, involving more than 10-000 man-hours and reliance on advanced computer softwares, were compiled in Volumes 12 and 13 of Bazragan’s Collected Works.

The Evolutionary Course of the Qur’an Bagher Asadi

- The Genesis of an Idea - Part I – Temporal Evolution - Part II- Thematic Evolution - Part III - Substantive Evolution

The Genesis of an Idea The late Mehdi Bazargan wrote the book “Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an” (The Evolutionary Course of the Qur’an)1 in Borazjan Prison during 1344-45 SH (1965-

1 The translation for the original title of the book “Seyr-e Tehawwul-e Qur’an” (in Persian) has been borrowed from Morteza Karimi-Nia, “The Historiography of the Qur’an in the Muslim World: The Inﬂuence of Theodor Nöldeke, Encyclopedia Islamica Foundation, Tehran, p. 54.

66).2 The original work comprises two volumes. The first volume consists of: 1) an elaborate discussion of his method, which essentially relies on particular mathematical calculations to arrive at a clear understanding of the temporal sequence of revelation in verses and chapters in the Qur’an; 2) a discussion of the thematic evolution of verses – according to various categories of major topics and their subsidiary issues – on the basis of his findings concerning the temporal order of the verses; and finally 3) the substantive evolution, i.e., gradual evolution of the content of revealed verses on different issues. The second volume includes the relevant tables and diagrams as well as the rationale for their calculation and preparation.3 In the introduction to the first volume, while explaining the background to his interest in the matter4, he recognizes the possibility that his research might raise two sets of interest and concern among its potential readers. One group, belonging to the old, traditional schools of thought among Muslims, might object that attributing evolution to the Qur’an as the immutable word of the eternal God would be tantamount to the negation of its divinity, and hence blasphemous. The second group, comprising the non-believers in divinity and revelation, might instead welcome the very idea as reducing the Qur’an to a man-made book – the outcome of a human intellect, and hence devoid of divinity. Notwithstanding such concerns, Bazargan undertakes to begin his exploration.

Mehdi Bazargan, “Seyr-e Tehawwul-e Qur’an”, (Sherkat-e Sahāmī-e Enteshār, Tehran), 1355 SH (1977). As already 2 indicated in the Introduction, he was serving a ten-year sentence as a political prisoner in Borazjan, a southern city known for inhospitable climate.

3 In the course of the compilation of Bazargan’s works after his death, The Cultural Foundation of (Mohandes) Mehdi Bazargan has rearranged the content of the original volumes. Collected Works, No. 12, containing volume I of the “Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an,” includes the ‘temporal sequence of the Qur’an’ and all relevant tables and diagrams, and the rationale for their calculation. No. 13 of the Collected Works, Volume II, includes ‘thematic evolution’ and ‘substantive evolution’ of the Qur’an. Volumes 12 and 13 of the Collected Works have been used in writing the present essay.

The author finds it imperative to make this point early on that the present essay intends to introduce late Bazargan’s work for the first time in English – for English-speaking readers. The essay, therefore, has endeavored to capture the essence of Bazargan’s exploration in broad brush, supported, when deemed necessary, with explanatory footnotes to clarify the point at hand, either drawing on the original work or other sources. It is the author’s firm belief that the extremely detailed nature of the original book – Volumes 12 and 13 of the Collected Works – containing technical mathematical discussion and hundreds of tables and diagrams, can hardly be rendered into English, nor that it would serve a useful purpose for English-speaking readers. However, the text in Persian constitutes a very useful source for consultation and use by interested non-Iranian Qur’anic scholars with a good command of the Persian language as well as familiarity with the Qur’an, and preferably with the written classical Arabic language.

4 As discussed in the Introduction, Bazargan, a devout, practicing Muslim since his youth, was equally concerned with the teachings of the Qur’an and, as a reform-minded thinker and intellectual, keenly interested in understanding those teachings in the modern world and explaining them in terms of modern-day rationality. “Seyr-e Tahawwul” should therefore be seen as part of that continuing intellectual journey.

To allay the fear of the traditionalists and to indicate to the nonbelievers that what he is doing is not against the spirit of the Quranic teachings, he turned to the Qur’an itself to provide supporting evidence for the type of research he intended to undertake. He quoted three verses (Ayahs) from three different Chapters (Suras) as samples of such Qur’anic support. The verses in question were as follows: Verse 106, Chapter Bani Isra’il (XVII): “It is a Qur’an (which we have divided into parts from time to time), in order that thou mightest recite it to men at intervals. We have revealed it in stages.” As a clear Qur’anic evidence for his argument he also draws on the text of Verse 4 of Chapter Ma’ida (V): “This day have I perfected your religion for you, completed my favor upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion.” And also in Verse 32 of Chapter Furqan (XXV): “Thus (it is revealed) that We may strengthen thy heart, thereby, and We have rehearsed it to thee in slow, well- arranged stages, gradually.” 5 In the introductory part of the book, Bazargan addresses the question of chronology of the revealed verses and chapters – as generally divided between ‘Meccan’ (revealed in Mecca prior to Hijrah) and ‘Medinan’ (revealed after Hijrah). While recognizing that some books of Qur’anic exegesis, or some books on the history of the Qur’an have, in the past, addressed the question of the chronology of revelation of various chapters (Suras) and verses (Ayas), he nonetheless finds them inadequate, and generally inconsistent.6 On this particular aspect, he is of the view that European scholars have fared better and produced better scholarly works on the Qur’an in modern times.7 During his imprisonment in Borazjan,8 while reading the Chapter Ankabut (XXIX), especially Verses 13-39, on the story of encounters between previous Prophets and their communities (and their subsequent destruction), which appear in the middle of the chapter, Bazargan arrived at the point that a better understanding of the meaning of those verses hinged on studying the verses in other chapters related to

5 Translation of the above three verses has been quoted from Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur’an: Text, Translation and Commentary, Khali Al-Rawaf, 1946, Copyright 1978, The Islamic Center, Washington, D.C.

6 Bazargan, Op. Cit., Vol. 12, p. 32.

This particular point appears to be shared by other contemporary Muslim writers. See Karimi-Nia, Op. Cit., p. 46. On 7 this, he writes: “... in classical Islamic literature one can occasionally find reports or even chapters dedicated to discussions of the chronological ordering of verses and chapters of the Qur’an, or comments on the process of the compilation of the Qur’an undertaken during the caliphates of Abū Bakr and ʿUthmān, but such unsystematic studies can never be considered the same as the recent works specifically devoted to Qur’anic historiography authored by, for example, Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Zanjānī, Maḥmūd Rāmyār and Muḥammad Muṣṭafā al-Aʿẓamī. The latter works all demonstrate a modern – to some extent, Western – approach and defy classification in terms of the genres of traditional Islamic works.” p. 47

8 See footnote 3 above.

15 the same subject. This led him to the idea of relating of verses to the year of revelation; or in other words, which group of verses should precede which other group(s).9 This entailed knowledge of the “time (date) of the revelation of verses or at least the order of revelation of Suras (Chapters)”.10 Bazargan maintained that there exists a lack of consistency between the discussions and findings in the early works on the Qur’anic exegeses and Hadith [Tradition]11 and the views stated by Muslim scholars in later times. In his view, as a general rule, early narrators had sufficed to carry the ‘traditions’ and state the source, which, in their estimation, had been considered adequate and reliable12. Later narrators, following the known and established path of their predecessors, have also repeated - and reported - the same findings. As he reckoned, generally speaking, irreconcilable differences and contradictions existed in the earlier sources which had been left unaddressed, much less critically evaluated or corrected.13 In his final reckoning, sole reliance on the findings and conclusions of the earlier sources could hardly lead to a definitive, conclusive judgment on the actual chronology of revelation. This led him to the idea of the imperative of relying on the Qur’an itself to discover the chronology of revelation. This inspiring observation was also in

9 Collected Works, Op. Cit., Vol. 12, pp. 41-2.

10 Ibi.d., p. 42. It should be clear by now that the crux of Bazargan’s concern revolved around the well-established fact that there existed a discernible discrepancy between the actual date of the revelation of certain verses and chapters and the order in the single, unified copy of Qur’an as compiled during the time of the third Caliph (Uthman) – which has been acceptable to all Muslims and used by them ever since.

11 Traditions – reports of the Prophet's words and deeds as preserved and written down by the early Muslim community. For the Twelver Shi’ites, these reports also apply to the words and deeds of the 12 Shi’ite Imams – starting with Ali Bin Abu-Taleb. For a detailed account of relevant commentaries on the Shi‘i Traditions see Yusuf Ali, Op. Cit.

Karimi-Nia’s reasoning in this regard is illuminating. In his view, the history of the Qur’an, as understood in modern 12 times, was not a matter of interest to Muslim theologians, commentators, historians and philologists during the pre- modern period. Op. Cit., p. 46. In explaining the rationale for his research paper, he refers to the “the apparent lack of interest in the historiography of the Qur’an among Islamic scholarship” and goes on to add that his paper “seeks to address this question and offer an overview of historical scholarship on the Qur’an contributed by Muslim writers both before and following Nöldeke.” P. 46. According to him, the history of the Qur’an, in its contemporary usage, “encompasses the revelation of the Qur’an, chronological dating of its chapters, the initial recording and subsequent preservation of its contents, its compilation, the early manuscripts, the variant readings, development and evaluation of the Qur’anic script ....”. p. 46. He continues: “Prior to the twentieth century, Muslim writers seldom concerned themselves with these issues.” P.46. He also writes: “The need for the historiography of the Qur’an as an independent ﬁeld of inquiry in Qur’anic studies was not particularly felt by Muslim society and thus it did not warrant research during the early centuries of Islamic period.“ p. 49.

Karimi-Nia’s account on this aspect of the matter at hand supports Bazargan’s critique of the early Islamic writings. 13 “From the viewpoint of modern Qur’anic scholarship, the many reports on compilation of the Qur’an narrated in al- Bukhārī’s al-Jāmiʿ or Abū ʿUbayd’s Faḍāʾil al-Qurʾān and Ibn Saʿd’s al-Ṭabaqāt, or the reports in al-Suyūṭī’s al-Itqān, specifying the order of revelation of Qur’anic verses, do not constitute historiographical literature on the Qur’an in their own right in the accepted sense of the term, unless these are accompanied by critical discussions, evaluations and other analytical material.” Ibid., p. 47. 16 conformity with the long-established belief among the exegetes that “some verses interpret some others.” Bazargan’s general observation of the fact that the early verses and chapters of the Qur’an were short and melodic and the later verses and chapters long and non- melodic – shared by other historiographers of the Holy Book – played a critical role in shaping his theory and approach in exploring the real temporal evolution of the Qur’an. As discussed in detail in the following section on “Temporal Evolution”, his exploration is based on testing the validity of his hypothesis that the average length of verses tend to increase with the year of revelation, hence, leading to the conclusion that reliance on this measure would help establish the date (year) and order of the revelation of verses during the 23-year period of Prophethood [Risalat]. It is also of importance to note that as a professor of Thermodynamics at the University of Tehran, Bazargan was equipped with a deep knowledge and solid appreciation of mathematics as a precise science, on which he relied in his project and exploration. In his words, even if time-consuming and cumbersome, the mathematical, quantitative method ensures precision and confidence, produces definitive results, and is free from the impact of human sentiments, tastes and intellectual speculation. The more difficult part of the heroic task he undertook was the collection of the required data in the absence of reliable sources. Lack of trustworthy data about these aspects of the Qur’an which was required for Bazargan’s project, meant that he had to collect all the data he needed from scratch – which will be presented in the following section. Part One: Temporal Evolution Barzargan’s point of departure, as already discussed, is the lack of a generally accepted or reliable chronological list of the sequence of revelation of various chapters of the Qur’an, in terms of the years of the Prophet’s mission [Risalat], acceptable to all Muslims, whether Shi‘i or Sunni, and also to non-Muslim scholars.14

14 It is a well-known historical fact among Muslims that efforts towards writing – and compiling – of the revealed verses began during the time of the Prophet by his companions – generally referred to as “Mos-haf” at the time - and continued during the rule of the first three Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman). As is widely accepted, the single, unified copy of the Qur’an, acceptable to and used by all Muslims, both Sunni and Shi’a, ever since was compiled under Caliph Uthman’s supervision. For a detailed account of the compilation of the Qur’an – “Mos-haf” - by the Prophet’s companions until a unified copy was produced under Uthman, see Mahmoud Ramyar, “Tarikh-e Qur’an” (The History of the Qur’an), in Persian, Amirkabir, Publishing Institute, 1362 (1983), Tehran, pp. 211-488. The sheer number of pages in the book (over 270 pages) taken up for presenting a brief overview of the work of all the Prophet’s companions, including Imam Ali (with a unique position as the first Muslim man as well as the closest companion of the Prophet), as well as those of later generations engaged in compiling a ‘Mos-haf’ is in itself an indication of the large number of individuals involved – and hence, the number of compiled ‘Mos-hafs’ during the almost 50-year period.

In his introductory observations, Bazargan draws attention to the number of verses in each chapter and makes a distinction between the two dominant narrations since the early days of Islam; Egyptian and Kofian narrations. He prefers the numbering in the Egyptian narration and relies on it in the course of his study – used in the Qur’an with 17

As is widely known in Islamic history, especially since the second and third year after Hijrah, the Prophet’s companions had been reported to have manifested interest in collecting information and evidence about his life and the occasions of the revelation of verses. In this regard, Bazargan addresses the question of the revelation of verses considered as ‘abrogating’ (Nāsikh) other – previous – verses (abrogated verses).15 He underlines that this question, as a criterion for determining the time and precedence of the revelation of some verses, was of particular interest to the jurists of the time – and has been, of course, ever since.16 He also draws attention to the difference between the dominant approach of traditional narratives within the Islamic community based on uncritical repetition of earlier narratives with those of more recent researches by non-Muslim – Western – scholars based on critical examination and analysis.17 Modern scholars generally tend to take into consideration both historical circumstances and evidence as well as substantive analysis of the Holy Scripture. In trying to establish the connection between events and the time of revelation of verses, the Western scholarship has also considered the frequency, rhythmic and melodic structure, and the length of verses [short and long verses] as the bases for the determination of the order of revelation. Notwithstanding the concern stated earlier with the accuracy of the chronology of revelation in the unified copy in use since it was first compiled during the rule of the 3rd Caliph, Bazargan begins his exploration on the basis of the same copy and the ordinal number of verses and chapters. In the course of this exploration, he consults the chronology of verses and chapters produced by the French scholar Jules Le

verse index, printed in Tehran, 1328 SH (1949). P. 39, Vol. 12, Collected Works. Moreover, in order to show the differences between the two narrations, he has prepared a comparative table (Table 101), Ibid., pp. 551-552.

15 Op. Cit., Vol. 12, p. 35.

16 The question of ‘naskh’ (abrogation) – which has been discussed among Muslim jurists (fuqhaha) since the early days of Islam – finds its rationale in Verse 106 of Chapter Baqara (II) : “None of our revelations do We abrogate or cause to be forgotten, unless We substitute with something better or similar: Knowest thou not that God has power over all things?” and also Verse 101 of Chapter Nahl (XVI) : “When We substitute one revelation for another, and God knows best what He reveals (in stages)....”

Morteza Karimi-Nia, Professor of Islamic Studies, Islamic Azad University (Tehran, Iran), writing over four decades 17 later and in a similar line of thinking, contends that the history of the Qur’an, as is known nowadays, “should be considered a Western discipline.” Op. Cit., p. 47. He argues that this is in the main part related to the fact that “throughout the centuries, Muslims have become habituated to the Qur’an’s present configuration and have therefore come to take it for granted. This made investigating the relative chronology of the Qur’an superfluous or unnecessary for many scholars.” P. 48. He also points to the “general attitude of Muslims towards the holy text and their perception of the duties of an Islamic scholar. By default, the Muslim scholar, throughout the course of centuries, has applied himself to deriving Islamic legal code from the Qur’an and understanding its various theological, legal, exegetical and literary aspects.” P. 48. He further underlines that the “need for the historiography of the Qur’an as an independent ﬁeld of inquiry in Qur’anic studies was not particularly felt by Muslim society and thus it did not warrant research during the early centuries of Islamic period.”. p. 49. 18

Beaume,18 German scholar Theodor Nöldeke19 and the French scholar Regis Blachere.20 He bases his exploration on the a priori assumption that, in the first place, there exists an order in the revelation of verses, reflecting the will and providence of the God Almighty.21 Therefore, his research is intended to discover – find – that order. As a first step, the melodic sound of verses, which is in fact the first thing that is heard – reaches the ears of listeners – is taken into consideration.22 The following two examples clarify the point. The verses in Chapter Divorce (Talaq, LXV) end with such words as ‘amra’, ‘qadra’, ‘yasra’, ajra’, ‘okhra’, etc. Also in part of the Chapter Naziy’at (LXXIX) we encounter the range of such rhythmical words as ‘rajia‘’, ‘radifa’, ‘wajifa’, khashia.’ Similarly, the verses in Chapter Ikhlas (CXII) also end with the rhythmical words of ‘ahad’, “samad’, and ‘youlad’– even though Bazargan notes that this feature is not universal throughout the Qur’an. He further draws attention to the fact that Medinan Chapters often lack melodic features and rhyme, and the verses repeatedly end with such words as ‘ya’lamoun’ or ‘yash’aroun’ or with ‘rahim’ and ‘alim’ – which, he notes, are common among several chapters.23 Having made these observations, Bazargan also notes, as easily recognized by linguists, that

18 Jules Le Beaume (1806-1876), a somewhat lesser-known French scholar. Ettemad-u-Saltaneh (1843-1896), Press Minister of Nasser –u- din Shah Qajar, who has included a chart on the temporal chronology of revealed chapters in his introduction to the Qur’an published in his time (1895) alludes to an anonymous Western scholar as the original source for the chart. Mohsen Armin believes that Le Beaume is the same anonymous scholar mentioned by Ettemad-u- Saltaneh. “Evaluation and Critique of the book “Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an” in ”Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an: The Scientific Key to Divine Revelation – Introduction, Review and Critique of the Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an: The Enduring Work of the late Mohandes Mehdi Bazargan”, Sherekat-e Sahami Enteshar, Tehran, 1389, p. 140. Ramyar also cites Le Beaume as the source for the chart in question. Op. Cit., p. 677. As will be discussed later, Bazargan finds this chart a very useful and reliable base for his study.

19 Theodore Nöldeke, Geschichte des Qorâns (Göttingen: Verlag der Dieterichschen Buchhandlung, 1860). Noldeke (1836-1930), German linguist and Orientalist noted for his Semitic and Islamic studies, which included a history of the Qur’an.

20 Regis Blachere, Le Coran, Traduction nouvelle (Ed. G. P. Maisonneuve, Paris, 1949-50), 2 vol. Blachere (1900-1973), French Orientalist and translator of the Qur’an.

21 Behnam Sadeghi’s more recent ‘ stylometric’ study of the Qur’an reflects a similar concern with the question of chronology and its serious implications. In his words, “Knowing the relative chronology of the Qurʾān is important if one hopes to interpret it properly and use it to understand the formation of Islam.” In so far as the authorship of the Qur’an is concerned, Sadeghi’s stylometric study shows that “the Qurʾān has one author.” Behnam Sadeghi, The Chronology of the Qur’an: A Stylometric Research Program, Arabica (58) 2011, pp. 210-299.

It is also of interest to note that in Sadeghi’s words, Bazargan’s work has inspired his study and “provided the starting point” for his analysis. “Its focus on style and its quantitative cast are methodological features that carry over into my work.” P. 212.

22 Op. Cit., Vol. 12, p. 38.

23 Ibid., p. 38.

19 the words – or their variations – used in Meccan and Medinan chapters, and also the degree of density or brevity of phrases and the relatedness of verses belonging to the two periods, are quite different and do not follow the same exact pattern. Moreover, the occasions of revelation in conjunction with historical events can be used as useful indicators or indices in determining the chronology of verses and chapters. Such a determination, of course, cannot be established with 100% accuracy for the majority of verses and only presents a probability for such cases.24 Taking all these considerations, and pertinent constraints into account, Bazargan reaches the conclusion that the mere length of verses [short or long]; that is, the number of words constituting every verse, could serve as a convenient, acceptable measure for exploring the order of revelation. He emphasizes that such an approach is also free from the burden of morphology, syntax and philology. In his view, the particular advantage of this approach lies in the fact that the outcome of the research will be calculated in numbers and figures. Every chapter has a specific number of verses – which is not subject to any disagreement. He notes that the verses in a chapter do not have equal length – an equal number of words - and also recognizes, on the basis of actual calculation, that the length of verses are close to each other. Taking these two factors into account, Bazargan considers the ‘average length’ of the verses in a chapter - the total number of words in a chapter divided by the number of verses – as a useful tool. 25 Using this tool, Bazargan compares the average length of the verses for the three Chapters Humaza (CIV - revealed during year 1 & 2, 34 words, 9 verses), Ta-ha (XX – year 4 & 5, 1308 words, 143 verses), and Mai’da (V - late Hijrah, 2749 words, 120 verses). He arrives at the conclusion that the comparison shows a steady pattern of increase in the average length of verses; from 3.78 to 9.15 to 22.91. It indicates that the average length of verses has increased with the passage of time; i.e., in the course of the Prophetic mission (Risalat).26 The same calculation for the Chapters A’araf (VII - closely prior to Hijrah, 3262 words, 210 verses), Anfal (VIII - soon after Hijrah, 1205 words, 77 verses), Hashr (LIX - 4th–year Hijrah, 433 words, 24 verses), and Nur (XXIV - around 6th year Hijrah, 1280 words, 65 verses) also shows a steady increasing trend; 15.53 to 15.65 to 17.04 and 19.69. In mathematical terms, the average length of verses is an increasing function of time; i.e. of the years of the Prophetic mission.27 Table 1 (Annex) shows the average length of verses in the seven chapters just discussed. 28

24 Ibid., pp. 38-39.

25 Ibid., p. 39. 26 Ibid., p. 40. 27 Ibid., pp. 40-41.

Having arrived at the above observation, Bazargan puts forward the idea that, as a general rule, Meccan chapters have shorter verses and Medinan chapters have longer verses. He further goes on to reiterate that this finding is neither new and specific to him, nor that it had not been noticed by early or recent Muslim scholars. What he considers to be of particular significance in this regard is whether or not the relative change in the number of words in chapters – increasing length of chapters and also in the number of verses – is based on a general rule and follows a discernible pattern.29 In his judgment, traditional Muslim jurists [fuqahaa], historians or exegetes of the Qur’an have not come up with satisfactory or adequately convincing answers to this question. While grappling with the question of the chronology of the revelation of verses or group of verses on the same subject (e.g., the story of Noah), Bazargan came across a chart illustrating the chronology of the revelation of the Qur’an’s chapters according to the year of revelation, published in a Qur’an in Iran in 1328 SH (1949). Further research in this regard revealed that the chart had been used previously in the Qur’an published in 1313 Lunar Hijri [1895] by Ettemad-u-Saltaneh, Press Minister of Nasser-u-Din Shah Qajar, with a verse index and subject index.30 According to the index appearing in the Qur’an published by Ettemad-u- Saltaneh, 26 chapters were revealed during the first year of the Prophet’s mission [Risalat], followed by 13 chapters in the 2nd year, 8 chapters in the 3rd year, …31 Bazargan finds the index a very useful basis for his personal exploration. As such, he undertakes to delve into a thorough study of the whole Qur’an, to determine the number of revealed chapters in each year in chronological order from year 1 to year 23, the total number of verses revealed in each year, and the total number of words revealed in every year. On the basis of his findings, he then calculates the average length of verses according to the year of revelation. The outcome of this thorough search – and corresponding calculation - is presented in Table 2.32 The conclusion of Bazargan’s exploration and calculation is that the average length of revealed verses starts at 3.91 (word per verse) for the first year of revelation and goes up to 22.76 (word per verse) in year 23. In the context of a general pattern of increasing average, he also observes certain anomalies in the calculated figures; a

Table 1 and 9 other statistical tables appear as annex at the end of the essay.28

29 Ibid., p. 41. 30 See footnote 18 above. 31 A total of 90 Meccan (pre-Hijrah) chapters during the first 13 years of mission, and a total of 24 Medinan (post- Hijrah) chapters during the subsequent 10 years. The full account of the index, also indicating the known appellation for each year of revelation, both for Meccan and Medinan years, is also included in Table 2.

32 See Annexes. 21 sudden fall in the average in the 7th, 9th, 18th and 21st year.33 In his conclusion, the results in the Table do not support, in a definitive and conclusive manner, the rule he had hypothesized before. However, it clearly points to the general trend of increase in the length of verses along the continuum of time [years of Risalat]. The observed anomalies led him to the following conclusion, namely – that further thorough investigation of the subject was needed. Further examination revealed that, for example, while Chapter Anfal (VIII) in the Table 2 is placed in the 8th year of Hijrah, most of its verses relate to the Battles of Badr and Uhud during the first and second year of Hijrah. Therefore, if the Chapter is moved in the Table to an earlier period, the sudden fall in the average length of verses for the years 14 and 21 would also be modified and correspond to the general pattern. Similarly, the relatively long verses in Chapters Mumtahana (LX) and Nisaa (IV) – placed in the 4th and 6th years of Hijrah (years 17 and 19 of the Prophet’s mission) – account for the sharp increase in the average length in those years, indicating that they are not placed in their proper time location. Upon re-examination of the observed fluctuations in the average length of verses for the Meccan chapters, Bazargan also notes that, for example, the subject, length and structure of phrases in Chapters Nuh and Jinn which are placed in the 3rd year are not similar to the short verses of Chapters Muddathir, Ma’arij and Haaqqah of the same year. Moreover, if the chapters with an average length of 14, 16, 18 or more verses which are placed in the years 5 and 6 are brought forward by three years and instead Chapters Shu’araa and Hijr are brought back, the trend of change in the average length of verses before Hijrah will correspond to the general pattern. As indicated by Bazargan, this has been done previously in relatively reliable historical indexes. Subsequently, the words in all chapters were re-counted and the average lengths of verses were calculated. The resulting order of chapters according to the average length of verses is illustrated in Table 3.34 A glance at Table 3 reveals that the short and rhymed chapters of the beginning of revelation are located first; chapters associated with the time of Hijrah are located after the middle of the chart; and finally, the Medinan chapters whose historical connections and precedence are generally known are located approximately in their proper places. With respect to the Medinan chapters, for example, "Anfal" and "Saff"

33 Op. cit., Vol. 12, pp. 47-48, and in particular footnote No. 1 on p. 47. 34 See Annexes – Op. Cit., Vol. 12. P. 49. 22 are in the beginning, followed by "Ahzab," "Al-i- Imran" and "Nur,", and finally "Baqara," "Nisaa" and "Mai’da" at the end.35 Bazargan then points out that a subsequent comparison of his findings in Table 2 with those of Blachere in his second French translation of the Qur’an points to a fair level of conformity.36 This encourages him to continue further investigation of his hypothesis with regard to the average length of verses as an approximate value. Subsequently, he considers calculating and analyzing not only the average length of verses in a chapter, but also the length of each verse in the chapter and the pattern of their distribution. In order to test the applicability of these measures, he takes up Chapters Humaza, Ta-Ha and Ma’ida. His review and analysis of all the verses in these three chapters point to the following four common variables: 1 - the average length of verses (total number of words in a chapter divided by the number of verses; the statistical mean); 2 - the dominant length (the verse length that appears most often in a chapter or group of verses, that is, the statistical mode, where we have the highest probability and the peak of characteristic curve); 3 – height (the percentage of verses having mode as their lengths); and 4 – scope (the range of verse lengths in a chapter or group of verses, that is, the difference between the maximum and minimum verse lengths).37 As discussed by Bazargan, while these four variables are considered as a ‘relative criterion’ in their own right, they are independent and each reflects a specific aspect of the characteristic curve of each and every chapter of the Qur’an.

Judging the changes in the four variables for the three chapters under review (Humaza, Ta-Ha and Ma’ida), Bazargan arrives at the conclusion that ‘averaging’ provides the basis for identifying, in a rough and general manner, the time (year) of the revelation of verses, and hence, a basis for identifying the order of the revelation of chapters.38 Moreover, having found that the four variables are all rising functions

35 Ibid., p. 50.

36 At this stage of his research, Bazargan compares his findings with those of Blachere (Op. Cit., footnote 15 above), who, based on his own study and research, had re-arranged chapters according to the sequence of revelation. For a brief discussion of Bazargan’s analysis of Blachere’s chart – inclusive of the differences with his own chart – see Ibid., Vol. 12. P.50.

Blachere, as narrated by Bazargan, had considered four distinctive and consecutive periods for the revelation of the Qur’an in terms of the structure of verses and the context (subject matter) of chapters – the first three periods in Mecca and the fourth in Medina. He had arranged the chapters belonging to each period in a sequence, which he had considered to be comprehensive and approximate.

For a detailed discussion on how he arrives at these four criteria (variables), see Vol. 12, Ibid., pp. 52-64. As an 37 analogy, and in order to prove his belief – assumption – in the uniqueness of the Qur’an, Bazargan also discusses how human (man-made) writings (texts) in different languages and in different times all lack the order discovered in the Qur’an, pp.. 61-62.

38 For a detailed account of the discussion on ‘averaging’ – and the corresponding mathematical calculations – see Ibid., pp. 65-70.

23 of the time of revelation, he considers their average – ‘base length‘– as the base criterion for identifying the order of the revelation of each chapter as well as the basis for comparing the chapters with each other. In order to test the applicability of the four-fold criteria – and specifically, whether they change in tandem – Bazargan proceeds to choose Chapter Anbiyaa’ as the ‘base chapter.’39 As he indicates, the chapter falls almost at the median point between the chapters at the beginning of revelation and those at the end of the Prophet’s mission. His calculation arrives at the average length of 10 words per verse – which makes division or multiplication easy – hence, making the Chapter Anbiyaa’ a suitable base for comparison with other chapters and the ways in which their averages change. Moreover, in his view, Anbiyaa’ is also an integrated chapter with a natural and consistent composition of verses.40 Having chosen the ‘base chapter’, he computes the base length of a chapter with this formula: 10x1/3 (mean/10 + mode/8 + height/15); in other words, ‘base length’ being a function of ‘mean, mode and height’ variables. On the basis of the examination of the figures obtained for the four-fold criteria for the Chapters Ikhlas, Lail, Saafat, Qamar, Qaaf, Furqan, Yusuf, and Anfal,41 Bazargan states that these variables increase or decrease in an orderly and consistent manner. He also makes the same statement about the characteristic curves of these eight selected chapters. In other words, the change in the relevant diagram for every chapter corresponds to the course of time during the 23-year Prophetic mission. Taking a step further, Bazargan multiplies the ‘base length’ of each chapter by 10 – the average length of the base chapter (Anbiyaa’) – and arrives at an index of absolute figures, which in his view, modifies the inevitable fluctuations42 in statistical calculation. Taking the law of probability into account, he finds the new index a more reliable base. Following encountering some irregularities in the ‘relative averages’ and the characteristic curves, Bazargan then considers what could be termed as ‘fragmentation of chapters’ – similar to Blachere’s exercise in his study43 - in order to arrive at a correct grouping of verses. This is considered particularly relevant in the case of long chapters with a number of distinct subject matters, e,g, Chapters Baqara, An’aam, Mai’da, etc.44 To this end, he fragments and rearranges these chapters

39 Ibid., pp. 68-69.

Ibid., p. 68.40

41 For a comparison of the obtained results, see Table 4 (Annexes).

42 Deviations from the stipulated/expected values, in mathematical terminology. Ibid., p. 68.

43 Ibid., pp. 76-77. Bazargan also discusses his differences with Blachere’s ‘groupings’.

44 In this regard, Bazargan draws attention to three important points: 1 - The fact that the Qur’an has 114 chapters does not mean that it has been revealed to Prophet Mohammad only 114 times. It is obvious – and a matter of 24 according to the verses which are related and address one subject matter. In other words, he rearranges these chapters according to the unity of the subject matter (s) they were dealing with and similarity of the meaning of their relevant verses. Then, he calculates the average length and dominant length of each group, through which the group of verses belonging to same or different periods of time could be determined.45 The complication he encounters in this method relates to the impact on the characteristic curve and the averages of the so-called strophic verses (ayat-e tarji‘- band).46 To avoid the complication he decides to count the strophic verses in each chapter only once (i.e. regard such verses in each chapter they occur as just one verse rather than counting all their occurrences in the chapter in which they appear) and then fragment (group) the chapter. With this in mind, the calculation of the relevant averages and the shape of the characteristic curve leads him to the conclusion that regarding the repeated verses (in the context of each chapter in which they appear) as just one verse (while calculating the average length of the chapters in question) produces more homogeneous and consistent results.47 In light of the preceding explanations of various approaches and correcting them in a process of trial and error, Bazargan then proceeds to present his findings in Table 11, which he calls “Statistical Indices of Chapters and Groupings of Verses of the Qur’an” 48 In this Table, chapters have been grouped according to their usual ordinal numbers (Chapters 1 to 114). In every row, the relevant calculated data for concurrence among Muslims since the early days of Islam – that a long chapter such as Baqara (II), comprising 286 verses, including some very long ones, and covering a wide range of subject matters and situations (events and occasions), could not have been revealed all at once (composite chapters); 2 - historians and interpreters of the Qur’an concur that some of the chapters have not been revealed in an integrated manner; rather they consist of a mixture of verses pieced together; and 3 - according to reliable historical traditions or due to the context (historical event or occasion) or language, some verses in some chapters belong to different times. As an example, he takes up Verse 20 of Chapter “Muzzammil (LXXIII), with 77 words, and considering the differences with the other verses in the chapter belonging to the early years of Prophethood, discusses that it belongs either to late Meccan years or even early Post- Hijrah years. As mentioned by Bazargan, Blachere had considered this verse to be an independent group in itself and believed that it was a Medinan verse. For this and other similar examples, see Ibid., pp. 71-76.

As argued by Bazargan, the combined impact of these facts (factors) could be seen in the anomalies observed in the averages or the distinctive curves.

45 He uses Chapter Naml (XXVII) for this purpose, which he divides into three groups. See Ibid., pp. 86-88. On the same subject, he also cites Blachere’s grouping – which is quite different from his account (pp. 87). The same difference in the number of recognized groups is also true with regard to other chapters, e.g., Chapter Tawbah (p. 79), Chapter Qalam (pp. 83-84).

46 As a prominent example, he refers to the repetition of the same verse – “Then which of the favors of your Lord will ye deny?” – in Chapter Rahman (LV) – 31 times - and also the repetition of some verses in Chapters Shu’araa (XXVI), Qamar (LIV) and Mursalat (LXXVII). For a detailed discussion of this particular point see Ibid., pp. 88-92.

47 Ibid., p. 92.

48Ibid., pp. 93-113. Table 5 below represents a summarized version of the original Table 11. Tables 5-9 in the Annexes, drawing on Tables 11-15 in the original work in Persian, have been prepared by Mr. Farhad Behbahany.

25 each integrated chapter or a group of simultaneously revealed verses corresponding to each chapter are presented. This includes the title and subject matter of each group, ordinal number of chapters, number of verses in each chapter, number of words, the four chosen variables, and finally, in the last column, the ‘base length’ of the respective chapter. Subsequently, on the basis of the ‘base length’ calculated for each integrated chapter or simultaneously revealed group of verses in the previous Table, Bazargan presents another Table under the title of “Temporal Order of Revelation of Chapters and Group of Verses” 49. This Table, arranged in increasing order, starts with a base length of 2.18 which corresponds to the first group of verses; verses 1-5 of Chapter Alaq (LXVIII). The second row, with a base length of 2.31, corresponds to the first part of Chapter Muddaththir (LXXIV) – verses 1-7. The last row in the Table (Row 194), with a base length of 42.4, corresponds to the last group of verses in Chapter Mai’da (V) – verses 1-9. Put simply, this Table shows that the 114 chapters of the Qur’an have been revealed in 194 occasions throughout the 23 years of the Prophet’s mission. Based on the findings in Table 6 (Annexes), Bazargan also prepares another Table which also presents for each year of the Prophetic mission, starting from year 1 through year 23, the group(s) of simultaneously revealed verses, number of words for the group(s), as well as the cumulative number of verses and words revealed in each year.50 Table 13 in Bazargan’s work, prepared on the basis of the findings in Tables 11 and 12, shows the year of revelation of each group of verses according to the order of formal number of chapters and the order number of verses. In this Table, while presenting his own findings, Bazargan includes the findings of Shahrestani 51 - a classic work also ascribed to Imam Sadegh – and of Blachere, in two separate columns. The inclusion of the findings of these two sources – an old classic Islamic source and a much more recent work by a Western Orientalist – serves to illustrate the differences between Bazargan’s proposed ordering scheme for the chapters of the Qur’an and those before him (prior to the late 1960s). It is interesting to note that in all these three sources, Chapter Alaq (XCVI) is in the first row, and Chapter Mai’da (V) is in row 114 – the last chapter revealed. Also, in so far as differences are

See Table 6 (Annexes), a summarized version of the original Table 12, Ibid., pp. 116-127. 49

50 See Table 7 (Annexes), a summarized version of the original Table 13 (pp. 129-143), Ibid.

51 Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Karīm ash-Shahrastānī (479-548 Lunar Hijri/1086–1153 CE), author of the famous book “Kitab al–Milal wa al-Nihal (The Book of Sects and Creeds). Bazargan has used Shahrestani’s chart, as quoted in Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Zanjānī, Tārīkh al-Qurʿān [The History of the Qur’an] (Cairo: Lajnat al-Taʿlīf wa ’l-Tarjuma bi’l-Qāhira, 1353 Lunar Hijri/1935). Kariminia considers al- Zanjani’s book the first independent work on the history of the Qur’an by a Muslim scholar. Op. Cit., p. 46. 26 concerned, one could look at Chapter Muddaththir (LXXIV) which is in row 2 in Blachere’s and Bazargan’s accounts and row 4 in Shahrestani’s. Another example of difference relates to Chapter Baqara (II), row 90 in Bazargan’s Table, 87 in Shahrestani and 91 in Blachere’s. As for another example, Chapter Shams (XCI) is in row 59 in Bazargan’s Table, row 59 in Blachere’s, and 41 in Shahrestani’s. Using the data in Tables 12 and 13, (Tables 6 and 7 below - Annexes), Bazargan prepares another Table (14) under the title of “The Sequence of Revelation of Groups of Verses and Chapters (inclusive of sum-total of words and verses revealed during the entire period of prophetic mission).”52 The Table shows that Chapter Alaq, comprising 5 verses, 19 words, with the ordinal number of 9653, is the first chapter revealed to the Prophet in the first year of his mission, to be followed by 14 other chapters during the same year, starting with Muddathir and ending with Takwir. Revelation in the last year of mission, 11th Hijrah, includes Verses 260-262 and 284-286 of Chapter Baqara (ordinal number 2), Verses 53-55 of Chapter Ahzab (ordinal number 33), and Verses 1-9 of Chapter Ma’ida (ordinal number 5). Finally, using the data (findings) in Tables 13 and 14 (as summarized in Tables 7 and 8 below - Annexes), Bazargan presents Table 15, under the title of “Verse Revelation Year”, which determines the year of revelation of verses (groups of verses) according to the years of mission, both for Meccan and Medinan periods (pre- and post-Hijrah).54 For example, row 1 in the Table illustrates that Chapter Fatiha (the first chapter in the unified copy), comprising 7 verses, is the 32nd chapter revealed in an integrated manner in the 3rd year of Prophethood, with an ordinal number of 43. Also, Chapter Baqara (ordinal number II), comprising 5 groups of verses, has been revealed separately on different occasions; Group A (comprising verses 1-19, 148- 152, 154-158, 200-205, 245 and 246) has been revealed in the 7th year in Mecca, with the ordinal number of 109; Group B (comprising verses 28-37, and 186-191) has been revealed in the first year of Hijrah, with the ordinal number of 139; Group C (comprising verses 38-147) has been revealed in the 5th year of Hijrah, with the ordinal number of 164. The last row in the Table shows that Chapter Naas (CXIV), comprising 6 verses, is the 15th chapter revealed in an integrated manner in the 2nd year of Prophethood, and with an ordinal number of 18. Bazargan asserts that the results he has arrived at in the Tables just discussed, especially the last Table reflecting the final outcome of his study, represent new

52 See Table 8 (Annexes), a summarized version of the original Table 14 (pp. 148-159), Op. Cit., Collected Works, Vol. 12.

Number of chapter in the unified copy of the Qur’an used by all Muslims since it was first compiled during the time 53 of the 3rd Caliph.

54 See Table 9 (Annexes), representing the original Table 15 (pp. 174-189), Op. Cit., Collected Works, Vol. 12.

27 findings, not presented with such detail and nuances in any previous work of research, whether old or contemporary, by Muslims or non-Muslim scholars [Orientalists]. He further goes on to indicate that even if the findings for some verses (or group of verses) in these Tables do not necessarily reflect rigorous mathematical computation, they still can be used as a reliable preliminary source and as a first approximation to a more accurate calculation. While allowing for a certain degree of uncertainty in some cases, Bazargan believes that his findings provide a useful base for further exploration by other scholars and analysts.55

Part Two: Thematic Evolution 56 Having completed his research on the Temporal Evolution – chronology of revelation – of the Qur’an, Bazargan then turns to the question of thematic evolution; that is, the evolution in the content of revelation during the Prophet’s 23-year mission. He notes in the beginning that there exists a general consensus among all those familiar with the Qur’an that the subject matters [themes] are not evenly distributed in the Qur’an. For example, the verses addressing fundamental principles of belief, such as ‘Monotheism’, ‘Mohammad’s Prophethood (Be’thah)’, ‘Resurrection’, ‘Hereafter’, ‘Heaven and Hell’ belong to the generally short chapters in the early years of Prophethood. The jurisprudential rulings [Ahkam-e Fiqhi’]57 , however, are related to actual situations encountered by Muslims. These jurisprudential judgments provide templates for determining the religious duties of Muslims in their life-time – what is nowadays commonly termed ‘Shari‘a Law’- belong to the generally longer post- Hijrah chapters; that is, Medinan chapters. Bazargan presents the following catalogue as the major themes in the Qur’an: 1- Hereafter and Resurrection;

55 Ibid., p. 173. On this particular aspect, Sadeghi writes “The main way in which Bazargan’s religious faith affected his scholarship was to make it more critical and rigorous. Conscious of the gravity of mischaracterizing the “Words of God”, he reasoned cautiously, emphasized the fallible nature of his work, describing it as a research program 'in its infancy’’, and invited other scholars to critique, correct, and refine his findings.” Op. Cit., p. 289. While underlining that “the utility of stylistic analysis as an effective means of determining the chronology of the Qurʾān cannot be denied,” Sadeghi concedes that “Much more remains to be done on chronology in several different areas of research: the information in ḥadīth̠ s and the Sīra, traditional stylistic analysis, and stylometry.” Ibid., p. 290.

56 As indicated earlier, “Thematic’ and ‘Substantive’ evolution of the Qur’an, initially contained in volume I of the original work, have been included in a new volume – Volume 13, Collected Works – by the Cultural Foundation of Mohandes Mehdi Bazargan. For a detailed discussion on the rationale for this reorganizing of the original volume see pp. 13-18, Preface, Vol. 13.

57 As explained in the footnote on p. 19, Vol. 13, Bazargan states that by ‘Fiqh’ he means the contemporary conventional understanding of the ‘subsidiary rules of religion’ such as prayers, fasting, Hajj, halal and haram, etc., as discussed by the fuqaha (mujtahids).

2- Mission of Prophet Muhammad {as the Seal of the Prophets}, inclusive of

such topics as Monotheism, Prophethood, and Reasoning with Polytheists;

3- Mission of Previous Prophets and the Fate of their Peoples (communities);

4- Jihad;

5- Encounters between Prophet Mohammad and his community and

contemporaries (believers, hypocrites, unbelievers, and the People of the

Book);

6- Ahkam/religious rulings - Practical rules and regulations dealing with

various aspects of human conduct and relations; and

7- Other issues (i.e., such subjects as the creation of Man, Satan, Jinn, as

well as the family and wives of Prophet Mohammad).58

Bazargan argues that this broad grouping is natural and concurs with the temporal stages of the evolution of the Qur’an. As the next step in his research, Bazargan proceeds to present the course of the evolution of each one of the six themes in another table, using the same analytical illustrative method as in the compilation of previous Tables. Furthermore, the characteristic curve for each major theme is also presented separately.59 As seen in Table 10 (below), the six major themes (categories) put together account for over 96% of the Qur’an, with the remaining (almost) 3.5 percent taken up by verses addressing ‘other issues.’ The first two themes (categories), representing the verses on the fundamentals of monotheistic system of belief, account for over 51% of the entire Qur’an. The total would rise to almost 75% if the third category (mission of previous Prophets) is also considered. Bazargan draws particular attention to the fact

58 Ibid., p. 21. It would be useful if you could also give the page number in the completed volume.

59 For a detailed discussion of the method used see Ibid., pp. 22-28.

29 that out of the calculated total 97% for the six major themes (categories), only 7.2 % is taken up by group 5 [Ahkam/jurisprudence]. This, as is universally known, has historically occupied, and still continues to occupy, the central place in the thinking and writings of the Fuqaha.60 Even a formal comparison between the relative weights of various categories is quite telling and indicative of the position and the importance each category occupies in the Qur’an. Bazargan then proceeds to address the divisions within each major theme (category) and lists secondary subjects under the same overarching topic and calculates the number of relevant verses, as well as the corresponding percentages for minor (secondary) subjects.61 Changes in the manner in which a group of verses has addressed – and discussed – any one particular theme (category), such as the Hereafter or Heaven and Hell, whether separately and independently or together in a single verse, have also been further discussed in Bazargan’s account and have been illustrated in detailed tables.62 What is important to note in Bazargan’s conclusion in this part, similar to the finding with regard to the preceding part – Temporal Evolution – is that each group of verses on major themes (categories) has a peculiar diagram of evolution. Bazargan’s account shows that this peculiar curve for each category is distinct from that of other groups, in two major respects: 1- the temporal distribution of verses (among the years of revelation), and 2- the peak year for each major theme (category).63 Bazargan draws the following general conclusions from his research – and the results arrived at in the relevant charts and curves: - The Qur’an – in its entirety and in the case of major themes (categories) - begins with a condensed message pronouncing the overall objective(s), to be

60 Ibid., p. 30.

61 Ibid., p. 30-42.

62 Ibid., pp. 43-62. In the tables presented in this section, Bazargan illustrates the detailed specificities of the distribution of verses for each major theme (category), including the subsidiary subjects.

63 Ibid., pp.25-27.

followed by revelation of verses laying out details. The revelation of short, condensed chapters in the early years of mission lay out the fundamentals of the Qur’an’s monotheistic world view and its objectives. Quite distinctly, the revelation of long, composite chapters in later years lay out the pertinent details, which also involves repetition of certain provisions, indicating emphasis on the importance of the subject. - Qur’an’s method of instruction reveals a pattern of focus and emphasis; that is, focus and emphasis on a set of issues during the years of Prophetic mission (both pre- and post-Hijrah). This, as noted in the relevant curves for the six major themes, points to a maximal point (peak year)64, which is found to be centered – generally – around the mid-point on the curve, with the earlier part of the curve indicating gradual upward movement and the latter part showing gradual downward movement. In other words, while the maximal point indicates that the largest number of verses revealed in a certain year on a certain theme (category) has been greater than other themes (categories), the upward movement points to the preparatory trend65 and the downward movement points to a graduation phase, indicating reiteration and reminding. 66

64 See pp. 69-70 for the discussion in this regard, including the impact of the actual situation (situational context) for the revelation of verses pertaining to various themes (categories); e.g., verses related to the Battles of Badr and Uhud until the conquest of Mecca, or the verses on the arguments (polemics) with the ‘People of the Book’ in the 5th year of Hijrah, and also with regard to the Hypocrites (Monafequn).

65 Ibid., p. 70. As an example, Bazargan writes that the first indications for the coming military battle (Jihad) against the ‘unbelievers’ (Kuffar) is revealed in Verses 148-152 in Chapter Baqara during the 8th year of mission, to be followed six years later in Verse 186 during the first year in Medinah on the general conditions for war (Jihad) and subsequently with the proclamation of war in Verses 245-246 of the same Chapter. In this particular regard, all verses on the preparatory phase of Jihad, starting with Verses 1-5 in Chapter Aadiyat (3rd year of mission) up through the Verses 38- 43 in Chapter Shura (13th year of mission), as well as during the first year of Hijrah, have been discussed in pp. 70-75, Ibid. The gradual revelation of verses relating to the approach towards the ‘People of the Book’ has also been discussed in pp. 75-77, and with regard to the phenomenon of hypocrisy (Hypocrites/Monafequn) in pp. 77-83. In this section, Bazargan also touches on the actual repercussions and consequences of the phenomenon of hypocrisy in religious communities, among Muslims and also in the Christendom – inclusive of the Middle Ages and the post- Rennaisance backlash, and its nefarious effects up to modern times.

66 Ibid., pp. 25-27. While the curves for five major themes (categories) follow a general pattern, the curve for Jihad is somewhat unique. As stated by Bazargan, the verses on ‘Jihad’ follow a particular trend of evolution, they have no secondary subjects, and moreover, they have their own peak year (maximal point). Ibid., p. 28 and pp. 39-40. 31

Part Three – Substantive Evolution As briefly discussed in the previous part on various themes addressed in the course of the 23-year Prophetic mission, the Qur’an contains many verses on these themes and the numerous issues (subjects) falling under each theme (category). By substantive evolution, Bazargan refers to the gradual change in the content of the verses related to these subjects as a function of the year of their revelation. In the last part of the study67, by way of concluding the work, Bazargan proceeds to present the following generalizations, which, in his view, could be inferred from the analysis of the revelation of various verses (groups of verses) addressed and discussed in Part One (Temporal Evolution) and Part Two (Thematic Evolution). In the third part, as in the previous two parts, Bazargan has undertaken to explore whether or not the same principle of evolutionary pattern applies to various issues such as prohibition of drinking alcohol, prostitution, usury, etc. In the introductory words for this section, he asserts that, similar to the previous two parts, his conclusions are not totally new or unique, since the evolutionary feature of revealed verses on various issues has been addressed in the past, both by Muslim scholars (Ulama and commentators) as well as by Western scholars/Orientalists. He organizes his discussion of the evolutionary, gradual feature of the content of revealed verses in four sections: - One, prohibition of drinking alcohol68 and usury69; - Two, such issues as prostitution, adultery70, Jihad71, and hypocrisy72;

67 As already indicated, this part of the 2nd volume of the original work has been published, along with the ‘Substantive Evolution,’ in Volume 13 of the Collected Works.

68 Vol. 13, Op. Cit., pp. 93-97.

69 Ibid., pp. 97-101.

70 Ibid., pp. 103-112.

71 Ibid., pp. 113-153. It is to be noted that this section has been discussed in a much more detailed manner, including through the reproduction of all relevant verses throughout the 23-year mission and the various phases involved. In the course of the discussion, Bazargan also draws attention to the wide gap between the original intent and instructions of the Qur’an on Jihad and the conditions stipulated for its necessity and the well-defined parameters for its execution on 32

- Three, such diverse issues as the creation of mankind73, Prophets Ibrahim74 and Moses75, and the question of ‘purification’ (purification of the soul)76 - as the second most important objective of prophetic mission (Be‘that), second only to the foundational principle of ‘monotheism’ (Tawhid): and - Four, conclusions. Having completed the survey and analysis of the revealed verses on the preceding subjects and issues, Bazargan lays out the following conclusions, which he believes can possibly apply to other issues and themes in the rest of the Qur’an77: - The revealed verses on various themes (topics), fundamental or secondary, when considered as a single verse or as part of a larger whole (Qur’an in its entirety) and also when compared with each other, indicate change and dynamism and yet maintain the essence of the intended (revealed) message. In other words, the overarching objective of the Prophetic mission had been to establish the fundamental principles of belief (faith) in monotheism (monotheistic worldview), prophethood, resurrection, the Hereafter, and the pursuit of a clearly-defined path in the direction of desired human conduct in this world towards the determined eternal life in the Hereafter; - Verses associated with a specific subject matter (theme), whether viewed individually or collectively, serve as part and parcel of a larger system and the one hand, and later understanding and practice among Muslims, particularly contemporary approaches and understandings.

72 Ibid., pp. 153-185. Similar to the case of Jihad, Bazargan’s discussion of the phenomenon of hypocrisy in the Qur’an and the gradual approach to it and how to behave towards the ‘Hypocrites’ is quite detailed and lays out the actual practice of Prophet Muhammad vis-à-vis this phenomenon and those practicing it within the Muslim community.

73 Ibid., pp. 209-220.

74 Ibid., pp. 187-209. In the conclusion of this section, also quite detailed and inclusive of the reproduction of all revealed verses, Bazargan states that the trajectory of all the verses put together points to the central message of the story of Ibrahim – a logical path towards the development of a unitary monotheistic community; substantive change, first and foremost and essentially an internal development and accomplishment within human beings, towards reaching a defined goal.

75 Ibid., pp. 247-268.

76 Ibid., pp. 220-247.

Ibid., p. 269. 77

explain and complement each other. This is to say that a full, proper understanding of the meaning of verses and their provisions is possible through consideration of the specific context for each revealed verse as well as all the associated verses involved. Moreover, every verse is to be understood with regard to the purpose and substance of the chapter it belongs to as well as within the context of its relevant (associated) group; - The substantive evolution of the Qur’an reflects, inter alia, the individual growth and needs of the Prophet and the different groups of people addressed in various verses – inclusive of believers, unbelievers, hypocrites, etc. - as well as the particular environment and events of the time (the rationale for the revelation of various verses relating to different themes or different groups of people); - Verses on major themes (topics) begin with a short declaration of a general nature and gradually progress towards presenting a fuller description and explanation, including through providing historical examples and precedents; and - A clear gradual progression in the articulation of practical rules and regulations (Ahkam/jurisprudence) is discernible; that is, some verses prepare the ground for the ultimate injunction, e.g., as indicated previously in the case of the necessity of Jihad or as relates to the strict prohibition of drinking alcohol.78 ******

Bibliography - Ali Asghar Agah, unpublished translation of the bulk of the original volume of

78 The gradual approach of the Qur’an on this issue is quite educational. The first of the four verses in this regard was revealed in the 6th year of Hijrah (Chapter Nisa’a, 43) enjoining the Muslims to “Approach not prayers with a mind befogged.” The second and third verses (Chapter Mai’da, 90-91) were revealed in the 9th year of Hijrah stating “Intoxication and gambling ….are an abomination” and “….hinder you from the remembrance of God, and from prayers; Will you not abstain?” The last verse, also revealed during the same year (Chapter Baqara, 219), enjoins Muslims [believers] to keep away from those two acts: “They ask thee concerning wine and gambling. Say: In them is great sin, and some profit for men; But the sin is greater than the profit.”

“Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an.” Mr. Agah undertook to translate the volume in the 1980s as a personal initiative and project. His valuable work, however, was left incomplete and never saw the light of the day. The author has found the translation a very useful base and has used it in writing the present essay - especially some of his cogent and precise English equivalents for Qur’anic words and concepts. - Mehdi Bazargan, “Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an”, Collected Works, Volumes 12 and 13, The Cultural Foundation of Mohandes Mehdi Bazargan, Tehran, 1386 SH (2007). - Behnam Sadeghi, The Chronology of the Qur’an: A Stylometric Research Program, Arabica (58) 2011, pp. 210-299. - “Seyr-e Tahawwul-e Qur’an: the Scientific Key to Divine Revelation – Introduction, Review and Critique of the ‘Seyr-e Tahawwl-e Qur’an: The Enduring Work of the late Mohandes Mehdi Bazargan”, Sherekat-e Sahami Enteshar, Tehran, 1389. The bulk of the volume contains the extract of Bazargan’s work as presented by Mr. Mohammad Tavassoli. - Morteza Karimi-Nia, “The Historiography of the Qur’an in the Muslim World: The Inﬂuence of Theodor Nöldeke”, Encyclopedia Islamica Foundation, Tehran.

The author would like to express deep appreciation to a number of colleagues and friends who have graciously read the manuscript at different stages of my work and made extremely helpful comments and observations, raised probing questions, offered numerous suggestions, clarifications and corrections of both lingual and substantive nature, and have indeed contributed significantly to its improvement and enrichment. I find it imperative to register my heartfelt gratitude especially to the following - in alphabetical order: Dr. Ali Asghar Agah, Mr. Abdolali Bazargan, Dr. Mohammad Hossein Bani-asadi (who has read and commented on the draft at several stages), Mr. Farhad Behbahany (for his valuable contribution in laborious preparation of annexed Tables); Dr. Seyyed Ali Mahmoudi, Dr. Mehdi Noorbakhsh, Dr. Ali Paya, and Mr. Mohammad Tavassoli. A word of sincere appreciation is also owed to Dr. Janet Blake, Associate Professor of Law, Shahid Beheshti University, for the kind review of

35 the final draft and gracious offering of a host of corrections and helpful edits. At the end of the day, mother tongue counts!

Annexes

Table 1 The Average Length of Verses in Seven Different Qur’anic Chapters

Chapter Year of Revelation No. of Words No. of Verses Average Length of Verses 1st and 2nd Year of Humaza 34 9 34÷9=3.78 Risalat 4th and 5th Year of Ta-Ha 1308 143 1308÷143=9.15 Risalat

Around the time of A’araf 3262 210 3262÷210=15.53 Hijrah Early Post-Hijrah Anfal 1205 77 1205÷77=15.65 Year Hashr 4th Year of Hijrah 433 24 433÷24=18.04 Around the 6th Nur 1280 65 1280÷65=19.69 Year of Hijrah

Late Post-Hijrah Mai’da 2749 120 2749÷120=22.91 Year

Source: Collected Works, Vol. 12, p. 40.

Table 2 Total No. of Chapters/Verses Revealed per Year and the Corresponding Average Length of Verses Average Length of Year of No. of Verses (No. of Period No. of Verses No. of Words Revelation Chapters Words divided by No. of Verses) 1 26 (A) 262 1023 3.91

2 13 (B) 415 1773 4.27

3 8 (C) 309 2040 6.6

4 7 (D) 445 2478 5.56

) 5 4 (E) 217 2311 10.64

6 4 (F) 266 4028 15.14 ijrah

7 5 (G) 452 3979 8.8 eccan

8 4 (H) 193 2732 14.15

9 3 (I) 410 3877 9.45 (Before H (Before 10 3 (J) 307 3105 10.1

11 4 (K) 451 5393 11.15

12 5 (L) 433 5817 13.43

13 4 (M) 603 10125 16.79

14 4 (N) 45 626 13.9 )

15 3 (O) 51 859 16.84

edina

ijrah

(After (After 16 2 (P) 60 1012 16.86

17 2 (Q) 37 775 20.94

18 2 (R) 96 1634 17.00

19 2 (S) 240 4856 20.23

20 3 (T) 97 1812 18.65

21 2 (U) 104 1791 17.22

22 2 (V) 415 8618 20.76

23 2 (W) 320 7284 22.76

Note (Title of Chapters Revealed in Each Year): 1. Meccan Period

A- Year 1: Fatiha, Nas, Falagh, Ikhlas , Lahab, Nasr, Kafirun, Kauthar, Ma’un, Quraish, Fil, Humaza, Asr, Takathur, Al-Qari’a, Adiat, Zilzal, Iqr’a, Tin, Inshirah, Dhha, Lail, Shams, Balad, Fajr, Qashiyah

B- Year 2: A’la, Tariq, Buruj, Inshiqaq, Tafif, Infitar, Takwir, Abasa, Naziat, Nabaa, Mursalat, Dahr, Qiyamat

C- Year 3: Muddathther, Muzzammil, Jinn , Nuh, Maarij, Haqqa, Qalam, Mulk

D- Year 4: Al-Waqi’a, Rahman, Qamar, Najm, Tur, Zariyat, Qaf

E- Year 5: Ahqaf, Jathiya, Dukhan, Zukhruf

F- Year 6: Shura, Fusselat (Ha-Mim), Mu-min, Zumar

G- Year 7: Sad, Saffat, Ya-Sin, Meleike (Mulk), Saba

H- Year 8: Sajda, Lukman, Rum, Ankabut

I- Year 9: Qasas, Naml, Shu’araa

J- Year 10: Furqan, Mu-minun, Anbiyaa

K- Year 11: Ta-Ha, Maryam, Kahf, Asraa (Bani-Isra’il)

L- Year 12: Nahl, Hijr, Ibrahim, R’ad, Yusuf

M- Year 13: Hud, Yunus, Araf, An’am

2. Medinan Period

N- Year 14: Jamu’a, Tagabun, Munafigun, Qadr

O- Year 15: Saff, Hadid, Baiyina

P- Year 16: Mujadila, Muhammad

Q- Year 17: Mumtahana, Hashr

R- Year 18: Hajj, Hujurat

S- Year 19: Nur, Nisaa

T- Year 20: Ahzab, Tahrim, Talaq

U- Year 21: Fat’h, Anfal

V- Year 22: Tauba, Bagara

W- Year 23: Al-i-Imran, Mai’da

Source: Collected Works, Vol. 12, pp. 43-45.

Table 3 Order of Qur’anic Chapters (Suras) According to Increasing Order of the Average Length of Verses

Title of Average Title of Average Title of Average Title of Average Order Order Order Order Chapter/ Length of Chapter/ Length of Chapter/ Length of Chapter/ Length of No. No. No. No. Sura Verses Sura Verses Sura Verses Sura Verses 1 Ikhlas 3.00 30 Infitar 4.15 59 Mu-minun 8.55 88 Anfal 15.64 2 Abasa 3.11 31 Fajr 4.22 60 Ta-Ha 9.14 89 Shura 15.64 3 A’la 3.12 32 Taabat 4.40 61 Maryam 9.22 90 Saff 15.64 4 Al- 3.27 33 Muddaththir 4.43 62 Zukhruf 9.43 91 Qasas 15.75 Qari’a 5 Shams 3.31 34 Zilzal 4.50 63 Jinn 9.81 92 Lukman 15.82 6 Naas 3.33 35 Falaq 4.60 64 Baiyina 10.00 93 Ahqaf 16.00 7 Kauthar 3.33 36 Fil 4.60 65 Anbiyaa 10.13 94 Hajj 16.15 8 Inshirah 3.37 37 Mutaffefin 4.63 66 Mulk 11.00 95 Yunus 16.31 9 Lail 3.38 38 Asr 4.64 67 Furqan 11.15 96 Fatir 16.48 10 Gashiya 3.38 39 Saffat 4.70 68 Naml 11.96 97 Ahzab 16.66 11 Ma’un 3.42 40 Haqqa 4.80 69 Sajda 12.16 98 Al-i-imran 17.00 12 Dhuha 3.45 41 Buruj 4.86 70 Rum 13.35 99 Hashr 17.00 13 Takathur 3.50 42 Ma’arij 4.90 71 Jathiya 13.60 100 An’am 17.96 14 Mursalat 3.54 43 Rahman 4.96 72 Asra 13.62 101 Hujurat 18.46 15 Takwir 3.55 44 Shuaraa 5.65 73 Tagabun 13.80 102 Baraat 18.83 16 Tin 3.57 45 Najm 5.71 74 Nahl 13.96 103 Nasr 19.00 17 Quraish 3.60 46 Qalam 5.77 75 Muhammad 14.16 104 Hadid 19.02 18 Adiyat 3.63 47 Dukhan 5.81 76 Ankabut 14.17 105 Fat’h 19.03 19 Tariq 3.64 48 Zariyat 5.85 77 Fussilat 14.48 106 R’ad 19.58 20 Alaq 3.73 49 Hijr 5.89 78 Kahf 14.59 107 Nur 19.69 21 Humaza 3.77 50 Qadr 6.00 79 Mu-min 14.69 108 Baqara 20.37 22 Nazi’at 3.84 51 Tur 6.20 80 Hud 14.86 109 Nisaa 21.06 23 Waqi’a 3.88 52 Qamar 6.26 81 Ibrahim 14.92 110 Mujadila 22.19 24 Inshiqaq 3.95 53 Muzzammil 6.36 82 Zumar 15.40 111 Tahrim 22.60 25 Balad 4.00 54 Nuh 6.50 83 Munafiqun 15.45 112 Mai’da 22.90 26 Kafirun 4.00 55 Dahr 7.64 84 A’raf 15.57 113 Talaq 23.58 27 Qiyamat 4.07 56 Qaf 8.15 85 Saba 15.60 114 Mumtahana 23.92 28 Fatiha 4.14 57 Sad 8.21 86 Yusuf 15.61 29 Nabaa 4.14 58 Ya-Sin 8.30 87 Jumu’a 15.63

Source: Collected Works, Vol. 12, p. 49. 41

Table 4 Some Characteristics of 8 Qur’anic Chapters (As Compared with Chapter Anbiyaa)

Main Characteristics Scope(6) Dominant Average Length(2) Height(4) Length(3) Reference Chapters (1) Base/ Mean/ Length(5) Base/ Mean/ Base/ Mean/ Base/ Mean/ Absolute Relative Absolute Relative Absolute Relative Absolute Relative (7) (8)

Ikhlas (112) 3 0.300 2 0.250 50 0.300 2.83 1.73 0.473

Lail (92) 3.38 0.338 3 0.375 43 0.349 3.54 1.98 0.540

Saafat (27) 4.71 0.471 4 0.500 35 0.429 4.66 2.63 0.720

Qamar (54) 6.22 0.622 5 0.625 23.5 0.638 6.28 2.46 0.672

Qaaf (50) 8.16 0.816 7 0.875 17.5 0.857 8.49 2.68 0.732

Furqan (35) 11.15 1.115 9 1.125 14.5 1.034 10.92 4.21 1.151

Yusuf(12) 15.61 1.561 9 1.25 8.4 1.786 14.9 6.07 1.659

Anfal (8) 15.65 1.565 12 1.500 8.75 1.714 15.93 5.69 1.555

Notes: (1) Number in parenthesis in front of the title of the chapter indicates its numerical order in the unified copy of the Qur’an. (2) Number of words in the chapter divided by number of verses. (3) Number of words of verses which comprise the majority in the chapter. 42

(4) The height of apex in the distinctive equivalent curve (plot of % verses versus no. of words/length). (5) Total sum of Relative Main Characteristics divided by 3 and multiplied by 10. (6) Non-proportional spread of distinctive curve to the right or left, compared with its height. (7) Base/Absolute Characteristic is related to the chapter itself. (8) Mean/Relative Characteristic is the chapter Characteristic divided by that of Chapter Anbiyaa; Characteristics of which have been taken as: Average Length=10, Dominant Length=8, Height=15%, Scope=3.66

Source: Collected Works, Vol. 12, p. 70.

Table 5

Statistical Indices of Chapters and Groupings of Verses of the Qur’an

Order Grouping Numbers The Four Characteristics ( No. in Chapte Base Verses Average Dominant the r Title Verses Words Height Scope Length Qur’an Length Length

1 Fatiha Entire chapter All 7 29 4.24

Entire chapter All 286 5980 20.97

A. About 1-19 people 148-152 ’s 154-158 37 436 12.36 behavi 200-205 or, and 245-246 Jihad B. Creation of Adam, and 28-37 294+6 16 15.71 the question of 186-191 =255 2 Baqara war C. Children of Israel, 38-147 110 2106 18.24 Abraham, and Qibla 19-37 153, D. 160-185 Admonitions/ 192-199 107 2485 22.10 glad tidings and 206-243 Legislation 255 263-283

E. Faith-related 159,244 verses 247-254 and long verses 20 698 33.91 256-262 on the People 284-286 of the Book

Entire chapter All 200 3419 18.65

A. Birth of Mary, John, Jesus, People Al-i- 30-176 147 2504 16.53 3 of the Book, Imran and the Battle of Uhud B. About people 1-29 ’s 53 915 17.25 177-200 behavi or

Source: Collected Works, Vol. 12, p. 93. Note: Table 5 covers only the first page of the original table (Table 11, pp. 93-113). It represents the calculated characteristics of only three chapters of the elaborate original Table which covers all 114 chapters of the Qur’an and all the groupings of verses. Presentation of Table 5 here merely serves as a sample for ease of reference. The same logic applies to the preparation of Tables 6-9 below.

Table 6 Temporal Order of Revelation of Chapters and Group of Verses

Revelation Group of Simultaneous Verses and Related Chapters Order Base Length Title of Chapter Ordinal Verses Subject Number Chapter No. 1 2.18 Alaq 96 1 to 5 Beginning of Revelation 2 2.31 Muddaththir 74 1 to 7 Prophetic mission [Risalat] 3 2.34 Asr 103 1 to 2 Time and Man’s fate 4 2.36 Zariyat 51 1 to 6 Declaration of the Day of Resurrection 5 2.67 Takathur 102 1 to 2 About people’s behavior 6 2.67 Tur 52 1 to 8 Declaration of the Day of Resurrection 7 2.83 Ikhlas 112 All Verses Sincerity

8 3.03 Qashiya 88 1 to 5 Description of Heaven and Hell 8 to 16 9 3.08 Tariq 86 11 to 17 Revelation and Prophetic Mission ------20 3.5 Muddaththir 74 8 to 10 Admonitions and Resurrection ------38 4.3 Tin 95 All Verses Fig ------63 5.19 Dukhan 44 43 to 59 Description of Heaven and Hell ------80 6.72 Ta-Ha 20 1 to 54 Moses and Pharaoh

------

92 9.33 Zukhruf 43 1 to 65 Monotheistic argumentation 79 to 89 ------47 to 60 About people’s behavior and the People 166 18.32 Nisaa 4 130 to 148 of the Book 149 to 174 ------194 42.04 Mai’da 5 1 to 9 Long verses on legislation Source: Collected Works, Vol. 12. Table 6 represents a condensed version of the original table 12 (pp. 116-127), which covers all chapters and groups of verses.

Table 7 Proposed Order of Revelation of Groups of Verses in the Qur’anic Chapters and

Comparison with other Sources

Order No. of Revelation Chapter Group of Other Sources Subject Chapter Verses Title No. Verses Shahrestani (1) Blachere (2) Beginning of 1 Alaq 96 1 to 5 1 1 Revelation 1 Subsequent 35 Alaq 96 6 to 19 x x Verses Prophetic 2 Muddaththir 74 1 to 7 4 2 Mission Admonitions 20 Muddaththir 74 8 to 10 and x x 2 Resurrection 11 to 30 Chastisement 27 Muddaththir 74 x x 34 to 55 and Admonition Explanation of 117 Muddaththir 74 31 to 34 x x Angels ------5 7 Ikhlas 112 1 to 4 All Verses 21 43 ------28 to 37 151 Baqara 2 Adam and War 87 91 186 to 191 1 to 9 148 to 152 About people’s 114 Baqara 2 154 to 158 behavior and x x 200 to 205 Jihad 245 to 246 Children of 90 Israel, 180 Baqara 2 38 to 147 x x Abraham, and Qibla 19 to 27 153, Admonitions 203 Baqara 2 160 to 185 and Glad x x 192 to 199 Tidings 206 to 243 47

255, 263 to 283 159, 244 Faith and the 247 to 254 213 Baqara 2 People of the x x 256 to 262 Book 284 to 286 ------Long Verses on 216 Mai’da 5 1 to 9 114 114 Legislation 10 to 14 Ethics, History 162 Mai’da 5 23 to 29 x x and Legislation 37 to 44 Relations with 114 190 Mai’da 5 56 to 88 the People of x x the Book 30 to 36 History and 202 Mai’da 5 x x 89 to 120 Legislation 15 to 22 People of the 212 Mai’da 5 x x 45 to 55 Book Source: Collected Works, Vol. 12. Table 7 represents a much condensed and simplified version of the original table (Table 13, pp. 129-141), which covers the proposed order of revelation for all chapters.

Notes: 1- For Shahrestani, see footnote 52, p. 16 above. 2- For Blachere, see footnote 21, p. 8 above.

Table 8 The Sequence of Revelation of Groups of Verses and Chapters (Inclusive of the Total Number of Words and Verses Revealed During the Entire Period of Prophetic Mission)

Chapter Cumulative Sum Year and Group of Order No. of No. of No. of Period of Qur’anic Simultaneous Revelation Verses Words Revelation Title Ordinal Verses Verses Words No. 1 Alaq 96 1 to 5 5 19 5 19 2 Muddaththir 74 1 to 7 7 16 12 35 3 Asr 103 1 to 2 2 5 14 40 4 Zariyat 51 1 to 6 6 14 20 54 5 Takathur 102 1 to 2 2 5 22 59 6 Tur 52 1 to 8 8 20 30 79 7 Ikhlas 112 1 to 4 4 12 34 91 1 to 5 and 8 to 8 Qashiya 88 14 38 48 129 16 1st Year, Mecca 9 Tariq 86 11 to 17 7 21 55 150 10 Infitar 82 1 to 5 5 17 60 167 11 Shams 91 1 to 10 10 31 70 198 12 Kauthar 108 1 to 3 3 10 73 208 13 A’la 87 1 to 6 and 9 to 8 8 25 81 233 1 to 7 and 12 to 14 Buruj 85 17 55 98 288 22 15 Takwir 81 1 to 29 29 103 127 391

Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed 127 391

nd 2 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed 724 2636 Mecca rd 3 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed 1472 6261 Mecca

th 4 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed ~2014 9900 Mecca

th 5 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed ~2426 13532 Mecca th 6 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed ~2775 17164 Mecca th 7 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed ~3087 20797 Mecca th 8 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed ~3374 24429 Mecca th 9 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed ~3622 28061 Mecca th 10 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed ~3872 31693 Mecca th 11 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed ~4108 35325 Mecca

th 12 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed ~4336 38958 Mecca th 13 Year, Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed ~4572 42590 Mecca Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed during the 13-Year Meccan Period ~4572 42590-96 Total No. of Verses and Words Revealed during the 10-11-Year Medinan Period ~1705 33290-95 Source: Collected Works, Vol. 12. Table 8 represents a much condensed and summarized version of the original table (pp. 148-159), which covers the sequence of revelation for all chapters and verses.

Table 9

Year of Revelation of the Qur’anic Verses

Chapter Verses Year of Qur’anic Order Ordinal Revelation Title Group Subject No. No. No. (1) Fatiha 1 32 43 All Seven Verses Integrated 3B 1-19, 148-152, 154-158, 109 About people’s behavior, Jihad 7B 200-205, 245-246 139 28-37, 186-191 Creation of Adam, War 1A 164 38-147 Children of Israel, Abraham, Qibla 5A Baqara 2 90 19-27, 153,160-185, 192- 183-1 Admonitions and Glad Tidings, and Legislation 9A 199, 206-243, 255, 263-274 183-2 275-283 Admonitions and Glad Tidings 10A 192-1 159, 244, 247-254, 256-259 Faith and the Children of Israel 10A 192-2 260-262, 284-286 Faith and the Children of Israel 11A 154 1-29, 177-200 About people’s behavior 3A Al-i-imran 3 97 151-1 30-93 Birth of Mary, John, and Jesus 2A 151-2 94-176 People of the Book, Battle of Uhud 3A 175 1-45, 61-125 Legislation and Jihad 8A About people’s behavior, and the People of the 166 47-60, 130-174 6A Book, Nisaa 4 104 46, 126-129, 3-4, 6-7, 12-16, 189 Legislation 10A 29-32 149 10-14, 23-29, 37-44 History, Ethics, Legislation 2A 172 56-88 Relations with the People of the Book; 7A Mai’da 5 114 182 30-36, 89-120 History and Legislation 9A 191 15-22, 45-55 People of the Book 10A Monotheistic Argumentation, Prophetic Mission, 125 1-30, 74-82, 105-117 10B and Resurrection 31-73, 83-104, 118-134, An’am 6 81 167 Same as above (No.125) with some Legislation 6A 155-165 187 135-154 Legislation on edibles 10A Creation of Adam, Resurrection, and 155-1 1-30 3A Monotheism Followers of Moses, Monotheism, and 155-2 31-56, 155-175 4A A’raf 7 80 Resurrection 122-1 57-111 Prophets’ arguments with past communities 9B 122-2 112-154, 176-205 Same as above (No.122-1) 10B 51

143-1 1-60 1A Anfal 8 93 Integrated 143-2 61-76 2A 177 1-37 No pact with Polytheistic traitors 8A Baraat 9 109 159 38-71 Hypocrites 4A 169 72-130 Believers, Unbelievers, and Hypocrites 7A Reasoning on Monotheism and Prophetic 160 1-71 4A Yunus 10 84 Mission 128 72-109 Past Prophets and communities 11B 118-1 1-24 8B Hud 11 77 Integrated 118-2 25-123 9B Yusuf 12 85 129 1-111 Integrated 11B 168-1 1-12 6A Ra’d 13 105 Integrated 168-2 13-43 7A Prophetic Mission, Monotheism, and Abraham’s 137 1-42, excl. Verses 6 & 36 12B Prayers Ibrahim 14 68 105 43-52 Glad Tidings and Resurrection 7B 180 6, 36 Verses in Medina 9A 67 1-5, 49-99 Glad Tidings and Prophetic Mission 3B Hijr 15 54 83 6-48 Reasoning on Faith 4B 1-34, 43-66, 67-91A, 107 Monotheism, Education, and Unity in Religion 7B 100-107, 121-129 Nahl 16 69 148 35-42, 67-91, 108-120 Monotheistic argument, and Legislation 2A 162 91B-99 Ethics and Legislation 5A Table 9 (Contd.)

Chapter Verses Year of Qur’anic Order Ordinal Revelation Title Group Subject No. No. No. (1) 121 1-8, 84-102 Children of Israel, Revelation, and Knowledge 9B Bani- 17 72 112 9-54, 63-67, 103-111, 73-83 Knowledge, Education, and Resurrection 8B Israil/Asra 146 55-62, 68-72 Ethics, Monotheism, and Prophecy 2A 108 1-7, 59-110 Story of Dhul- Qarnayn 7B Kahf 18 70 176 8-27 Seven Sleepers of Ephesus 8A Story of two gardens, Worldly life, and 135 28-58 12B Resurrection 1-34, 42-75(excl.16 mid. 98 Birth of Jesus 6B words of verse 59) Maryam 19 64 106 35-41, 16 words of verse 59 About Jesus 7B 81 76-98 Warning about Polytheism 4B 80 1-54 Mission of Moses and Pharaoh 4B Ta-Ha 20 53 103-1 55-73 6B Sorcery, Samiri, and the Story of Adam 103-2 74-135 7B 94-1 1-10 5B Anbiyaa 21 62 Integrated 94-2 11-112 6B Monotheism, Resurrection, Pilgrimage, and 153 1-17, 31-42, 69-77 3A Hajj 22 99 Jihad 124 18-30, 43-68 Abraham, Pilgrimage, and Jihad 10B 64 1-11 Glad Tidings and Believers 3B Mu-minun 23 60 90 12-118 Monotheism, Education, and Resurrection 5B 163 1-33 Chastity and witness 5A Nur 24 102 190 34-44, 57-64 Faith and Legislation 10A 123 45-56 About people’s behavior 10B Furqan 25 66 102 1-77 Integrated 6B 84 1-51 Moses in Egypt 4B Shu’araa 26 55 65 52-227 Moses after leaving Egypt, and other Prophets 3B 52

Naml 27 73 114 1-95 Integrated 8B 130-1 1-44 Moses - from Birth to Prophecy 11B Qasas 28 86 130-2 45-46, 85-88, 47-75 Prophecy and Divinity 12B 174 76-84 The story of Korah [Qarun] 7A Ankabut 29 82 126 1-69 Integrated 10B 101 1-26 First one third of the Chapter 6B Rum 30 79 120 27-60 Last two thirds of the Chapter 9B Qur’an, About people’s behavior, and 100 1-10 6B Lukman 31 88 Monotheism 136 11-34 Metaphysics and Knowledge 12B 110-1 1-26 7B Sajda 32 71 Integrted 110-2 27-30 8B 93 1-3, 7-8, 41-47, 63-68 Background to Meccan Verses 5B 165-1 4-6, 9-22 Medinan Verses, Hypocrites, and Battle of 5A Ahzab 33 103 165-2 23-40, 48-52, 69-73, 56-62 Ahzab 6A 193 53-55 Long verses on Legislation 11A 158 1-9 Monotheism, and Resurrection 4A Saba 34 83 127-1 10-12 10B Story of David 127-2 13-54 11B 1-3, 9-13, 23 words of verse 185 Medinan Verses 10A 19 Fatir 35 91 4-45 excl. verses 9-13 and 140 Meccan Verses 1A part of verse 19 Ya-Sin 36 59 88 1-83 Integrated 5B Saffat 37 43 58 1-182 Integrated 3B 86 1-24, 29-66 Prophets and Glad Tidings 5B Sad 38 57 66 67-88 Creation and Resurrection 3B 134 25-28 Monotheism and Education 12B

Table 9 (Contd.)

Chapter Verses Year of Qur’anic Order Ordinal Revelation Title Group Subject No. No. No. (1) 141 1-29, 39-53 Monotheism, Resurrection and Qur’an 1A Zumar 39 74 115 30-38, 54-66 Death, Resurrection, and Repentance 8B 157 67-75 Resurrection and Different Groups of People 4A 113 1-6, 54-62 God’s Help and Polytheists’ Denial 8B Mu-min 40 87 132 7-53, 63-85 Pharaoh’s People and God’s Will 12B 91 1-7 Qur’an and Prophetic Mission vs Polytheists 5B Fussilat 41 78 119 8-38 God, Resurrection, and Knowledge 9B Reasoning on Resurrection, Qur’an and 145 39-54 2A Monotheism 138-1 1-14 12B Shura 42 89 Integrated 138-2 15-53 1A 92 1-65, 79-89 Monotheistic Argumentation 5B Zukhruf 43 61 76 66-78 Resurrection 4B 73 1-42 Revelation, Resurrection, and Past Communities 4B Dukhan 44 50 63 43-59 Heaven and Hell 3B Jathiya 45 75 116 1-36 Integrated 8B 147 1-13, 26-27 Monotheism, Prophecy and Perseverance 2A Ahqaf 46 95 178-1 14-25, 28-31 8A Parents, Jin and Warnings 178-2 32-35 9A Muhammad 47 92 142 1-40 Integrated 1A 53

Fat-h 48 106 170 1-29 Integrated 7A Hujurat 49 108 173 1-18 Integrated 7A Qaf 50 58 87 1-45 Integrated 5B 4 1-6 Declaration of Resurrection 1B Zariyat 51 47 70 7-60 Reasoning and Warning 4B 6 1-8 Declaration of Resurrection 1B Tur 52 4 75 9-20, 22-28 Description of Heaven and Hell 4B 82 21, 29-49 Monotheistic argumentation 4B 29 1-25(excl. verse 23) Declaration of Revelation vs Idols 2B Najm 53 22 133 23, 26-33 Reproach of Polytheists 12B About people’s behavior, Monotheism and 56 34-62 3B Warning Qamar 54 48 71 1-55 Integrated 4B 41 1-6, 46-77, 9-27 Creation and the Bounty of Heaven 2B Rahman 55 31 78 7-8, 28-45, 78 Reproach and Punishment 4B Waqi’a 56 30 40 1-96 Integrated 2B 161-1 1-8 4A Hadid 57 101 Integrated 161-2 9-29 5A Mujadila 58 111 181 1-29 Integrated 9A Hashr 59 100 156 1-24 Integrated 4A Mumtahana 60 112 184 1-13 Integrated 10A Saff 61 94 144 1-14 Integrated 2A Jum’a 62 96 150 1-11 Integrated 2A Munafiqun 63 98 152 1-11 Integrated 3A Tagabun 64 76 117 1-18 Integrated 8B 188 1-7 Legislation 10A Talaq 65 107 171 8-12 Monotheism and Warning 7A Tahrim 66 113 186 1-12 Integrated 10A Mulk 67 67 104 1-30 Integrated 7B 52 1-16 Objections to Polytheists 3B Qalam 68 49 72 17-52 Monotheism, Warning, and Punishment 4B

Table 9 (Contd.)

Chapter Verses Year of Qur’anic Order Ordinal Revelation Title Group Subject No. No. No. (1) 60 1-3, 13-37 Resurrection 3B 68-1 4-6 3B Haqqa 69 34 Past Communities 68-2 7-12 4B 45 38-52 Revelation and Prophetic Mission 3B 74 1-4, 36-44 Discussion on Resurrection 4B Ma’arij 70 44 23 5-18 Occurrence of Resurrection and Warning 2B About people’s behavior and Description of 61 19-35 3B Believers Nuh 71 51 77 1-29 Integrated 4B Jinn 72 63 95 1-28 Integrated 6B 79 1-19 Main Verses 4B Muzzammil 73 52 131 20 The Last Verse 12B 2 1-7 Prophetic Mission 1B Muddaththir 74 2 20 8-10 Resurrection 2B 27 11-30, 34-55 Reproach of Polytheists 2B 54

111 31-34 Explanation of Angels 8B 39 1-6, 14-19 Time of Resurrection 2B Qiyamat 75 28 37 7-13, 20-40 Occurrence of Resurrection and Human oblivion 2B 85-1 1-29 4B Dahr 76 56 Integrated 85-2 30, 31 5B Mursalat 77 19 25 1-50 Integrated 2B 26 1-36 Glad Tidings and Reasoning on Resurrection 2B Nabaa 78 20 96 37-41 Warning on Resurrection 6B 19 1-26 Warning on Resurrection 2B Nazi’at 79 16 46 27-46 Reasoning and Explanation 3B Abasa 80 24 32 1-43 Integrated 2B Takwir 81 12 15 1-29 Integrated 1B 10 1-5 Occurrence of Resurrection 1B Infitar 82 7 59 6-20 Warning and Resurrection 3B Mutaffefin 83 45 62 1-36 Integrated 3B Inshiqaq 84 23 31 1-25 Integrated 2B 13, 14 1-7, 12-22 Warning 1B Buruj 85 11 97 8-11 Explanation 6B 55 1-10 Reasoning on Resurrection 3B Tariq 86 6 Emphasis on Revelation and the Prophet’s 9 11-17 1B Honesty 13 1-6, 8-9 Reminder 1B A’la 87 10 42-1 7, 10-14 2B About people’s behavior 42-2 15-19 3B 8, 9 1-5, 8-16 Description of Heaven and Hell 1B Gashiya 88 27 36 6-7, 17-26 Reasoning on Monotheism and Warning 2B 30 1-13, 28-31 Warning and Glad Tiding 2B Fajr 89 40 About people’s behavior, and Warning on 53 14-27 3B Resurrection Balad 90 37 49 1-20 Integrated 3B 11 1-10 About people’s behavior and Education 1B Shams 91 8 24 11-16 Admonitory stories 2B Lail 92 17 21 1-21 Integrated 2B Consoling and supporting the Prophet, and Dhuha 93 14 17 1-8, 9-11 2B Education Inshirah 94 13 16 1-8 Integrated 2B Tin 95 29 38 1-8 Integrated 2B 1 1-5 Dawn of Revelation 1B Alaq 96 1 35 6-19 Subsequent Verses 2B

Table 9 (Contd.)

Chapter Verses Year of Qur’anic Order Ordinal Revelation Title Group Subject No. No. No. (1) Qadr 97 46 69 1-5 Integrated 4B Baiyina 98 65 99 1-8 Integrated 6B Zilzal 99 41 54 1-8 Integrated 3B Adiyat 100 33 44 1-11 Integrated 3B Al-Qari’a 101 42 57 1-8 Integrated 3B Takathur 102 38 5 1-2 First two Verses 1B

50 3-8 Next six Verses 3B 3 1-2 First two Verses 1B Asr 103 3 89 3 Last Verse 5B Humaza 104 25 33 1-9 Integrated 2B Fil 105 39 51 1-5 Integrated 3B Quraish 106 21 28 1-5 Integrated 2B Ma’un 107 18 22 1-7 Integrated 2B Kauthar 108 9 12 1-3 Integrated 1B Kafirun 109 26 34 1-6 Integrated 2B Nasr 110 110 179 1-3 Integrated 9A Taabat 111 35 47 1-5 Integrated 3B Ikhlas 112 5 7 1-4 Integrated 1B Falaq 113 36 48 1-5 Integrated 3B Nas 114 15 18 1-6 Integrated 2B

(1) A= After Hijrah , B= Befor Hijrah Source: Collected Works, Vol. 12, pp. 174-189. Table 9 represents a somewhat condensed and consolidated version of the original Table 15 and reflects its essence and fundamental findings.

Table 10 Distribution of Major Themes in the Qur’an (In terms of the Number of Verses and Percentages)

Order of Importance Theme/Subject No. of Verses % of Total Qur’anic Verses The Prophetic Mission (Discussion 1 and reasoning on Monotheism, 1952 27.9 Revelation and the Qur’an) 2 Day of Resurrection and the Hereafter 1633 23.4 3 Mission of Previous Prophets 1615 23.1 Islamic Ummah and the Prophet’s 4 772 11.1 Contemporaries 5 Jurisprudence [Sharia] 503 7.2 6 Jihad 266 3.8 7 Others [Miscellaneous] 244 3.5 Total 6985 100

Source: Collected Works, Vol. 13, P. 29.

The Chronology of the Qurʾān: A Stylometric Research Program

Behnam Sadeghi

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