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Young, Wollongong Ognjen Bonacci Karst Hydrology With Special Reference to the Dinaric Karst With 119 Figures Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo Professor Dr. OGNJEN BONACCI Civil Engineering Institute Faculty of Civil Engineering Sciences University of Split 58000 Split, V. Maslese b.b. Yugoslavia Translated by Zjena Vidovic-Culic ISBN-13: 978-3-642-83167-6 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-83165-2 DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-83165-2 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Bonacci, Ognjen, 1942- Karst hydrology, with special reference to the Dinaric karst. (Springer series in physical environment ; 2) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Hydrology, Karst. 2. Hydrology, Karst-Dinaric Alps. I. Title. II. Series. GB843.B66 1987 551.49 This work is subject to copyright. 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Typesetting: K + V Fotosatz GmbH, Beerfelden. 2132/3130-543210 To my family Preface Karst is characterized particularly by special landforms and sub­ surface drainage. The various actions of water result in numerous variations of surface and sub-surface karst forms. They also bring about distinctive geologic-morphologic forms, and more striking­ ly, specific flora and fauna. The scientific discipline of hydrology, although a long-established science, cannot easily be applied to karst regions with their very complex drainage system. A special approach is therefore necessary to understand and predict water circulation in these areas. This is the viewpoint we must adopt if hydrology is to solve the complex problems of karst phenomena. This book can be seen as the appeal of a hydrologist to experts from different scientific dis­ ciplines (geology, hydrology, geomorphology, geography, geo­ physics, meteorology, ecology, civil engineering, forestry, agricul­ ture, etc.) to collaborate towards a better understanding of karst areas. Evidently, karst phenomena have not been sufficiently and carefully studied worldwide. It is equally true that the first theories on water circulation in karst were developed according to ex­ periences in the Dinaric karst. This can easily be explained. In­ habitants in those areas had no place to which to escape, as was the case in other countries. The greatest part of this book (ca. 70070) gives a general ap­ proach to this phenomenon of karst; however, numerous practical examples are also presented. The majority of the examples refer to the Dinaric karst areas, but there are numerous examples from the other parts of the world also (United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, Switzerland, etc.). The approach is primarily hydrological, but the book is written so as to build a bridge over the gaps be­ tween experts from various scientific fields related to karst. Close scientific cooperation between experts from various countries will ensure an optimal exploitation of water and the conservation of this natural resource for future generations. The careful and extensive study of the water circulation in karst involves numerous, well-organized measurements and detailed scientific analyses. Man's work in karst regimes has not always been beneficial; on the contrary, it has caused serious damage. This book may help to avoid and minimize these harmful effects. VIII Preface It covers 15 years of my work, with special emphasis on the research carried out during the last 10 years (1976-1986), i.e. since I came to live in Split and work at the Faculty of Civil Engineering. However, it also includes experiences of experts from Yugoslavia and other countries. Accordingly, I should like to thank them all for sharing these experiences and their knowledge, and apologize to any colleagues I have inadvertently not mentioned. My special thanks to my close collaborators in writing this book: Sanja Roglic-Perica for the many numerical and computer calculations, Zjena Vidovic-Culic for her translation into English, Myrna Svica­ revic for the proof-reading of the English text, Suzana Blazevic for typing and Zlata Rogosic for the well-drawn figures. This book would never have been written without the support of my family: my wife Tanja and my children Duje, Dunja, and Lada. They have been most affected by the problems related to the writing of this book, but I hope they will also benefit from it. I should like to thank Professor Dietrich Barsch (Heidelberg), Pro­ fessor Jean Nicod (Aix-en-Provence), and Dr. Marjorie Sweeting (Oxford) for helpful suggestions which contributed to increasing the quality of the book. Finally, I should like to express my deep gratitude to the publisher, Springer-Verlag, and particularly to Dr. W. Engel for his beneficial cooperation in the final formation of this book. The publishers and Dr. Engel immediately and clearly grasped the importance of the specific approach presented in this book and its significance in the field of physical environment. Split, August 1987 OGNJEN BONACCI Contents 1 Introduction . ................................ 2 Karst Terminology - Definitions ................ 4 3 Principles of Karst Groundwater Circulation ...... 18 3.1 Subcutaneous Zone (Epikarstic Zone) ............ 28 3.2 Karstification Depth and Karst Capacity for Water Storage ...................................... 36 4 Karst Springs ................................. 49 4.1 General Concept and Classification .............. 49 4.2 Discharge Curves .............................. 67 4.3 Hydrograph Analysis .......................... 75 4.4 Determination of the Catchment Area ........... 81 4.5 The Origin of Brackish Karst Springs ............ 97 5 Swallow Holes (Ponors) ........................ 103 5.1 Introduction. .. .. .. .. 103 5.2 Determination of the Swallow Capacity of Ponors 103 6 Natural Streamflows in Karst ................... 116 6.1 Interaction Between Groundwater and Water in the Open Streamflows ............................. 116 6.2 Hydrologic Regime of Rivers in Karst ............ 120 6.3 Water Losses Along the Open Streamflows in Karst 124 7 Hydrologic Budget for the Poljes in Karst 136 8 Water Temperature in Karst ..................... 141 8.1 Introduction. 141 8.2 Groundwater Temperature in Karst .............. 141 8.3 The Water Temperature of Springs and Open Stream flows in Karst ........................... 145 x Contents 9 Man's Influence on the Water Regime in the Karst Terrains ...................................... 150 9.1 Water Storage. .. .. 151 9.2 Increase in the Capacity of the Outlet Structures .. 159 9.3 Surface Hydrotechnical Works .................. 167 9.4 Action on the Groundwater. .. 168 9.5 Usage of the Karst Spring Water ................ 169 9.6 The Development of the Brackish Karst Springs 171 References ......................................... 175 Geographical and Subject Index ...................... 181 1 Introduction Karst represents a specific area consisting of surface relief and a surface­ underground hydrographic network resulting from the water circulation and its aggressive chemical and physical action in joints, fractures and cracks along the layers of soluble rocks, such as limestone, chalk and dolomite as well as gypsum and salt. Karst is characterized by soluble rocks located near or at the surface. The karstification process results from the physical and chemical water action on the solution and transportation of elements from the rocks. The power of water solubility in contact with rocks depends on the water temperature and its chemical composition, with the dominant component being CO2• The coarseness of grain size is an important factor in limestone dissolution. It effects the chemical quality of karst waters (Sweeting 1973). The fineness of grain affects the solubility of the rock. Sweeting (1973) has concluded, after laboratory experiments on dolomites from Ontario, that the finer grained dolomites are about twice as soluble as the 'coarser grained beds. Owing to specific geologic and geomorphologic, and par­ ticularly hydraulic characteristics, karst areas exhibit