Women in Medicine

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Women in Medicine An Encyclopedia

Laura Lynn Windsor

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Windsor, Laura Women in medicine: An encyclopedia / Laura Windsor p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1–57607-392-0 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Women in medicine—Encyclopedias. [DNLM: 1. Physicians, Women—Biography. 2. Physicians, Women—Encyclopedias—English. 3. Health Personnel—Biography. 4. Health Personnel—Encyclopedias—English. 5. Medicine—Biography. 6. Medicine—Encyclopedias—English. 7. Women—Biography. 8. Women—Encyclopedias—English. WZ 13 W766e 2002] I. Title.

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Contents

Foreword, Nancy W. Dickey, M.D., xi Preface and Acknowledgments, xiii Introduction, xvii

Women in Medicine

Abbott, Maude Elizabeth Seymour, 1 Blanchfield, Florence Aby, 34 Abouchdid, Edma, 3 Bocchi, Dorothea, 35 Acosta Sison, Honoria, 3 Boivin, Marie Anne Victoire Gillain, 35 Alexander, Hattie Elizabeth, 4 Bourgeois, Louise, 36 Ali, Safieh, 5 Britton, Mary E., 37 Alvord, Lori Arviso, 5 Brown, Dorothy Lavinia, 37 American Medical Women’s Association, 6 Brown, Edith Mary, 38 American Women’s Hospitals, 7 Brown, Rachel Fuller, 39 Andersen, Dorothy Hansine, 7 Brundtband, Gro Harlem, 39 Anderson, Charlotte Morrison, 8 Budzinski-Tylicka, Justine, 40 Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, 8 Angwin, Maria Louisa, 10 Calverley, Eleanor Jane Taylor, 41 Apgar Score System, 11 Canady, Alexa Irene, 41 Apgar, Virginia, 11 Chevandier Law of 1892, 42 Ashby, Winifred Mayer, 13 Chinn, May Edward, 42 Aspasia, 14 Claypole, Edith Jane, 43 Avery, Mary Ellen, 14 Cleveland, Emeline Horton, 44 Cobb, Jewel Plummer, 44 Bacheler, Mary Washington, 17 Cole, Rebecca, 45 Bain, Barbara, 18 Comnena, Anna, 45 Baker, Sara Josephine, 18 Comstock Act of 1873, 46 Balfour, Margaret Ida, 19 Conley, Frances Krauskopf, 46 Barnes, Alice Josephine, 20 Cori, Gerty Theresa Radnitz, 47 Barriers to Success, 20 Correia, Elisa, 48 Barringer, Emily Dunning, 23 Craighill, Margaret D., 49 Barry, James, 24 Crosby, Elizabeth Caroline, 49 Barton, Clara (Clarissa Harlowe), 25 Crumpler, Rebecca Lee, 50 Bassi, Laura Maria Caterina, 26 Curie, Marie Sklodowska, 50 Bayerova, Anna, 27 Biheron, Marie Catherine, 27 Dalle Donne, Maria, 55 Blackwell, Elizabeth, 27 Daly, Marie Maynard, 55 Blackwell, Emily, 33 Daniel, Annie Sturges, 56

vii Contents

Darrow, Ruth Renter, 56 Hazen, Elizabeth Lee, 92 Dayhoff, Margaret Oakley, 57 He Manqiu, 93 Dejerine-Klumpke, Augusta, 57 Healy, Bernadine, 94 Delano, Jane Arminda, 57 Heikel, Rosina, 94 Dempsey, Sister Mary Joseph, 58 Hemenway, Ruth V., 95 Dengal, Anna Maria, 59 Hildegard of Bingen, 96 Diaz Inzunza, Eloiza, 59 Hoby, Lady Margaret, 96 Dick, Gladys Rowena Henry, 60 Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot, 96 Dickens, Helen Octavia, 61 Honzakova, Anna, 98 Dickey, Nancy Wilson, 62 Hoobler, Icie Gertrude Macy, 98 Dix, Dorothea Lynde, 62 Horney, Karen Theodora Clementina Dmitrieva, Valentina Ionovna, 64 Danielsen, 99 Dock, Lavinia Lloyd, 64 Hubbard, Ruth, 100 Dolley, Sarah Read Adamson, 65 Hugonay, Countess Vilma, 101 du Coudray, Angelique Marguerite, 66 Hyde, Ida Henrietta, 102 Dufferin Fund, 67 Dunn, Thelma Brumfield, 67 Inglis, Elsie Maude, 103 Durocher, Marie Josefina Mathilde, 68 Dyer, Helen Marie, 68 Jacobi, Mary Corinna Putnam, 105 Jacobs, Aletta Henriette, 107 Edinburgh School of Medicine, 69 Jalas, Rakel, 108 Elders, Minnie Joycelyn, 69 Jemison, Mae Carol, 108 Elion, Gertrude Belle, 70 Jex-Blake, Sophia Louisa, 109 Emerson, Gladys Anderson, 71 Johns Hopkins University, 111 Erxleben, Dorothea Christiana, 72 Joliet-Curie, Irene, 112 Eskelin, Karolina, 73 Jones, Mary Amanda Dixon, 113 Evans, Alice Catherine, 73 Jones, Mary Ellen, 115 Jordan, Lynda, 115 Fabiola, Saint, 75 Joteyko, Josephine, 116 Farquhar, Marilyn Gist, 75 Felicie, Jacoba, 76 Kagan, Helena, 117 Female Genital Mutilation, 76 Kaufman, Joyce Jacobson, 117 Fenselau, Catherine Clarke, 76 Kelsey, Frances Oldham, 118 Ferguson, Angela Dorothea, 77 Kenny, Elizabeth, 118 Flexner Report, 78 Kenyon, Josephine Hemenway, 120 Footbinding, 78 Klein, Melanie, 121 Fowler, Lydia Folger, 79 Krajewska, Teodora, 122 Franklin, Martha Minerva, 79 Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth, 122 Franklin, Rosalind Elsie, 80 Freud, Anna, 81 Lachapelle, Marie-Louise Duges, 125 Friend, Charlotte, 82 LaFlesche Picotte, Susan, 125 Fulton, Mary Hannah, 82 Lancefield, Rebecca Craighill, 126 Lazarus, Hilda, 127 Geneva Medical College, 85 L’Esperance, Elise Depew Strang, 128 Giliani, Alessandra, 85 Levi-Montalcini, Rita, 128 Goodrich, Annie Warburton, 85 Longshore, Hannah Myers, 130 Gordon, Doris Clifton Jolly, 87 Lopez, Rita Lobato Velho, 131 Guangzhou, China, 87 Lovejoy, Esther Clayson Pohl, 131 Luisi, Paulina, 132 Hamilton, Alice, 89 Lyon, Mary Frances, 132 Han Suyin, 91 Hautval, Adelaide, 92 Mabie, Catharine Louise Roe, 133

viii Contents

Macklin, Madge Thurlow, 134 Quimby, Edith Hinkley, 169 Macnamara, Dame Annie Jean, 134 Mahoney, Mary Eliza, 135 Ramsey, Mimi, 171 Malahlele, Mary Susan, 136 Remond, Sarah Parker, 171 Mandl, Ines, 136 Richards, Ellen Henrietta Swallow, 172 Manley, Audrey Forbes, 136 Richards, Linda (Melinda Ann Judson), 173 McClintock, Barbara, 137 Robb, Isabel Hampton, 174 McGee, Anita Newcomb, 138 Rodriguez-Dulanto, Laura Esther, 175 McKinnon, Emily H. S., 139 Russell Gurney Enabling Act of 1876, 175 Medical Act of 1858, 139 Ruys, A. Charlotte, 175 Medical College of Pennsylvania, 139 Medical Women’s International Association el Saadawi, Nawal, 177 (MWIA), 140 Sabin, Florence Rena, 178 Mendenhall, Dorothy Reed, 141 Salber, Eva Juliet, 179 Mendoza-Gauzon, Marie Paz, 142 Salpêtrière Asylum, 179 Mergler, Marie Josepha, 142 Sanger, Margaret, 180 Miller, Jean Baker, 142 Saunders, Cicely Mary Strode, 181 Minoka-Hill, Lillie Rosa, 143 Scharlieb, Mary Ann Dacomb Bird, 182 Mission Work, 144 Scottish Women’s Hospitals, 182 Montoya, Matilde, 146 Scudder, Ida Sophia, 183 Morani, Alma Dea, 146 Seacole, Mary Jane Grant, 184 Murray, Flora, 146 Seibert, Florence Barbara, 184 Sewall, Lucy Ellen, 185 Neufeld, Elizabeth Fondal, 147 Shaibany, Homa, 186 New England Female Medical College, 147 Sheppard-Towner Act of 1921, 186 New England Hospital, 148 Sherrill, Mary Lura, 187 New Hospital for Women and Children, Siegemundin, Justine Dittrichin, 187 149 Solis, Manuela, 187 Nielsen, Nielsine Mathilde, 149 Solis Quiroga, Margarita Delgado de, 187 Nightingale, Florence, 149 Spaangberg-Holth, Marie, 188 Novello, Antonia Coello, 152 Spoerry, Anne, 188 Nusslein-Volhard, Christiane, 153 Stern, Lina Solomonova, 188 Nutting, Mary Adelaide, 154 Steward, Susan Maria Smith McKinney, 189 Stewart, Alice, 190 Ockett, Molly, 157 Stone, Emma Constance, 191 Ogino, Ginko, 157 Stowe, Emily, 191 Osborn, June Elaine, 157 Sundquist, Alma, 192 Swain, Clara A., 192 Paget, Mary Rosalind, 159 Sylvain, Yvonne, 193 Pak, Esther Kim, 159 Parrish, Rebecca, 160 Taussig, Helen Brooke, 195 Pearce, Louise, 160 Thompson, Mary Harris, 197 Perez, Ernestina, 161 Tilghman, Shirley Marie Caldwell, 198 Perozo, Evangelina Rodriguez, 161 Trout, Jennie Kidd, 198 Petermann, Mary Locke, 161 Turner-Warwick, Margaret, 199 Pickett, Lucy Weston, 162 Pittman, Margaret, 162 University of Bologna, 201 Pool, Judith Graham, 163 University of Salerno, 202 Possanner-Ehrenthal, Garbrielle, 163 Preston, Ann, 163 Van Hoosen, Bertha, 203 Public Health and Women, 165 Vejjabul, Pierra Hoon, 203 Villa, Amelia Chopitea, 204

ix Contents

Villa-Komaroff, Lydia, 204 Widerstrom, Karolina, 215 Williams, Anna Wessels, 215 Wald, Florence Schorske, 207 Williams, Cicely Delphin, 216 Wald, Lillian D., 208 Women of Color in Medicine, 217 Walker, Mary Broadfoot, 209 Wong-Staal, Flossie, 220 Walker, Mary Edwards, 209 Wright, Jane Cooke, 221 Wars and Epidemics, 210 Wauneka, Annie Dodge, 212 Yalow, Rosalyn Sussman, 223 Weizmann, Vera, 213 Yoshioka, Yayoi, 224 Western Reserve College, 214 Wetterhahn, Karen Elizabeth, 214 Zakrzewska, Marie Elizabeth, 225 Whately, Mary Louisa, 214 Bibliography, 227 Index, 239 About the Author, 259

x Foreword

In any arena there is a need for compiled mentors and the impact of previous pio- data to delineate milestones, identify neers on the subsequent generations. Al- pathfinders and leaders, and document the though the primary role of this encyclope- progress. Laura Lynn Windsor has done just dia may be compilation of data for historical that for the issues surrounding women in research purposes, there may well be those the profession of medicine. This work who will turn its pages and find encourage- should be of assistance to those writing or ment for their own dreams—mentors not speaking on the topic of women in medicine yet met who can bridge across time to en- and, while the work is comprehensive in courage a young lady to reach further, data covered, it serves as well as a timely dream bigger, and then just do it! update on recent additions. Although women who aspire to a role in As the material is reviewed, it is notewor- medicine may be appreciative of those who thy that while some may argue that women came before, clearly our patients and com- have achieved equity, a substantial number munities have much for which to be grateful of the entries represent the last quarter of as well. From scientific discovery that the twentieth century and virtually all of the changed lives to commitment to public entries represent barely a century of effort. health and well-being, women have raised Although there is work yet to be done, per- standards, created new understanding, and haps there is encouragement in so much al- touched lives. Ms. Windsor is to be ap- ready accomplished, challenged and con- plauded for creating an encyclopedia that quered—dreamt of, then realized. includes so much humanity amidst its data Throughout these pages, Ms. Windsor and facts. has done a nice job of identifying important Nancy W. Dickey, M.D.

Preface and Acknowledgments

I hold it a noble task to rescue from The volume is arranged alphabetically oblivion those who deserve to be eternally and includes cross-references where appro- remembered. priate. Each biographical entry concentrates —Pliny the Younger on the woman and her accomplishments as opposed to a long litany of discrimination As a reference librarian for more than fifteen she faced in male-dominated institutions. It years, I was surprised to find no one-vol- seems that the hardships faced by women ume reference work on women in medicine. along the way are well documented and do There are many out-of-print books on not need to be a focal point in each entry. women and the medical profession, as well However, specific incidents are mentioned as some current, more general books on if they had a significant impact on the women and science, but it is certainly time woman’s medical career. to make room for a reference book focused I attempted to include women from out- on women in medical science. Despite of- side North America and Western Europe, al- ten-hostile work environments, women though information was often scant. Many have contributed to phenomenal progress in of these women broke new ground and many fields, especially in the last half of the should be recognized as pioneers who twentieth century. I know this volume will forged ahead where there were no mentors fill a void in my library, and I hope others or role models. Those who left positive lega- find it useful as well. cies were certainly not forgotten in their This work compiles biographies of a own countries. number of women who throughout history The entries “Mission Work” and “Wars have made a significant impact on medi- and Epidemics” examine two areas where cine. They have demonstrated tremendous women found fewer barriers to their partici- talent and insight in caring for the sick; in pation in medicine. The “Barriers to Success” advancing research on numerous diseases entry looks at women’s overall struggle to such as cancer and AIDS; and in establish- achieve in medicine, and the “Public Health ing and running hospitals, colleges, and and Women” entry examines a twentieth- government agencies. They contributed im- century window of opportunity for women. pressive intellectual gifts and great organi- Even societies that resisted conversion to zational skills to many medical specialties, a new faith often accepted medical help serving as role models for women today from women missionaries. In some cases, who desire to become physicians in a pro- cultural norms allowed only women physi- fession still dominated by men. This ency- cians for female patients. During wartime clopedia focuses on women physicians, and epidemics, women advanced medical nurses, and researchers in particular but procedures around the globe as they re- also includes related entries on institutions, sponded to calls for additional practitioners medical terms, and social issues relevant to or served disadvantaged populations. De- women in medicine. spite these ostensible steps forward, when

xiii Preface and Acknowledgments the crisis was past and social norms were re- included, such as Rossiter’s Women Scien- instated, women were again subject to lim- tists in America: Struggles and Strategies to ited opportunities. 1940 (1982); Kass-Simon and Farnes’s Women of color have encountered even Women of Science (1990); Sammons’s Blacks more obstacles in pursuing medical careers. in Science and Medicine (1990); Bailey’s Amer- There is a dearth of information on women ican Women in Science (1994); Shearer and of diverse ethnic backgrounds in medicine. Shearer’s Notable Women in the Life Sciences Some valuable references do exist, among (1996); McGrayne’s Nobel Prize Women in them Staupers’s No Time for Prejudice: A Science (1998); Proffitt’s Notable Women Sci- Story of the Integration of Negroes in Nursing entists (1999); Ogilvie and Harvey’s Bio- in the United States (1961); Morais’s History of graphical Dictionary of Women in Science the Negro in Medicine (1969); Sammons’s (2000); and Haines’s International Women in Blacks in Science and Medicine (1990); and Science (2001). Hine’s Black Women in America (1993) and Some standard sources that are now out Facts on File Encyclopedia of Black Women in of print but are nonetheless quite useful are America (1997). The “Women of Color in Hurd-Mead’s A History of Women in Medi- Medicine” entry explores some of the obsta- cine from the Earliest Times to the Beginning of cles faced by women of color. I hope in the the Nineteenth Century (1938), Lovejoy’s years to come there will be more scholar- Women Doctors of the World (1957), Morantz- ship and information devoted to the histor- Sanchez’s Sympathy and Science (1985), and ical significance of contributions of men and Alic’s Hypatia’s Heritage (1986). Stille’s Extra- women of all races and ethnicities. ordinary Women of Medicine (1997), Kent’s This project has reaffirmed my belief that Women in Medicine (1998), and Hunter’s very little information can be found on the Leaders in Medicine (1999) are very good ju- internet for free, and the most abundant and venile books with a select number of the reliable information still occurs in books, in more well-known women in medicine. microfilm sets that captured historical docu- We do have a fair amount of material in ments before they disappeared, on old letters written by women practitioners be- opaque cards, and in print indexes that may fore 1950. Gelbart’s The King’s Midwife: A never be converted to electronic format. History and Mystery of Madame du Coudray However, the internet was very useful in (1998); Morantz-Sanchez’s Conduct Unbe- providing access to a myriad of electronic coming a Woman: Medicine on Trial in Turn-of- databases upon which the scholarly world the-Century Brooklyn (1999), which chroni- relies, such as ABC-CLIO’s Historical Ab- cles the life of Mary Amanda Dixon Jones; stracts and America: History and Life, the Web and Comfort’s The Tangled Field: Barbara Mc- of Science, OCLC’s databases, various Clintock’s Search for the Patterns of Genetic women’s studies databases, numerous Control (2001) are three examples of excel- newspaper databases, university catalogs lent current biographies. around the world, legal databases, the ERIC A number of biographies are very good, site, PsychInfo, MEDLINE, CINAHL, and but many are out of print. There is an obvi- Health and Wellness Center, to name just a few. ous reason for the lack of biographies and Other helpful reference sources were Ameri- autobiographies on women. Men who con- can National Biography, Dictionary of American tributed to the medical field normally had Medical Biography, Dictionary of National Biog- faculty status at universities with a bit of raphy, and Dictionary of Scientific Biography, time to write about their accomplishments along with standard country-specific ency- and personal life; these biographies have clopedias such as Who’s Who and biography been very valuable to those of us interested databases—BGMI, Biography Index, New York in the history of medicine. Most women in Times Obituaries Index, and Palmer’s. medicine, however, have not had the leisure Current literature on women in medicine to write memoirs. With few exceptions prior is limited to the broader topic of science in to the twentieth century, many were not al- general with selected women in medicine lowed to have their own laboratories or any

xiv Preface and Acknowledgments academic rank, and even today most how hard it has been to achieve this women nurses, physicians, and other health progress. Catalogers are the heart of the li- care workers are too busy working a long brary system. I found things I never knew day and then, in many instances, caring for existed by simply using the library catalog. a family. Everyone who works to process and keep items in order, whether they are books, mi- Acknowledgments crofilm boxes, photos, or journals, saves pa- Acknowledging all of the libraries around trons a tremendous amount of time in ac- the world that assisted with this project cessing the libraries’ treasures. Subject- would take numerous pages. Many of the specialist librarians who can put their hands entries would not have been possible with- on information without looking in any cata- out the help of librarians in the United States log or index are invaluable. Patrons over the who supplied interlibrary loan materials years who have challenged me with hard and librarians in other countries who for- questions have helped make me a better li- warded information from local publications. brarian, able to find sources that didn’t I’d like to express my deepest apprecia- come to mind right away. I hope librarians tion to these and other people who work in keep working as hard as they do to make re- libraries. sources like this one possible. I know that many writers acknowledge the phenomenal progress librarians have Laura Lynn Windsor made as a profession. As a librarian, I know

Introduction

Nature has given women so much power for centuries. King Louis XV respected An- that the law has very wisely given them gelique du Coudray enough to commission little. her in 1759 to train midwives all over —Samuel Johnson, 1892 France, Florence Nightingale organized medical staff in order to treat soldiers on the Women as Natural Healers battlefields of Scutari during the Crimean From the earliest of times, women have War, and Elsie Inglis organized and ran the been the natural nurturers, healers, and Scottish Women’s Hospitals in World War I. soothers of those in pain. Taking care of hus- Many of the women in this volume at- bands, parents, children, or friends, they tained leadership abilities through dealing have been the tirelessly caring individuals, with the challenges of their profession. often charged by men to heal the sick in the Nancy Dickey, the first female president of home. It was only natural that they eventu- the AMA; Antonia Novello, who became ally desired more medical knowledge in or- the first female surgeon general of the der to do more, be more, and feel more con- United States; and Gro Harlem Brundtband, fident in their endeavors. who is the first woman to head the World In ancient times midwives were the norm, Health Organization (WHO), are outstand- and for centuries distances between ing examples of what women have come to birthing mothers and a traditional health achieve. care institution were far too great to even consider another health care provider. This Social and Economic Forces situation changed very slowly; even today, Affecting Women’s Careers the majority of the world’s population live From the earliest times to the present, forces in rural areas. Only in the eighteenth cen- besides gender have played a part in tury, when physicians began to feel threat- women’s long struggle to succeed. In rela- ened by midwives, did laws requiring li- tively recent times, increased awareness of censes and the regulation of midwives’ social problems and public health—an activities become a reality. awareness in large part brought about by With these requirements came women’s women in the medical field—have created realization that they could advance beyond opportunities for women to work in their the restrictions with a better education. chosen professions. They encountered many problems with ob- As industrialists built factories that trans- taining the education they were suddenly formed working conditions, crime, poverty, required to have, but they persevered. pollution, and disease grew with the further expansion of large urban areas. Social-set- Women’s Leadership Abilities tlement houses such as Toynbee Hall in Those of us who look at the history of London, Hull House in Chicago, and the women in medicine see that women have Henry Street settlement in New York City also been demonstrating leadership abilities were the beginnings of social activism by

xvii Introduction both men and women. Women physicians and the right to vote. They organized to gain and nurses such as Alice Hamilton and Lil- a voice in a changing world. They formed lian Wald saw the tremendous needs of the clubs, societies, and regional and national or- poor and put their training, care, and con- ganizations to advance women’s status and cern into action. Wald, who founded the to meet the need for social services. Religious Henry Street Settlement, also formed the groups also played a role in working to help Visiting Nurses Service in New York City, the homeless and poor. which served as a model for many other Since so many of the early female physi- cities. Both Hamilton and Wald believed cians were relegated to working with the that each person had a right to adequate nu- poor, they saw firsthand the abuse many in- trition, housing, and working conditions. dustrial workers, especially women and Like many other women who had gained a children, experienced. Their work to in- medical education, they utilized their skills crease awareness led to labor unions that to serve the poor and make cities better worked for reforms in the length of the places for the growing urban population. workday, restrictions on child labor, and “Women volunteers saved the American better working conditions. city at the turn of the twentieth century by Changing economies worked both for converting religious doctrine and domestic and against women in the workplace. The ideology into redemptive places that pro- dual-income family began to seem desirable duced social order at a critical moment in in order to bring about better living condi- the nation’s development” (Spain 2001, 237). tions. However, many felt women were tak- Influenced by Jane Addams, one of the ing jobs away from men, especially during founders of Hull House in Chicago, Hamil- the Depression in the United States. The ton became a resident at Hull House for work women did during the war years as many years, tending to individuals as a physicians and nurses did not carry over to nurse, physician, baby-sitter, housekeeper, peacetime. They came home to their coun- and teacher. She witnessed firsthand the tries and were not offered work. health problems created by industry and In 1932 in the United States, the National authored some of the first reports on the un- Economy Act limited federal civil service to satisfactory working conditions for men, one member of the family. Thus many women, and children in factories. She lob- women had to leave government jobs. In bied for occupational health and safety. Great Britain, the National Insurance Act re- With the sweeping social-settlement move- duced women’s roles in the workplace. ment, many “educated middle-class women William Beveridge, the British economist, who joined the movement were given a “was aware of the value of married women’s chance to move beyond the traditional con- unpaid work, and wives and husbands were fines of the home and to enter the working treated differently under the National Insur- world in positions of leadership, achieving ance Act of 1946. Single women were treated a level of equality with their male col- like men, but married women were nor- leagues” (Barbuto 1999, ix). mally exempted from the work related pro- Even by the early twentieth century, the visions and insured as housewives” (Siim medical community was still hesitant to hire 2000, 93). Women physicians, despite their women physicians at hospitals and clinics education and skill, had to play minimal no matter how good their training was. As roles when it came to working for a wage. the government became involved in social The birth-control movement also had a services, regional and national public health large impact on women. As public health organizations created jobs for women. Many nurses such as Margaret Sanger saw the toll women, such as Sara Josephine Baker, found frequent childbirth was taking on mothers, their calling in the public health sector. they begin to feel that more information As women moved into the workforce, they about sex education and contraception was became empowered. They wanted the option needed. They fought on through numerous of working outside the home with equal pay roadblocks in the way of legislation and so-

xviii Introduction cietal resistance. The Comstock Act of 1873 on the role of caregiver for their children, it was a major setback for health care is important to remember that many providers wishing to provide birth control in women did not accept men as adequate in the United States, and birth control wasn’t that role. “Not until the founding of the Na- even discussed in medical schools until tional Organization for Women in 1966 did 1937. “In 1928, the timing of ovulation was a major group contend that men and established medically, but the safe interval women should share responsibility for paid for intercourse was mistakenly understood work, child rearing, and housework” to include half the menstrual period” (CDC (Burstein and Bricher 1997, 161). Acceptance 2000, 326). By 1933, however, family size had of men as caregivers required an adjustment declined in the United States. When more by both men and women. women were able to learn about methods for More men have recognized the impor- limiting childbirth, they realized a career tance of a woman’s role as wife, mother, and was a viable option for them even if they wage earner as living expenses have in- had chosen to marry and have a family. creased (Gabor 1995, 46). More are accepting of shared parental responsibilities. In The Unrecognized Heroes—Men many countries, government, educational, An encyclopedia on women and medicine and corporate organizations are addressing would not be complete without a word about the importance of adequate childcare. the many men who have taken risks to mentor women whose potential was evident and Women Extraordinaire to encourage spouses, daughters, students, The social, cultural, and legal problems and colleagues to pursue what many of their women encountered in obtaining higher ed- friends felt was a waste of time. Society owes ucation and medical training have been well a debt to men such as Samuel Blackwell, who documented over the past several decades. felt his daughters should have the same good Many had to obtain a medical education education as his sons; Dr. William Osler, who outside their own country and learn in to- encouraged Maude Abbott even after she tally inadequate facilities and on the battle- was relegated to a museum of defective field. Elizabeth and Emily Blackwell and hearts following the denial of a faculty posi- many other early physicians served the tion; and Dr. Alan Whipple, who encouraged poor and homeless because no one believed Virginia Apgar to go into anesthesiology in- a woman could do the job of a physician. stead of surgery. Such men exercised a great Many early women physicians were rele- deal of foresight and genuine concern. gated to nursing because no one would hire Even male medical students had to adapt them. May Edward Chinn performed biop- to situations that were uncomfortable. Un- sies in secret in order to help diagnose tu- like in many other professions infiltrated by mors, and Mary Mahoney became a private- women, males in medical education had to duty nurse because hospitals would not hire deal with sharing with women discussions black nurses in the 1870s. and demonstrations on topics considered These and other women who preceded taboo in mixed company: anatomy, repro- and followed them found opportunities to duction, sex. Some objected to the presence contribute. Some, such as Elizabeth Garrett of women in their institutions, but others Anderson and Elizabeth Blackwell, worked were accepting, particularly in Europe, within traditional arenas to further their ed- where many women sought additional ucation and obtain their objectives. Others, training after obtaining their degrees else- such as Sophia Jex-Blake, fought the general where. Emily Blackwell, Eva Salber, and injustice they accurately perceived or went Mary Putnam Jacobi are just a few of the to extremes: James Barry impersonated a women who sought more clinical training man for an entire lifetime in order to prac- after their initial medical degree. They were tice her skills. able to gain that experience in Europe. Over the years, nurses have soothed, Even if most men were unwilling to take washed, fed, visited, and cared for numer-

xix Introduction ous individual patients in a day. Today, they for another strain of polio all led to better are expected to have the highest standards health and a better society. and certifications. From the late nineteenth Virginia Apgar’s score system for infants and early twentieth centuries, they have has been in use for nearly fifty years. Maude risen from basic helpers to well-educated Abbott became the leading expert on congen- professionals, thanks to the work of the ital heart disease during her lifetime. Elsie In- early pioneers in nursing education. Lillian glis and her fellow women physicians trav- Wald and Annie Goodrich were exceptional eled around war-torn Europe to mend the professionals who raised public awareness wounded during World War I. Adelaide and the status of nurses. Hautval treated sick Jewish women in Nazi Female physicians, nurses, and researchers concentration camps. He Manqiu used sticks are like other professionals in that they teach and dirt because she didn’t have pencil and along the way whether or not teaching was paper and found her laboratory cadaver in their initial objective. Those who see a need the field during the Red Army’s long march within the profession and have the organiza- in 1935. All these women had heart, determi- tional and administrative skills take on a pri- nation, character, and a desire to heal the sick. mary role as educator. Elizabeth Blackwell founded a hospital and medical college so References: Barbuto, Domenica M., Ameri- that other women physicians could gain clin- can Settlement Houses and Progressive Social ical experience. Ann Preston, Emeline Cleve- Reform: An Encyclopedia of the American Settle- land, and Margaret Craighill all contributed ment Movement, Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press substantially to women’s medical education. (1999); Burstein, Paul, and Marie Bricher, Women desperately needed additional op- “Problem Definition and Public Policy: Con- portunities during the past two centuries be- gressional Committees Confront Work, Fam- cause it was very difficult or impossible for ily, and Gender, 1945–1990,” Social Forces them to gain admission to male colleges, 76:1 (September 1997): 135–168; Centers for nurses were subject to higher expectations Disease Control (CDC), “Achievements in and needed more rigorous training, and, Public Health, 1900–1999: Family Planning, most important, women needed the collec- JAMA 283, no. 3 (19 January 2000): 326ff.; tive voice that could be realized only if they Gabor, Andrea, “Married, with House- were a part of higher education and related husband,” Working Woman 20:11 (November professional organizations. 1995): 46–50; Johnson, Samuel, The Letters of Both male and female medical missionar- Samuel Johnson, with Mrs. Thrale’s Genuine ies are one of the most overlooked groups of Letters to Him, vol. 1, no. 157, Oxford: Claren- physicians. These missionaries were bold don Press (1952); Lorber, Judith, “Why and dedicated. Once educated, they worked Women Physicians Will Never Be True with limited medical facilities but in many Equals in the American Medical Profession,” instances obtained great success. Ida Scud- in Elianne Riska and Katarina Wegar, eds., der founded the Vellore Hospital and Med- Gender, Work, and Medicine: Women and the ical College, Catharine Mabie educated na- Medical Division of Labour, London: Sage tives in the Congo on the importance of (1993); Siim, Birte, Gender and Citizenship: good hygiene, and Anna Dengal was tire- Politics and Agency in France, Britain, and Den- less in treating the poor in India. Society mark, New York: Cambridge University owes an immeasurable debt to the women Press (2000); Spain, Daphne, How Women nurses, researchers, educators, and physi- Saved the City, Minneapolis: University of cians in this volume. Frances Kelsey’s re- Minnesota Press (2001); Yedidia, Michael J., fusal to allow thalidomide on the drug mar- and Janet Bickel, “Why Aren’t There More ket, Alice Hamilton’s copious statistics on Women Leaders in Academic Medicine? The workers suffering from industrial pollution, Views of Clinical Department Chairs,” Acad- and Dame Annie Jean Macnamara’s search emic Medicine 76, no. 5 (May 2001): 453–465.

xx A

Abbott, Maude Elizabeth Seymour 1869–1940

Despite a private and public fight, Maude Abbott was not allowed to attend McGill University for medical study because of her gender. Nevertheless, she became one of the earliest experts in congenital heart disease, paving the way for future women medical professionals in Canada. She was born on March 18, 1869, at St. An- drews, near Montreal. Her father left the family before Maude was born, and her mother died from tuberculosis just seven months after the birth. Maude’s grandmother adopted and raised her and her sister, Alice. Her grandmother was of strong character and had been through much grief. She had lost all nine of her children early in their Maude Elizabeth Seymour Abbott (U.S. National lives, eight to tuberculosis. Her husband Library of Medicine) also predeceased her by several years. She educated the girls at home during most of her willingness to work so hard was an irri- their early years; Maude had a great desire tation to some. Fellow students sometimes to attend school with other girls and a burn- hid her case reports, and many students ing need to learn, which was fulfilled when even applauded when professors an- she attended high school. nounced they had to attend meetings on Maude enrolled in McGill University on a keeping women out of the college. However, scholarship and graduated with a B.A. in she looked back with great appreciation on 1890. By this time, she knew that she wanted her days at Bishop, where she won the se- to be a physician, but McGill refused to al- nior anatomy prize and the chancellor’s low a woman to enter its medical program. prize for her excellent work on the final ex- She fought this decision with letters to the amination and where she obtained her M.D. faculty and even in public, but to no avail. Upon graduation in 1894, she traveled She settled on going to nearby Bishop’s Col- abroad to work in various clinics in Vienna, lege. Many students, as well as some profes- Zurich, Edinburgh, and London, where she sors, resented a woman in their ranks, and worked with established physicians who

1 Abbott, Maude Elizabeth Seymour came to appreciate her work. At this time, Abbott earned only a small income in her her ambition was to return to Montreal and position at the museum and still longed for obtain a faculty position at McGill. a faculty position. It wasn’t to come until Abbott’s first duties when she returned she received an honorary L.L.D. from to Montreal were in the Royal Victoria Hos- McGill in 1936. In the meantime, she had pital. It was here that she began research done enough research to begin her monu- in cardiology and pathology with Dr. mental work, the Atlas of Congenital Cardiac Charles Martin and Dr. J. G. Adami, respec- Disease. tively. Soon thereafter, one of the most influ- Abbott’s Atlas, just over sixty pages, in- ential men in her life, Dr. William Osler, en- cluded excellent plates labeled clearly, a couraged her to reorganize the pathology comprehensive index, diagrams inter- museum at McGill. This endeavor led to im- spersed throughout the work, explanations mense advancement in the medical knowl- of various heart problems, and acknowledg- edge of the heart. ments of all who had contributed to the Much of the pathology museum was project. She had accumulated much of the made up of postmortem specimens, many knowledge for this project through diagnos- of which showed signs of cardiac defects. ing heart specimens at the request of clini- Abbott studied the various hearts and their cians all over the continent who recognized defects and wrote a piece for Osler on con- her as the world authority on congenital genital heart disease. In this work, she spec- heart disease. Although Abbott tried to re- ified cyanotic and acyanotic categories, then tain her faculty position beyond retirement a useful distinction. age, McGill forced her to retire in 1936. Sub- At the same time, she began to be very in- sequently, her reputation in the medical volved in the overall operation of the mu- community now secure, she lectured seum and in promoting the use of cadavers around the country. She received numerous in anatomy classes in medical schools. She awards and accommodations during her created the International Association of lifetime, including being named a fellow of Medical Museums (now called the Interna- the New York Academy of Medicine. tional Academy of Pathology), an organiza- Abbott’s deep interest besides pathology tion she remained active in for the next was medical history. She wrote on the his- thirty years. tory of nursing, the history of medicine in In 1919 Abbott underwent successful sur- Quebec, and the history of the medical fac- gery for an ovarian tumor. While continuing ulty at McGill. Abbott never married. After her work at the museum during World War her grandmother died in 1890, her only fam- I, she took on the responsibility of editing ily was her sister, Alice, who depended on the Canadian Medical Association Journal. Af- Maude for financial support. In 1898, Alice ter Osler’s death in 1919 she began the mon- came down with diphtheria and lost much umental project of compiling a memorial of her mental capacity. Maude, typically un- bulletin of the International Association of selfish in all her relationships, tried in vari- Medical Museums. That famous work, Bul- ous ways to help her sister, but despite her letin No. IX, eventually became known as efforts and an operation, Alice never recov- the Osler Memorial Volume, a very well- ered. Maude continued to care for her sister, received book of over 600 pages that took planning outings when Alice was doing six years to complete and contributed to the well. They both lived in St. Andrews all of knowledge of heart disease. their lives. She was now gaining respect for her sci- Maude tended to be accident-prone. Al- entific knowledge and diligence. She was though she had worn glasses since she was offered a position at the University of Texas a young girl, many of her close friends felt as an acting professor of pathology during her accidents were due to the fact that she World War I and as an associate professor was very nearsighted and tended to walk thereafter. However, she remained in Can- with her head down. In Montreal, she col- ada, as her loyalty was always with McGill. lided with an automobile and two street-

2 Acosta Sison, Honoria cars. In New York City, she was hit by a taxi. Abouchdid lived during a time of tremen- None of these accidents, however, caused dous change in Lebanon. Massive human her serious harm. Abbott died on September losses during the Balkan Wars and World 2, 1940, from a cerebral hemorrhage. She War I pushed women into occupations that propelled the field of cardiology from the had traditionally been dominated by men in pathology table toward actual treatment for Abouchdid’s region. During the two world the living. wars, women physicians with the American Women’s Hospital Service as well as with References: Abbott, Maude E., Atlas of Con- other Foreign Service initiatives worked in genital Cardiac Disease, New York: American Lebanon. Abouchdid attended a conference Heart Association (1936); MacDermot, in New York in 1953 and expressed grati- Hugh Ernest, Maude Abbott: A Memoir, tude for the many American women physi- Toronto: Macmillan (1941); Roland, Charles cians who had spent time in Lebanon work- G., “Maude Abbott, MD, ‘Madonna of the ing and encouraging others who wanted to Heart,’” Medical and Pediatric Oncology 35, enter the profession. She died of heart fail- no. 1 (July 2000): 64–65. ure on October 11, 1992.

References: Jurdak, Hania, “The Late Adma Abouchdid, Edma Abu Shdeed: AUB’s First Woman Doctor,” 1909–1992 AUB Bulletin 35, no. 2 (March 1993): 12–13; Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Doctors of the Edma Abouchdid was the first woman in World, New York: Macmillan (1957); Who’s Lebanon to obtain a medical degree. She Who in Lebanon 1988–89, Beirut: Publitec founded the Lebanese Medical Feminine As- (1988). sociation and was active in family planning. Abouchdid was born in São Paulo, Brazil. She wanted to be a doctor at the age of fif- Acosta Sison, Honoria teen. Because girls at that time did not usu- 1888–1970 ally seek higher education, she had to convince her father, also a school principal, that The first female physician in the Philip- she should not follow the usual course of pines, Honoria Acosta Sison was a specialist waiting for the appropriate suitor. in obstetrics and gynecology at the Univer- Abouchdid graduated from the American sity of the Philippines. She educated many University in Beirut in medicine in 1931. She in pelvimetry for Filipina women and intro- was the first Lebanese woman to do so. duced low cesarean section to the Philip- From 1936 to 1945 she worked at the Royal pines. Hospital in Baghdad. From 1945 to 1948 she She was born on December 30, 1888, in traveled to the United States to do graduate Calasiao, Pangasinan. Her mother’s death work at Johns Hopkins, Duke, and Colum- when she was only two years old resulted in bia. When she returned to her homeland, her being raised by her father and grand- she joined the faculty of the American Uni- parents in Dagupan. She attended Santis- versity in Beirut as professor of clinical gy- simo Rosario Convent in Lingayen for a necology and obstetrics. brief period before attending a normal There, she founded an infertility clinic as school run by Americans. She was one of well as the Lebanese Medical Feminine Asso- only 10 students out of 375 who passed the ciation. She received numerous awards, most government examination upon completing notably the Medal of the Equestrian Order of high school. Thus she was sent to the United Saint Sepulchre of Jerusalem for chivalry, States for further study in 1904. She went to which had been reserved for male recipients. Philadelphia to attend Drexel Institute and She served on many national and interna- Brown Preparatory School before entering tional committees and in 1969 founded the the Women’s Medical College of Pennsylva- Lebanese Family Planning Association. nia and graduating in 1909 with her M.D.

3 Alexander, Hattie Elizabeth

There, she worked for a year in the mater- son, Maryland. Alexander seemed much nity hospital before returning to the Philip- more interested in sports than studies while pines to work. there but did study bacteriology and physi- In the Philippines, she worked as an as- ology and graduated with an A.B. degree in sistant in obstetrics at St. Paul’s Hospital be- 1923. Her degree enabled her to obtain a job fore obtaining a position at the University of with the U.S. Public Health Service as a bac- the Philippines in the department of obstet- teriologist. Three years later she worked rics and gynecology. Women were not well with the Maryland Public Health Service. accepted in the field at this time, but Acosta The experience gained in these two jobs Sison persevered and eventually, in 1942, prompted her to apply for admission to earned the rank of professor and head of the medical school at Johns Hopkins. There, department. (Her husband, Antonio Sison, more mature and focused, she was an excel- served as dean of the College of Medicine lent student, obtaining her M.D. degree in and director of the Philippine General Hos- 1930. pital.) Like many women physicians, she Her first internship was in pediatrics at managed the duties of career, wife, and Johns Hopkins Hospital. The second was at mother. Two of her three children also be- Babies Hospital, which was part of Colum- came physicians. bia-Presbyterian Medical Center. During Acosta Sison published extensively in the these internships she witnessed the devas- field of obstetrics and gynecology and re- tating effects of bacterial meningitis, which ceived many honors over the years, includ- seemed to afflict so many infants and was at ing a presidential medal for medical re- the time fatal. search. Ten years after her death in 1970, the In searching for a better treatment for in- Philippines issued a stamp in her honor. fluenzal meningitis, a common form of bacterial meningitis, Alexander began to build References: Agris, Joseph, “Honoria Acosta on a successful antipneumonia serum de- Sison: Pioneer Gynecologist and Obstetri- veloped at the Rockefeller Institute by Ken- cian,” Journal of Dermatologic Surgery and neth Goodner and Frank Horsfall Jr. By the Oncology 6, no. 3 (March 1980): 178; Kyle, 1940s the mortality rate for bacterial menin- Robert A., et al., “Honoria Acosta-Sison,” gitis had dropped significantly in the JAMA 246, no. 11 (11 September 1981): 1191; United States. She continued her work, ex- Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Doctors of the perimenting with combinations of anti- World, New York: Macmillan (1957). serums, sulfa drugs, and eventually antibiotics, finding a cocktail that nearly eliminated fatalities. Alexander, Hattie Elizabeth Alexander was one of the first to discover 1901–1968 that some strains of bacteria seemed resis- tant to treatment. With this realization, she Hattie Alexander was a pediatrician and mi- focused on the genetic makeup of bacteria crobiologist who contributed to lowering and its importance in understanding resis- the number of infant deaths from influenzal tance to antibiotics. Her findings also meningitis. She was also one of the first re- strengthened the theory that DNA held the searchers to discover that bacteria can be re- key to so many diseases. Later she turned sistant to antibiotics and thus contributed to her attention to viruses, particularly the po- the theory that DNA held the key to many liovirus and its RNA, and assisted others at diseases. Columbia in this research. Alexander was born on April 5, 1901, in Alexander published numerous papers Baltimore, Maryland, to William Bain and received much recognition over the Alexander and Elsie May Townsend. She years. She was the first woman to be elected was only an average student while attend- president of the American Pediatric Society. ing Western High School in Baltimore but Her skepticism as a teacher, along with her went on to attend Goucher College in Tow- stern, formal manner and insistence on ac-

4 Alvord, Lori Arviso curacy, challenged residents and students Alvord, Lori Arviso alike. Dr. Alexander underwent a radical 1959– mastectomy late in life and later died from liver cancer on June 24, 1968, in New York The first Navajo female surgeon, Lori City. Alvord was born as Janette Lorraine Cupp in Tacoma, Washington. Her young mother References: American National Biography, and father raised her and her two younger New York: Oxford University Press (1999); sisters on a Navajo reservation in New Mex- Christy, Nicholas P., “Hattie E. Alexander ico. They lived in poverty with most in the 1901–1968,” Journal of the College of Physicians community speaking only their native and Surgeons of Columbia University (online tongue. Lori felt she didn’t quite belong be- journal) 17, no. 2 (Spring 1997), http:// cause her mother was white and her father cpmcnet.columbia.edu/newsjournal/ was a full-blooded Navajo. archives/jour_v17n2_0002.html (accessed She did well in high school and wanted to May 19, 2002); McIntosh, Rustin, “Hattie attend college: Alexander,” Pediatrics 42, no. 3 (September 1968): 544. My college plans were modest; I assumed I would attend a nearby state school. But then I happened to meet Ali, Safieh another Navajo student who was ca. 1900–? attending Princeton. I had heard of Princeton but had no idea where it Very little is known about Safieh Ali. She was. I asked him how many Indians was born in Turkey, educated in Germany, were there. He replied, “Five.” I and was the first female doctor in her coun- couldn’t even imagine a place with try. Although Ali was unable to receive only five Indians, since our town was medical training in Turkey because women 98 percent Indian. Then he mentioned were not allowed in medical school at the Dartmouth, which had about fifty time she pursued her training, she appar- Indians on campus, and I felt a little ently was one of the first women to benefit better. Ivy League was a term I had from the Turkish reforms of the 1920s and heard, but I had no concept of its 1930s to stimulate economic growth. Im- meaning. No one from my high school proving women’s education played a part had ever attended an Ivy League in this program. Soon after the reforms in college. At my request, my high school the country started, the medical school at counselor gave me the applications for the University of Istanbul allowed women all the Ivy League schools, but I only to enter. completed Dartmouth’s because I In 1924, Ali attended the 1924 London knew there were fifty Indians there. Conference of the Medical Women’s Inter- (Alvord 1999, 26) national Association. As the first female physician from Turkey, she attracted much She was accepted at Dartmouth and grad- attention from the press and from very well- uated cum laude in 1979. After looking for known women physicians of the time who work in New Mexico, she decided to pursue also attended the conference. her fascination with the human body. She attended Stanford and obtained her medical References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women degree in 1985. She then went to New Mex- Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan ico and served Native Americans as a (1957); “Medical Women’s International As- physician and surgeon at the Gallup Indian sociation,” London Times (15 July 1924): 17f. Medical Center. Alvord is currently a professor of surgery and the associate dean for student and minority affairs at Dartmouth’s Medical

5 American Medical Women’s Association

School. As an educator and physician, she ganization’s request to allow women physi- strives to incorporate Navajo ways of heal- cians, the American Red Cross did accept ing into Western medicine, believing that the offer of assistance. Thus the AMWA’s in- caring, culture, and tradition have a place in volvement in caring for civilian casualties of the healing process. “As a physician, war abroad became indispensable. teacher, and mother, she hopes to weave to- Women missionaries and others working gether two worlds that have so much to of- abroad in the aftermath of World War I fer each other” (Mangan 1999, A12). alerted the organization to the enormous She married Jon Alvord and changed her need for physicians in many parts of the name to her grandmother’s maiden name of world. The AMWA’s physicians traveled Arviso, thus becoming Lori Arviso Alvord. abroad and set up clinics and hospitals, She has two children. many in cooperation with U.S. agencies and with foreign aid agencies overburdened References: Alvord, Lori Arviso, “Navajo with providing medical care to those in Surgeon Combines Approaches,” Health need. Progress 80, no. 1 (January–February 1999): During the Great Depression in the early 26; Alvord, Lori Arviso, and Elizabeth Co- 1930s, the AMWA helped with caring for the hen Van Pelt, The Scalpel and the Silver Bear, sick and underfed in the United States. It New York: Bantam Books (1999); Mangan, also set up care units for hurricane victims Katherine S., “Enlisting the Spirit in Medical in Florida and health care, including educa- Treatment,” Chronicle of Higher Education 45, tion, for pregnant women in rural areas of no. 42 (25 June 1999): A12. the Carolinas, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. Many qualified male physicians joined it in these efforts. In 1940 the AMWA tried once again to American Medical gain commissions for female physicians, but Women’s Association neither the AMA nor the army and navy 1915– surgeon general supported the change. In 1943, the demand for physicians was so The American Medical Women’s Associa- overwhelming because of World War II that tion (AMWA; known as the MWNA, Med- objections were withdrawn. Dr. Margaret ical Women’s National Association, until Craighill was the first woman to receive a 1937) was founded in 1915. Even though the commission. She joined the Army Medical American Medical Association seated its Corps as a major on April 16. first woman in the same year, many women Today, the AMWA focuses on varied is- physicians felt that a male-dominated orga- sues ranging from funding for female med- nization would not address their concerns. ical students to public health care in rural They established the AMWA to share these areas. It continues to play a major role in mutual concerns and to learn from one an- promoting women as physicians world- other. Also, since many women physicians wide. of the time worked in isolation, the organization would serve to draw women doctors into the larger medical community and to See also: American Women’s Hospitals; give them a voice in this community. Bertha Craighill, Margaret D.; Van Hoosen, Bertha Van Hoosen was the AMWA’s first presi- References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women dent. The organization did not include mi- Physicians and Surgeons: National and Interna- norities and medical students until after tional Organizations, Livingston, NY: Liv- 1940. ingston Press (1939); More, Ellen Singer, In June 1917, the AMWA formed the War Restoring the Balance: Women Physicians and Service Committee, which operated as the the Profession of Medicine, 1850–1995, Cam- American Women’s Hospital Service. Al- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press (1999). though the War Department refused the or-

6 Andersen, Dorothy Hansine

American Women’s Hospitals cause of her gender to turn her attention to 1917– medical research. Born in Asheville, North Carolina, on Created by the American Medical Women’s May 15, 1901, Andersen was an only child. Association in 1917, American Women’s Her father, Hans Peter Andersen, worked Hospitals (AWH) provided care for numer- for the YMCA and died when she was thir- ous wounded civilians and soldiers during teen. Her mother, Mary Louise (Mason) An- World War I. Women physicians concerned dersen, died in 1920. By this time the family about the overwhelming casualties sus- had moved to Johnsbury, Vermont, where tained by the United States and its allies Dorothy attended St. Johnsbury Academy. now had a way to contribute to care for the Dorothy worked her way through Mount sick and wounded on the battlefront. Holyoke College and upon graduation Despite the organization’s early financial started medical school at Johns Hopkins challenges, over 1,000 women physicians School of Medicine. She received her M.D. registered for service before the end of the in 1926. year. With help from the American Commit- Andersen taught for a year after gradua- tee for Devastated France, the AWH estab- tion at the Rochester School of Medicine lished its first hospital on July 28, 1918, in and then interned in surgery at Strong the village of Neufmoutiers, Seine-et- Memorial Hospital. Unable to find employ- Marne. The hospital treated both civilians ment as a physician, she obtained a position and soldiers. Well after the war, hospitals at Columbia University’s College of Physi- and their staffs were still desperately cians and Surgeons as an assistant in pathol- needed in some parts of the world to cope ogy. She later began a doctoral program and with widespread disease. received her doctor of medical science de- In 1923, Greece experienced a crisis as gree in endocrinology. refugees with typhus and smallpox poured In 1938 she published her research on cys- into the country. Greece asked for help from tic fibrosis, and this achievement launched the AWH, which set up a quarantine station her into research related to this disease for and delousing plant on Macronissi Island the next twenty-five years. In order to pur- near the coast of Greece. There, the AWH sue this path, she obtained additional train- treated over 10,000 refugees. The organiza- ing in pediatrics and chemistry, and ob- tion is currently associated with the Ameri- tained her doctorate in medical science from can Medical Women’s Association and op- Columbia University in 1935. Andersen erates nine clinics in the United States and served Babies Hospital at the Columbia- abroad. Presbyterian Medical Center as both a pathologist and a pediatrician. She also con- References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women tributed during her career to the field of car- Physicians and Surgeons: National and Interna- diac abnormalities and embryology. She tional Organizations, Livingston, NY: Liv- was asked to teach cardiology during World ingston Press (1939). War II, when physicians were becoming interested in open-heart surgery. A determined and dedicated physician, Andersen, Dorothy Hansine Andersen sometimes irritated others by in- 1901–1963 truding in areas where she was not an expert. She was also seen as a bit sloppy in ap- Dorothy Andersen identified cystic fibrosis pearance and was a chain smoker who as a disease in 1935. After completing an in- rarely bothered to tap the ashes off her ciga- ternship in surgery in Rochester, New York, rettes. Her sense of humor and hard work at Strong Memorial Hospital, she was un- were, however, appreciated by many who able to obtain a residency in her preferred knew her. field, surgery and pathology. Thus her dis- Andersen never married. She underwent covery was the result of being forced be- surgery for lung cancer in 1962 and died

7 Anderson, Charlotte Morrison from the disease on March 3, 1963. She is Anderson never married. She is retired best remembered for her work on cystic fi- and lives in Australia. brosis. References: Allen, Nessy, “A Pioneer of References: Damrosch, Douglas S., “Doro- Paediatric Gastroenterology: The Career of thy Hansine Andersen,” Journal of Pediatrics an Australian Woman Scientist,” Historical 65, no. 4 (October 1964): 477–479; McMur- Records of Australian Science 11, no. 1 (June ray, Emily J. Notable Twentieth-Century Scien- 1996): 35–50; Anderson, Charlotte M., and tists, Detroit: Gale (1995). Valerie Burke, eds., Paediatric Gastroenterol- ogy, Oxford: Blackwell Scientific (1975); Who’s Who in Australia, Melbourne: Informa- Anderson, Charlotte Morrison tion Australia (1998). 1915–

Charlotte Anderson was an Australian Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett physician and a pioneer in pediatric gas- 1836–1917 troenterology. With the publication of Paedi- atric Gastroenterology in 1975, she established Elizabeth Anderson was the first British herself as a leading authority in the field. woman to become a physician.... She was Anderson was born on March 12, 1915. a pioneer in medical education for women She received her early education at Mont in England through founding a hospital, Albert Central School and Tintern girls’ helping to found a medical school for grammar schools in Victoria. She worked as women and serving as its dean, and becom- a resident biochemist for five years at the ing the first woman to be a member of the Baker Medical Research Institute before re- British Medical Association. ceiving her medical degree from the Uni- Born in London, Elizabeth, along with her versity of Melbourne in 1945. She later siblings, was soon moved to Aldeburgh, worked as a resident medical officer at the Suffolk, where her father, Newson Garrett, Royal Melbourne Hospital and the Birming- and mother, Louisa, raised a large family. ham Children’s Hospital. Elizabeth was the second oldest of ten. Her She was first offered a laboratory position older sister was Louisa and after Elizabeth at the Royal Hospital for Women, where she came Dunnell, who died at six months. Fol- had worked with a rubella vaccine, but she lowing were Newson, Edmund, Alice, “knew she did not wish to return to pure Agnes, Millicent, Sam, Josephine, and science and lose contact with sick people, George. Her father became a rather success- particularly children. What she wanted was ful businessman and believed all his chil- the opportunity to investigate disorders of dren should have an adequate education. largely unknown cause in a clinical context” For a time their mother educated Louisa (Allen 1996, 40). She thus chose to work in a and Elizabeth; following that, according to children’s hospital. Elizabeth, was a rather boring ordeal with a Anderson served as professor of pedi- governess. By the time Elizabeth was thir- atrics and child health at the University of teen, her father had decided to send the Birmingham from 1968 to 1980, and from girls to the Boarding School for Ladies, run 1982 until 1991 was a researcher at the Gas- by Miss Louisa Browning. troenterological Research Unit at Princess Although Elizabeth at first preferred Margaret Hospital for Children. playing outdoors to school, she learned to Her 1975 Paediatric Gastroenterology com- love books and reading and became a very piled much research in the new specialty in capable writer. one place in collaboration with numerous From 1851 to 1857, she, with her sister physicians from various countries. The book Louisa, helped at home and otherwise led a is highly informative with numerous dia- rather carefree life. Elizabeth did continue grams, photos, and extensive bibliographies. to educate herself, focusing on arithmetic

8 Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett

cial support to study medicine, and he eventually agreed. Since no British medical school accepted women, Anderson first worked as a nurse at Middlesex Hospital to see if she was up to the task and to learn as much as possible. Her work led to an invitation to observe patients in the out-clinics of T. W. Nunn, the dean of the medical school at Univer- sity College. Some doctors, especially the house physician, Dr. Willis, were also willing to help her in private. She realized she needed more physics, chemistry, anatomy, and physiology and took a room to herself at the hospital for intense reading and study. During winter 1861 while making rounds with the medical students, Anderson answered a visiting physician’s question correctly after none of the students responded. Soon thereafter, several students drew up a petition objecting to her admittance to the school. They threatened to leave if she was allowed to continue on with them in lectures and rounds of the hospital. In spite of an of- Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (U.S. National Library fer from her parents to make an endowment of Medicine) to the school for female applicants, the hospital decided against allowing women to attend hospital lectures in the future. Feeling strongly that she should stay in and Latin and sometimes utilizing the help England and open the doors of medical ed- of her brother Newton’s tutor. During this ucation for British women, Elizabeth de- time, Elizabeth became heavily influenced cided to study for the licentiate of the Soci- by other women, among them British suf- ety of Apothecaries (LSA), which did not fragist Emily Davies, who felt that intelli- stipulate in its charter that applicants had to gent women should pursue careers. Louisa be male. After she obtained this degree, less married in 1857. Elizabeth thus took on prestigious than the M.D., in 1865, the soci- more responsibilities at home and became ety changed its requirements, and Eliza- even more discontented. beth’s was the only woman’s name on its In 1858 the Englishwoman’s Journal came medical register for the next twelve years. out and brought the organized women’s In 1866, Anderson opened a dispensary movement into her life. In the next year she for women and children, filling a void in attended a lecture given by Dr. Elizabeth health care for the poverty stricken of the Blackwell and met her later in the evening. city. No one really objected because a Blackwell spoke of the needs of women and cholera epidemic was spreading over the children; Elizabeth’s other mentor, Davies, city. Attitudes changed toward her over the had grown up as a clergyman’s daughter, years, and when she obtained an M.D. de- seeing firsthand the conditions of tene- gree from the Sorbonne in Paris in 1870, ments in industrial towns. She knew medical students cheered. women were suffering because they could Elizabeth and James Skelton Anderson not dare ask a male physician to attend to developed a strong, trusting relationship them. Elizabeth asked her father for finan- while he ran her campaign for the School

9 Angwin, Maria Louisa

Board of London. She was overwhelmingly References: Encyclopedia of World Biography, elected and married James on February 9, Detroit: Gale (1999); Hume, Ruth Fox, Great 1871. Women of Medicine, New York: Random Elizabeth continued to practice medicine, House (1964); Manton, Jo, Elizabeth Garrett and her husband, like her father, supported Anderson, New York: Dutton (1965). her career. Her dispensary became the New Hospital for Women and Children in 1872. Both its reputation and staff grew. Elizabeth Angwin, Maria Louisa became an able surgeon at this hospital, per- 1849–1898 forming its first ovariotomy. She performed several other gynecological surgeries dur- Maria Angwin was the first licensed woman ing her time at the hospital but later said doctor in Nova Scotia. She was born on Sep- that surgery was one of the most trying of tember 21, 1849, in Blackhead, Conception all medical roles for her. Bay, Newfoundland. The daughter of a Anderson had her first child, Louisa, in Methodist minister, Thomas Angwin, and July 1873 and enjoyed being a mother. She Louisa Emma Gill, Maria had four brothers continued to work and wanted English- and two sisters, Elizabeth and Phillippa. women to know that having children did Both her mother and Phillippa died early of not eliminate the possibility of a career. She dysentery. did, however, make the difficult decision to Her father was transferred to Nova Scotia step down from an honorary position at in the 1850s and settled at Dartmouth in Shadwell Children’s Hospital, where she 1865. The next year she attended the Wes- had worked so hard with Nathaniel Heck- leyan Ladies Academy, which was part of ford to raise money. He had died at the Mount Allison College in Sackville, New early age of twenty-eight; Elizabeth and his Brunswick. Maria graduated in 1869 with a wife, who now ran the hospital, did not get liberal arts degree and decided on medical along well. school, having been greatly influenced by Her second child, Margaret, was born in reading about the Blackwell sisters. No 1874. At the same time, she added more schools in Canada accepted women, how- room to the New Hospital for Women, and ever, and she had four brothers who also Sophia Jex-Blake, now the leader for med- needed financial support for an education. ical education for women, established the Angwin began teaching in Dartmouth af- London Medical College for Women with ter attending the Normal School at Truro. Elizabeth’s help. Elizabeth taught at the col- She didn’t like teaching, but by living at lege and supported it despite turbulent home with her family she was able to save early years and numerous differences of enough money for medical school. In 1879 opinion with Jex-Blake. In 1875, Anderson she entered the Women’s Medical College at lost her fifteen-month-old daughter, Mar- the New York Infirmary for Women and garet, to meningitis. Another child came in Children, which had been established by 1876, and Elizabeth continued to work at the Blackwell sisters in 1868. the hospital and teach at the college. She be- Upon graduation she served as an intern came dean in 1883 and served for twenty assistant physician for a year in Boston at years. She died on December 17, 1917. She the New England Hospital for Women and was the first woman physician in England, Children. She then left for London to attend the first woman to obtain an M.D. degree in clinics at the Royal Free Hospital. France, and the first woman dean of a med- After returning to Nova Scotia, in 1884 ical school. By the time she retired, she had she obtained her license to practice medi- helped raise the London Medical College cine there. She practiced in Halifax, focusing for Women to new heights as the College of on the urban poor. Angwin was a very ac- London University. tive member in the Woman’s Christian Tem- See also: Blackwell, Elizabeth; Jex-Blake, perance Union. She also was a proponent of Sophia Louisa equal education for women and spoke at

10 Apgar, Virginia any opportunity on women’s health, chil- References: Encyclopedia Britannica Online dren’s well-being, and the rights of women 2000, http://www.britannica.com. to seek a career instead of, or in addition to, carrying out the duties of marriage and child rearing. She traveled to New York City Apgar, Virginia late in 1897 for postgraduate work. Al- 1909–1974 though she was ill when she returned to Halifax, she expected to resume her prac- Virginia Apgar is best known for develop- tice. She underwent minor surgery while ing the Apgar score system, which helps de- visiting in Ashland, Massachusetts, and termine the health of infants immediately died suddenly afterward. after birth. This method, developed in 1952, became widely accepted and put into prac- See also: Blackwell, Elizabeth tice and medical school textbooks very References: Johnston, Penelop, “Look quickly after it was published in 1953. It is Back Doctor: Nova Scotia’s Amazing Dr. still used around the world. Maria Angwin,” Medical Post 35, no. 15 (20 Virginia Apgar was born in Westfield, April 1999), http://www.medicalpost. New Jersey, on June 7, 1909, to Charles com/mdlink/; Kernaghan, Lois, “Angwin, Emory and Helen May Clarke Apgar. She Maria Louisa,” Dictionary of Canadian Biog- had two brothers, Charles, who died of tu- raphy, vol. 12, 1891–1900, Toronto: Univer- berculosis in 1903, and Lawrence. Her father sity of Toronto Press (1990). was an automobile salesman. He had a love of science, devoting his spare time to astronomy and electrical experiments. The rest of the family was also interested in sci- Apgar Score System ence, and in music. Virginia played the vio- 1952 lin and was involved in symphonies and orchestra events all her life, even making her The Apgar score system became widely own instruments. used to evaluate the health of newborns af- She graduated from Westfield High ter Virginia Apgar published her proposed School in 1925 and then attended Mount test in 1953. APGAR is the acronym for the Holyoke College, supplementing her schol- test’s measurements: A = appearance, P = arships by waiting tables and working in pulse, G = grimace, A = activity, and R = the library. She was also very athletic and respiration. Two points are given for each of enjoyed sports, especially tennis, as well as these five areas, with a score of seven mean- being in the college orchestra and reporting ing the newborn is healthy. If the infant for the college newspaper. scores below seven, the test is repeated In 1929, she earned her B.A. with a major every five minutes until a score of seven is in zoology and a minor in chemistry. Hav- attained. An extremely low score alerts the ing always wanted to be a physician, she attending physician that something is went on to medical school at Columbia Uni- wrong. versity’s College of Physicians and Sur- Virginia Apgar, who was an anesthesiolo- geons. In 1933 she obtained her medical de- gist and worried that infants were not gree and proceeded to a surgical internship promptly examined after birth, developed at Presbyterian Hospital. Following advice the score. More attention in her day was that she should consider the relatively new given to the mother. She felt that if there field of anesthesiology, she attended the were a quick test available, infant deaths University of Wisconsin and then went to and problems that developed soon after Bellevue Hospital in New York City to be- birth could be avoided. The test is still come certified as an anesthesiologist. widely used around the world. Apgar had always intended to be a surgeon, but Dr. Alan Whipple advised that it See also: Apgar, Virginia would be difficult for a woman to support

11 Apgar, Virginia

Virginia Apgar (U.S. National Library of Medicine)

herself as a surgeon, especially during the bia to hold the rank of full professor. She depression. He encouraged her to specialize held that position until 1959. in anesthesiology because there was a great It was as a practitioner that Apgar became need for better methods, and at the time, concerned about quickly ascertaining new- few physicians were specializing in the borns’ physical status. Having seen many field. heart and lung disorders that she felt could In 1938 and for the following eleven have been prevented with immediate exam- years, Apgar worked at Columbia-Presby- ination, she wanted a simple test that even a terian Medical Center as head of the divi- delivery-room nurse could administer. sion of anesthesiology. She taught, did re- Apgar developed her score system by de- search, and continued as a practitioner. termining what needed to be checked im- During her time there, her workload in- mediately following the birth of an infant. creased dramatically because so many men Her system has been invaluable in prevent- left to join the armed forces before and during further damage from birth abnormali- ing World War II, and she fought very hard ties. She first presented her method in 1952 for adequate compensation for her work, at the Annual Congress of Anesthetists. even threatening to resign her position at The Apgar score system did more than one point. She remained adamant about just help the infants. It also better prepared equal pay for women until her death. In new physicians and interns to handle a situ- 1949 she became the first female at Colum- ation in which the infant needed immediate

12 Ashby, Winifred Mayer resuscitation or other emergency care. She challenges, and felt women were liberated also researched anesthesia agents, believing the day they were born; they just had to be that local anesthesia rather than general better at what they did to succeed in a man’s anesthesia was always preferable for in- world or profession. She was unbiased re- fants. She quit using one of her favorites, cy- garding gender, race, and religion. clopropane, after research fellows under her Apgar died on August 7, 1974, at Colum- found that the agent suppressed their im- bia-Presbyterian Medical Center in New mune system. York City, where she had trained and Honesty about mistakes, without which worked for so many years. She was in- there could be no learning, was of utmost ducted into the Women’s Hall of Fame in importance to her, and she emphasized 1995. honesty to her students. During her surgical residency, when few admitted any References: Apgar, Virginia, “A Proposal wrongdoing if an infant died, she secretly for a New Method of Evaluation of the entered the morgue to check a dead infant Newborn Infant,” Current Researches in after being unable to obtain an autopsy per- Anesthesia and Analgesia 32 (July–August mit. She discovered that a small artery had 1953): 260– 267; Calmes, Selma Harrison, been clamped and that she had done it. She “Virginia Apgar: A Woman Physician’s Ca- immediately admitted her mistake to the reer in a Developing Specialty,” Journal of the surgeon. American Medical Women’s Association 39, no. In 1959 Apgar went to Johns Hopkins 6 (November–December 1984): 184–188; University to work on a master’s degree in Duffin, Jacalyn, “Apgar, Virginia,” American public health. She had become increasingly National Biography, New York: Oxford Uni- interested in doing research on birth defects. versity Press (1999); James, L. Stanley, While she was there, the National Founda- “Fond Memories of Virginia Apgar,” Pedi- tion–March of Dimes asked her to head its atrics 55, no. 1 (1975): 1–4; Ogilvie, Marilyn new division of congenital malformations. B., Biographical Dictionary of Women in Sci- Although she felt she was not yet qualified, ence: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to she determined to learn on the job. She also the Mid-20th Century. New York: Routledge felt she could go no further in anesthesiol- (2000); Wyly, M. Virginia, “Apgar, Virginia,” ogy at Columbia. She had become inter- Dictionary of American Biography, Supplement ested in genetics as well, so she finished her 9, 1971–1975, New York: Scribner’s (1994). master’s degree and took the position in 1960. She stayed with the March of Dimes for the rest of her career, becoming vice- Ashby, Winifred Mayer president and director of basic research in 1879–1975 1967 and senior vice-president of medical affairs in 1973. Winifred Ashby was the first person to de- Apgar was also extremely dedicated to al- termine the life span of erythrocytes (red leviating deformities and ailments before blood cells). Her “Ashby method” is in- birth. She was very concerned about prena- cluded in many hematology books. The tal care, the effects of radiation on the fetus, technique involves mixing different types of and nutrition for pregnant women. She red blood cells in patients and following coauthored a book in 1972 with Joan Beck those cells over time to observe the disap- called Is My Baby Alright? pearance of different cell types. She con- She was a much sought-after speaker and cluded that human red blood cells can circu- was invited frequently to speak at confer- late in the body for up to 110 days. Prior to ences and meetings. Although she eventu- her work, it was thought that they survived ally won international recognition, she re- only two to three weeks. Many disputed her mained an unassuming and modest findings initially, but over time her conclu- woman. sions were found to be accurate. Her work She walked and talked very fast, loved went largely unnoticed until the 1930s.

13 Aspasia

Ashby was born in London, England, on sidered a major contribution to medical October 13, 1879. She was the daughter of practice in the Greco-Roman world. Her George Mayer and Mary-Ann Brock Ashby. writings survived over 1,000 years until Tro- She moved with her family to Chicago tula’s works became widely used. when she was fourteen years old. She at- Because Aetios of Amida wrote about her tended Northwestern University and also in the sixth century B.C. and quoted from her the University of Chicago, obtaining a B.S. extensively in his Tetrabiblon, she is consid- in 1903. She earned an M.S. two years later ered to be one of the most knowledgeable of at Washington University in St. Louis and the time on female diseases. Aetios was a from there went to the Philippines to study physician who attended to Justinian I, the malnutrition. Byzantine emperor. When she returned to the Midwest, she Most of her writings concern pregnancy, taught physics and chemistry in Berwyn, the determination of fetal positions before Illinois, and Maryville, Missouri. From 1914 birth, and herbal treatments for some condi- to 1916 she carried out laboratory work at tions. She also performed surgery and made Rush Medical College and Illinois Central the early observation that the mental health Hospital in Chicago. In 1917 she began a fel- of the mother plays a part in a healthy birth lowship in immunology and pathology at and the health of the child. the Mayo Clinic, during which time she developed her method for determining the life References: Shearer, Benjamin F., and Bar- of erythrocytes. bara S. Shearer, Notable Women in the Life Sci- She attended the University of Minnesota ences: A Biographical Dictionary, Westport, and received her Ph.D. in 1921. She re- CT: Greenwood Press (1996). mained at the Mayo Clinic until 1924, then took a job at St. Elizabeth’s Hospital in Washington, D.C., where she worked in the Avery, Mary Ellen bacteriology and serology laboratories and 1927– supervised numerous activities. She retired in 1949 to Lorton, Virginia. Mary Ellen Avery discovered the reason be- Ashby died from a cerebrovascular acci- hind respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) dent on July 19, 1975, at the age of ninety-five. and helped develop a treatment for the condition. Infants with RDS cannot develop References: Fairbanks, Virgil F., “In Memo- enough pulmonary surfactant to coat their riam: Winifred M. Ashby, 1879–1975,” Blood lungs in order for them to breathe easily. In 46, no. 6 (December 1975): 977–978; Kass- many instances, this condition is fatal. Av- Simon, G., and Patricia Farnes, Women of Sci- ery’s work has saved thousands of prema- ence: Righting the Record, Bloomington: Indi- ture infants around the world. ana University Press (1990); Parry, Melanie, Avery was born on May 6, 1927, in Cam- ed., Chambers Biographical Dictionary, Edin- den, New Jersey, to William Clarence Avery burgh: Chambers (1997); Who Was Who in and Mary Catherine Miller Avery. She has America with World Notables: Volume VI, 1974 one sister. –1976, Chicago: Marquis Who’s Who (1976); Avery was influenced early by a neighbor, Wintrobe, Maxwell M., Blood, Pure and Elo- Emily Bacon, who was a doctor and a pro- quent: A Story of Discovery, of People, and of fessor at the Women’s Medical College of Ideas, New York: McGraw-Hill (1980). Pennsylvania and took Avery on rounds at the hospital. Avery’s parents both encouraged her to pursue the career of her choice. Aspasia She attended Wheaton College, where she A.D. 200 majored in chemistry and graduated summa cum laude in 1948. She then went to Johns Aspasia was a Greco-Roman whose writ- Hopkins University School of Medicine to ings on obstetrics and gynecology were con- obtain her M.D. degree. Soon after receiving

14 Avery, Mary Ellen her M.D. in 1952, Avery developed tubercu- as possible. She is a strong advocate for ba- losis. She was sent to Trudeau Sanitarium for sic medical service to children of economi- a year but left after just a few days because cally depressed countries, evidenced by her she didn’t think bed rest for a year could involvement in UNICEF. possibly help. She recovered at home and, Avery has served in various faculty roles during her illness, began to read more about over the years. She worked at Johns Hop- tuberculosis and other lung ailments. kins until 1969, then took a position at During her days at Harvard on a research McGill University in Quebec as professor of fellowship, she discovered RDS firsthand in pediatrics at Children’s Hospital. In 1974 the autopsy room. She spent a lot of time she began work as the physician in chief at there studying newborn infants who had Boston’s Children’s Hospital while serving died of RDS, a condition no one then under- as professor of pediatrics at Harvard. She stood. In order to learn more about lung has written extensively on newborns, re- function, she began work with Dr. Jere ceived numerous awards, and been a very Mead at Harvard. busy speaker abroad. She has left a perma- Together they discovered that a foamy nent mark on the field of pediatrics. substance called pulmonary surfactant was lacking in newborns who had died of References: Bailey, Martha J., American RDS. Avery realized that this substance Women in Science: 1950 to the Present, Santa was of great importance for newborns to Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1998); Contempo- breathe normally. She also discovered that rary Authors Online, Detroit: Gale (2000); No- glucocorticoid hormones assisted with table Twentieth-Century Scientists Supplement, lung development; they are now given to Detroit: Gale (1998); Shearer, Benjamin F., pregnant women who are at risk for pre- and Barbara S. Shearer, Notable Women in the mature delivery. Life Sciences, Westport, CT: Greenwood Avery feels that research findings must be Press (1996). disseminated to a wide audience as quickly

Bacheler, Mary Washington younger ones might eventually benefit from 1860–1939 the missionaries’ religious teachings. In the meantime, they were helping to educate The degradation of women in India in the young women, a practice that initiated an late nineteenth and early twentieth cen- expectation in Indian society. turies motivated the Free Baptists to move In 1883 Mary returned to the United into the mission field there. Mary Bacheler, States for seven years, much of that time be- an active medical missionary in India, caring spent at the Women’s Medical College ried out their work for decades. of the New York Infirmary for Women and Bacheler was born in New Hampton, Children, where she graduated with her New Hampshire, on February 22, 1860. Her M.D. degree in 1890. She returned to Mid- father was a medical missionary and had re- napore and the Brown Dispensary to work turned with his wife for the birth of Mary, with her father. At one point they were see- the ninth of ten children. In 1866, leaving ing over 3,000 patients a year. Mary traveled the other children in the United States, often to homes, as many women were now Mary’s mother took Mary to India for the willing to let a female physician see to their first time. There she got an early look at her needs. Her popularity grew so fast that after father’s work in treating the Indians in and her parents left in 1892, she became totally around Midnapore. immersed in health care and ministering to In the late nineteenth century in India, the people. After several years, she suffered many women were not allowed to permit a a complete breakdown and had to return to man to examine them if they had an ailment, the United States. Her parents both died and thus many of them suffered from poor soon thereafter. Her health regained, Mary health. Medical missionary women like returned to India and her work in 1903. Bacheler often were able not only to cure the During the next three decades she worked women of their ailments but also to thereby in various roles as assigned by the Free Bap- establish trust and win converts to the faith. tists. She oversaw an orphanage, tended to An earlier development had given the administrative duties, and was tough on Free Baptist missionaries access to Indian new missionaries, insisting they be better women. In February 1866, the Hindus be- acquainted with the Bible. She herself en- gan to allow outside women into the joyed telling Bible stories while she tended zenanas, the female part of the household. to the ill. She also was a tireless advocate of Missionary women of the time were al- women’s and children’s health care. lowed in some instances to gather with She retired in 1933, left India for the last Hindu women and teach various domestic time in 1936, and died in the United States practices as well as crafts. Some Free Baptist on November 5, 1939. Her friends and pa- supporters were disappointed that this type tients in India were still receiving Christmas of outreach did not bring about many con- presents from her when they learned of her versions, but Mary was certain that the death.

17 Bain, Barbara

References: Bickers, Robert A., and Rose- mary Seton, eds., Missionary Encounters: Sources and Issues, Richmond, Surrey: Cur- zon Press (1996); Congdon-Martin, Eliza- beth W., “Mary Washington Bacheler, M.D.: Enlisted for Life,” American Baptist Quarterly 12, no. 3 (1993): 271–282.

Bain, Barbara 1932–

Barbara Bain developed the mixed leukocyte culture (MLC), which is essential in determining bone marrow and organ compat- ibility for transplants. She discovered that combining the blood lymphocytes of two different people results in the activation of the lymphocytes. The amount of in vitro activation is an indication of how compatible one set of cells is with the other. Researchers determine the degree of activation from the Sara Josephine Baker (Underwood & Underwood/ amount of DNA synthesis that has occurred U.S. National Library of Medicine) over five or six days. Bain was born in Montreal, Quebec, on May 8, 1932. She attended McGill Univer- sity and received B.S. and M.S. degrees in welfare of poor women and children and 1953 and 1957, respectively. In 1965 she observed in various government and organi- tained her Ph.D. in experimental medicine. zational roles to assist those who needed She developed MLC while at the Royal Vic- care the most. She was one of the first toria Hospital as a graduate student. She women to become involved in social medi- currently is a professor at St. Mary’s Hospi- cine and the first woman to obtain a Ph.D. tal Medical School, Department of Haema- in public health from New York Univer- tology, London. sity’s Bellevue Hospital Medical School. Her current research focuses on sickle cell Baker was born November 15, 1873, in disease, leukemia, genetics, and the role of Poughkeepsie, New York. Her father, Or- ethnicity in blood-related health issues. lando Daniel Mosher Baker, was a lawyer, and her mother, Jenny Harwood Brown, References: American Men and Women of was one of the first to graduate from Vassar Science 1998–99, New Providence, NJ: College. Baker had intended to go to Vassar Bowker (1999); Kass-Simon, G., and Patricia as well, but her father and brother died un- Farnes, Women of Science: Righting the Record, expectedly when she was sixteen. She de- Bloomington: Indiana University Press cided not to accept a scholarship to Vassar, (1990). as her mother wanted; instead she set her sights on a medical career. Her mother was not very encouraging Baker, Sara Josephine but still supportive. In 1894 Baker began her 1873–1945 studies at the Women’s Medical College of the New York Infirmary for Women and Sara Baker was a physician and public Children, which had been founded by Eliz- health administrator in the early twentieth abeth and Emily Blackwell. It was the only century. She became an authority on the medical school in New York that accepted

18 Balfour, Margaret Ida women. She then turned down an opportu- References: Baker, Sara Josephine, Fight- nity to intern at the New York Infirmary being for Life, New York: Macmillan (1939); cause she wanted to work in a large general Morantz-Sanchez, Regina, “Baker, Sara hospital. However, since none of them took Josephine,” American National Biography, women interns, she settled on Boston’s New vol. 2, New York: Oxford University Press England Hospital for Women and Children, (1999); Notable Twentieth-Century Scientists, whose staff included many very well- Detroit: Gale (1995). trained women physicians. In Boston, Baker also cared for outpatients of the hospital who lived in the slums, Balfour, Margaret Ida in time realizing that she had found her life- 18?–1949 work. She took a practical view of her mission, concluding that someone had to deal Margaret Balfour was a physician very ac- with the effects of an unjust society. tive in organizing activities in connection She attempted private practice among the with the Medical Women’s International poor but realized she could not make a liv- Association and the Women’s Medical Ser- ing. Then, after she had worked briefly as a vice in India. She was a leader in foreign medical examiner for an insurance com- medical services and became an expert on pany, New York City’s Health Department Indian medical care and facilities as well as hired her in 1907 to head the Bureau of worked in many African countries. Her Child Hygiene. It was here that she began prolific correspondence and other writings her contributions to public health. She could during the early twentieth century alerted see that giving the poor medical treatment many in the world to the unhealthy envi- was not enough; legislation, regulations, ronments in many countries, particularly to and staff adequately trained to work with the needs of women and children in India the population would be necessary. Because and Africa. She also was indispensable in of her efforts in training midwives, New organizing medical education for women in York City achieved the lowest infant mortal- India and Africa. Her book The Work of Med- ity rate of any large city. ical Women in India was a source on many Baker was a feminist, a lesbian, and an ac- aspects of Indian social and cultural life. It tive suffragist. She associated with many in- also documents the progress that had been fluential and unconventional women made to date and has good statistics on fe- throughout her life; most of these women male practitioners. were members of the Heterodoxy Club, Balfour was born in Edinburgh, the founded in 1912. Members met to discuss daughter of Robert Balfour. Little is known mutual concerns, women’s rights, and how about her early life and education except to handle the inequality women were facing that she did attend Edinburgh University. professionally. Her interests in medicine focused on the Baker felt it was important to have the health of women, particularly when preg- public image of an exceptional professional nant, and of children in Asia. in order to make improvements in public health. By continually focusing, without References: Balfour, Margaret I., and Ruth racial prejudice, on the plight of mothers and Young, The Work of Medical Women in India, children, she was able to influence political London: Oxford University Press (1929); leaders on their behalf; it was difficult for a Lovejoy, Esther P., Women Doctors of the politician to be against mothers and children. World, New York: Macmillan (1957); Who She authored many books and articles Was Who, 1941–50, “Balfour, Margaret Ida,” and retired to Bellemead, New Jersey, where London: A & C Black (1951); Who Was Who she had a farm and lived with her partner, among English and European Authors, Ida Wylie, the novelist, and Louise Pearce, a 1931–1949, “Balfour, Margaret Ida,” Detroit: physician. She died of cancer on February Gale (1978). 22, 1945, in New York City.

19 Barnes, Alice Josephine

Barnes, Alice Josephine in 1974. Outside of work she enjoyed travel- 1912–1999 ing, cooking, and music. She died on De- cember 28, 1999.

The first woman to become president of the References: “Dame Josephine Barnes,” British Medical Association, Barnes spent Times (29 December 1999): 19; Haines, her life as a gynecologist and obstetrician Catharine M. C., and Helen Stevens, Inter- trying to improve the health of women and national Women in Science: A Biographical Dic- infants. tionary to 1950, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC- Born in Sheringham, Norfolk, England, on CLIO (2001). August 18, 1912, to a minister and a gifted pianist, she determined early in her life that she wanted to become a doctor. She went to Barriers to Success Oxford High School and later won a scholarship to Lady Margaret Hall, a women’s Many obstacles hindered women from suc- college at the University of Oxford, where cess in the medical field. Key areas of diffi- she earned her master’s degree in 1937. culty were cultural and societal expectations, After World War II began, many male education, and laws and religion. Despite physicians were called into the military and having the desire and intelligence needed, their absence enabled her to obtain a posi- many women had to fight for the education tion at the Samaritan Hospital in 1939. She required and the acceptance of society. worked delivering babies and caring for Until the late twentieth century, it was ex- people injured in the Nazi bombings of Lon- ceptional for a woman to be encouraged to don, and earned her M.D. at University Col- study a science discipline such as medicine. lege Hospital Medical School in 1941. Most societies had a traditional view of She married Dr. Brian Warren in 1942 and women as homemakers and childbearers, they started a family, eventually having and most women were raised from an early three children. She continued working as a age with these expectations in mind. Very physician at various hospitals in London few were bold enough to set out to become and managing a private practice while rais- physicians. Many who did so had physician ing her children. She became a well-known fathers or relatives that piqued their interest gynecologist and obstetrician, and as her in medicine or a related discipline. reputation grew, so did requests for her to The notion that women were not up to serve on various governmental and organi- the same tasks as men was put forth by zational committees. many men during the women’s rights She investigated the effectiveness of the struggles of the late nineteenth century, Abortion Act (1967), concluding that it did when women were pressing for more op- more good than harm. She also worked to tions than just domestic careers. In his con- determine the appropriate conditions for troversial book Sex in Education; or A Fair conducting experiments on embryos. One Chance for the Girls, Edward H. Clarke, of the most memorable things Barnes did M.D., a former Harvard University profes- was to save the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson sor, proposed that women should not be al- Hospital from closure during the 1970s. She lowed to study with men. “Identical educa- earned the position of president of the tion of the two sexes is a crime before God British Medical Association in 1979 because and humanity, that physiology protests her colleagues, most of them male, felt she against, and that experience weeps over” was a tremendously productive and ethical (Clarke 1873, 127). He also felt that women physician. would do themselves harm by exerting Barnes retired from private practice in undo energy during menstruation and 1995 but continued to be interested in med- could permanently damage their reproduc- ical affairs. She became a Dame Comman- tive organs. This view was shared by many. der of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) Throughout history, the gender issue has

20 Barriers to Success been problematic. Even in the late 1600s and early twentieth centuries even if they held 1700s, when wet nurses and governesses in- no academic position. This was possible in creasingly served the upper classes of Eu- disciplines that required no laboratory rope, women did not find encouragement. work. Few women that managed to achieve “Women’s desires to engage like men in an appropriate education were equally suc- productive lives free of the cares of parent- cessful in acquiring the academic position ing came into conflict with growing beliefs that would have given them access to ade- that those nations were strongest which had quate facilities for research in certain clinical the largest population” (Schiebinger 1989, areas. They were nevertheless productive in 218–219). Governments believed that the writing about others’ findings, researching high infant mortality rate could be lowered the literature of their fields, and using their only by educating women on infant care own observations and practices, particu- and having them take care of their own larly in Russia, the United States, and Great young. Britain. The major focus of their studies dur- Margaret Cavendish spoke for many in ing this time was pathology, neurology, the seventeenth century when she wrote physiology, and anatomy. that “women’s brains are simply too ‘cold’ There appeared to be only four U.S. and ‘soft’ to sustain rigorous thought” schools—“Michigan, Chicago, and Cornell, (Schiebinger 1989, 2). This view has contin- and Bryn Mawr College” (Creese 1998, 135) ued to evolve and wear different faces. —that trained a meaningful number of “The alleged defect in women’s minds women for medical careers in the late nine- has changed over time: in the late eighteenth and early twentieth centuries. Also of teenth century, the female cranial cavity was note is Johns Hopkins University, which ac- supposed to be too small to hold powerful cepted an endowment for its medical school brains; in the nineteenth century, the exer- in 1889 on the condition that it admit cise of women’s brains was said to shrivel women as well as men. In other countries, their ovaries. In our own century peculiari- educational institutions changed even more ties in the right hemisphere supposedly slowly. make women unable to visualize spatial re- Many people were against coeducation of lations” (Schiebinger 1989, 2). Over the cen- any kind, particularly in medicine. Others turies, many educated men and women felt women were not physically up to the have held such views. task. Still others argued that women should Many colleges and universities constantly be educated as physicians only if they at- turned females away simply because they tended women’s colleges. Women felt that were women. A few women were able to the public needed to be assured they were gain admission to appropriate medical col- being trained as well as men and that some leges, but such admissions were rare even women’s schools would produce—in fact after Elizabeth Blackwell was admitted to they sometimes did produce—substandard Geneva College in 1847 in the United States. physicians. The Blackwells’ New York Infir- Many women were able to find the educa- mary for Women and Children and Jex- tion they wanted only when new occupa- Blake’s Edinburgh School of Medicine for tions materialized. Physiology, for example, Women accomplished the task of providing was considered an appropriate area for exemplary training for women physicians. women because it involved public hygiene Based on the premise that a woman had and required work in the cities and public to achieve extraordinary training in order to schools. Since such work was not seen as in enter a man’s domain, the Blackwells strove men’s domain, physiology became part of for standards higher than those required by the curriculum in many women’s colleges the traditional medical schools of the time. in the late nineteenth century in the United The curriculum that evolved at the New States. York Infirmary provided more clinical expe- Many women were able to do research rience than was available in the traditional and publish during the late nineteenth and schools. Women trained there were also

21 Barriers to Success much more likely to be more experienced able to enter the profession, particularly in with female difficulties during pregnancy Russia. There, most men entered other areas and early-birth difficulties than their male of study, and a degree in medicine did not counterparts. carry the prestige it did in other countries. Women who wished to be physicians had Except for Chile and Brazil, Latin American another problem besides education. Even if countries were slow to let women enter the they could find a school willing to admit profession. A decree by the Chilean govern- and train them, who would want a woman ment in 1877 allowed women to take exam- physician, and where would they practice? inations for a profession as long as they This concern still applies today for many were trained just like men. Chile was well women physicians around the world. Most ahead of many countries. women who were pioneers in education, in- In Asia circumstances varied greatly by cluding Elizabeth Blackwell, had a hard country. In Japan a long and strong tradition time winning patients in private practice, of women as housekeepers and mothers was and many hospitals did not accept women crucial. Medical schools for women now ex- physicians. Numerous women eventually ist, but change came about very slowly. died in debt or poverty because their prac- China, in contrast, has been very supportive tice was limited to those who couldn’t af- of women seeking a career in medicine. In- ford medical care or they provided care in dia has a high number of women physicians, their own homes for donations. Thus a and a huge percentage in obstetrics and gy- woman physician’s qualifications became necological care. Many Indian women will meaningless because no one in the tradi- allow only a female to examine them, and tional establishment wanted women in the this attitude is well accepted. profession. In the Islamic world, change for women Countless women died because they did has been slower due to cultural and reli- not feel it was appropriate to allow males to gious beliefs and laws. However, since the examine their bodies. Nuns would not al- end of World War II a few women have been low an examination by a male. Perhaps this able to enter the medical profession. Within attitude led to so many women becoming Africa, poverty rather than restrictions interested in obstetrics and gynecology. against women is the problem. There are Even some men saw that women might be few facilities for training and working as better than men in this field, as well as bet- well as a lack of skilled teachers for basic ter at dealing with children’s ailments. science courses. Australian universities ac- Laws and regulations in many countries cept women, but medical degrees have typ- were restrictive regarding who could obtain ically taken six years to attain and thus medical degrees or certification. In many some females are discouraged early on by countries the legal system and the church or their parents. religious beliefs were intertwined, as in sev- The effects of two world wars—widows enteenth-century England. Women were not needed to find a way to support their fami- restricted from being licensed as surgeons, lies, and countries needed women physi- for example, but from the few records that cians to fill in for male medical doctors that exist, it would appear that women had to went to war or to replace those who were prove quite superior to their male counter- killed—led some people to see the advan- parts in order to be approved by the church. tages of preparing women for careers. Soci- Records show documentation of extraordi- eties also began to see the benefit of a dual- nary detail for the few women who man- income household, especially when aged to gain a license. In seventeenth-cen- domestic help became more readily avail- tury England, licensing “was a barrier which able and affordable in many countries. prevented women from standing on an Despite progress, however, there are still equal footing with their male counterparts” those who feel women physicians will never (Evenden 1998, 212). have equality with men, particularly in the In Eastern Europe, more women were United States.

22 Barringer, Emily Dunning

There is a “glass ceiling” on women 275, no. 7 (18 August 1966); Burstein, Paul, physicians’ upward mobility. They are and Marie Bricher, “Problem Definition and kept from top-level positions, I will Public Policy: Congressional Committees argue, through the subtle process of Confront Work, Family, and Gender, 1945– a kind of colleague boycott—not 1990,” Social Forces 76, no. 1 (September keeping them out entirely, but not 1997): 135–168; Clarke, Edward H., Sex in Ed- including them in ways that allow ucation; or A Fair Chance for the Girls, Boston: them to replace the senior members J. R. Osgood (1873); Creese, Mary R. S., of the medical community. This Ladies in the Laboratory? American and British process is the “Salieri phenomenon”— Women in Science, 1800–1900, Lanham, MD: a combination of faint praise and Scarecrow Press (1998); Evenden, Doreen A., subtle denigration of their abilities “Gender Differences in the Licensing and to lead which delegitimates women Practice of Female and Male Surgeons in physicians’ bids to compete for Early Modern England,” Medical History 42 positions of great authority. The reason (1998); Gabor, Andrea, “Married, with men are so reluctant to allow women Househusband,” Working Woman 20, no. 11 into the inner circles, I contend, is their (November 1995): 46–50ff.; Lorber, Judith, fear that if too many women become “Why Women Physicians Will Never Be leaders, the profession will “tip” and True Equals in the American Medical Profes- become women’s work—and men will sion,” in Gender, Work, and Medicine: Women lose prestige, income and authority. and the Medical Division of Labor, edited by (Lorber 1993, 63) Elianne Riska and Katarina Wegar, London: Sage (1993); Rossiter, Margaret W., Women Others disagree and feel economics will Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies dictate the need for more women physicians to 1940, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Uni- because of the growth in the field of health versity Press (1982); Schiebinger, Londa, The care. Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Research has revealed what obstacles are Modern Science, Cambridge, MA: Harvard most troublesome for women in the medical University Press (1989); Walsh, Mary Roth, field, including in academia. “The chairs we Doctors Wanted: No Women Need Apply: Sex- interviewed painted a broad tableau of fac- ual Barriers in the Medical Profession, tors constraining women’s advancement to 1835–1975, New Haven, CT: Yale University leadership positions in academic medicine, Press (1977); Yedidia, Michael J., and Janet and they identified three sources of barriers: Bickel, “Why Aren’t There More Women historical developments (e.g., shortage of Leaders in Academic Medicine? The Views women in the pipeline), broad social forces of Clinical Department Chairs,” Academic (e.g., gender roles and socialization patterns Medicine 76:5 (May 2001): 453–465. affecting women’s status), and the expression of these forces in the medical environment (e.g., sexism in recruitment and promotion practices, a shortage of effective Barringer, Emily Dunning mentors for women)” (Yedidia 2001). The 1876–1961 fact that the male-dominated American Medical Association elected a woman, Emily Barringer was the first female ambu- Nancy Dickey, as its president in 1997 sug- lance surgeon in New York City and the first gests that more women can achieve leader- female physician to work as an intern at a ship roles with administrative power. New York City hospital. She was born Sep- tember 27, 1876, in Scarsdale, New York, to See also: Wars and Epidemics; Women of Edwin James Dunning and Frances Gore Color in Medicine Lang. At eight she found her calling when References: Bowers, John Z., “Women in she helped her mother after the birth of her Medicine,” New England Journal of Medicine sixth child. “I truly believe that it was at this

23 Barry, James time that the great desire was born in me to Between these two irrevocable mark- help the sick and suffering which later was to ers, the beginning and the end, I was lead me into medicine” (Barringer 1950, 28). to see every phase of human activity Emily’s family suffered financial reverses and human emotion, the full gamut of when she was still a child, and her mother life. I was to see heroism, devotion, felt her daughters needed an education so loyalty, hard work and honest labor, that they could support themselves. Emily illness in every form, poverty, hunger, thought about becoming a nurse, but after cold; pitiless cold in winter, unbear- listening to a lecture by Mary Putnam Ja- able heat in summer, in the old tene- cobi, she realized a medical profession was ments reeking with overcrowded hu- possible. She graduated from Cornell Uni- manity; crime in every form, robbery, versity in New York and proceeded to the murder, rape; insanity, alcoholism in Medical College of the New York Infirmary all stages; I was to meet the budding for Women and Children. She received her gangster, the prostitute and to visit medical degree in 1904 and married a fellow dives where the underworld held out medical student, Benjamin Stockwell Bar- and one reeled under the nauseous ringer. opium-laden air. Industrial accidents Before receiving her medical degree, she little understood in those days came wanted to intern at a large hospital, but my way; men suffering “the bends” or women physicians were not allowed in strange deaths from monoxide poison- these facilities. She took hospital exams and ing, before preventive measures were did well but was refused any appointment established. (Barringer 1950, 149) until 1903, when she went to work at Gou- verneur Hospital in New York City. She had Barringer did much to set an example not worked to lobby the mayor, who was in sup- only for women who wanted to be medical port of women holding physician positions practitioners but also for women who had if they did well on standard examinations. to fight in order to use their skills and tal- Several male physicians tried to force her ents in the service of others. She died on to resign, but because of her good and effi- April 8, 1961, in New Milford, Connecticut. cient work, she had support from the rest of the hospital staff and eventually from the References: Barringer, Emily Dunning, residents of New York City. Bowery to Bellevue: The Story of New York’s She worked at other hospitals, specializ- First Woman Ambulance Surgeon, New York: ing in gynecological surgery and later in W. W. Norton (1950); German, Lisa Broehl, venereal diseases. She was also active in “Barringer, Emily Dunning,” American Na- various organizations involved in provid- tional Biography, vol. 2, New York: Oxford ing medical services during World War I, University Press (1999). particularly those that worked to provide ambulances in Europe. During World War II she had a large hand in promoting women’s Barry, James rights, particularly their right to commis- 1795–1865 sions in the military. Barringer lobbied both the president and Congress for over a year James Barry’s story is incredible in that she on the legislation that made it possible for masqueraded as a man all her life, her gen- women to be commissioned into the mili- der revealed only at her death. She entered tary and receive the same benefits as men. the British army disguised as a man in 1813 In 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt after being educated at the Edinburgh signed into law the Sparkman Act, which School of Medicine. She shied away from was supported by U.S. senator John Jackson her classmates for obvious reasons. As a Sparkman of Alabama. woman, she would not have been allowed Barringer answered thousands of ambu- to study at the university, let alone to prac- lance calls and encountered birth and death: tice as a physician. During her forty-year ca-

24 Barton, Clara reer, she rose to the rank of inspector-general in the Army Medical Department. Little is known about her early life except that she intended early on to become a physician and made excellent marks in school. As an army surgeon she was well respected. She served at Malta and the Cape of Good Hope beginning in 1816. She spent unusually long hours with lepers and blacks, to the consternation of some colleagues who felt such work was unimpor- tant. She is known to have dueled, had a very hot temper, and been sent home occasionally due to various breeches of military conduct. She was five feet tall with a slight frame and a high-pitched voice Unsubstantiated rumors circulated after her death—that she was possibly a her- maphrodite, that she was in love with another army surgeon. It was discovered that she had borne a child, about whom nothing is known. She is remembered in South Africa, where she served the destitute and practiced preventive medicine decades before such work was regarded as important. Clara Barton (National Archives/U.S. National Library of Medicine) References: Harrison, Robert, “Barry, James,” Dictionary of National Biography, Vol- ume I, London: Oxford University Press (1973); Notable Women Scientists, Detroit: enjoyed learning and problem solving and Gale (2000); Rose, June, The Perfect Gentle- early on studied math, chemistry, Latin, phi- man, London: Hutchinson (1977). losophy, and history. When she was eighteen she began teaching, an occupation she enjoyed. When she was thirty, she enrolled in the Liberal Insti- Barton, Clara tute of Clinton, New York. She completed (Clarissa Harlowe) her studies and returned to teaching in New 1821–1912 Jersey. She later moved to Washington, D.C., and obtained a position in the patent office. Clara Barton is well-known for her nursing When the Civil War broke out, Barton abilities during the American Civil War. Her started helping on her own with just a few leadership abilities and organizational skills people donating money or supplies. It was enabled her to bring disaster nursing to the easier during the beginning of the war, be- forefront of her profession, found the Amer- fore other organizations had a handle on the ican Red Cross, and lead that growing orga- tasks, to get to battle victims, and she be- nization into public-relief efforts all over her came a dependable and indispensable relief country. worker in the early going. Born in Oxford, Massachusetts, on De- Once the war was over, she took on the cember 25, 1821, she was the youngest of huge job of identifying for the government five children of Steven and Sarah Stone Bar- missing soldiers and those who had died. ton. Both humanitarian and patriotic, her She also saw to properly marking their parents were a great influence on her. She graves. President Lincoln was very support-

25 Bassi, Laura Maria Caterina ive of this effort. Her biggest job during this Cross because in other countries, presidents time was marking the graves at the infa- served as leaders of the organization. Presi- mous Anderson Prison in Georgia, officially dent Garfield instead nominated Clara Bar- Camp Sumter. It was one of the largest pris- ton. She took office and served for the next ons during the Civil War, and Union sol- twenty-three years, leading the organiza- diers died daily due to lack of food and tion to relief efforts in many areas. health care and overcrowding. Barton was praised during the early years Dorence Atwater wrote to Clara Barton at of the American Red Cross, and she main- the end of the war when he learned that she tained a small, efficient organization. Her wanted to find missing soldiers and mark leadership was vital because she had gained graves appropriately. He had been a pris- the respect of thousands of people who oner at Andersonville whose job it was to knew of her humanitarian nature and work. record the deaths of Union soldiers for Con- However, the organization grew far too federate records. He secretly made his own large for a single woman to lead. After the copy of the record, fearing that the original Spanish-American War many saw the need might be lost. He took his copy with him for reorganization. Barton, now nearing upon discharge and with the information he eighty years of age and feeling the proposal obtained Clara Barton’s help in identifying a personal insult, disagreed. thousands of graves and marking them President Roosevelt told her he could no properly. longer be an officer of the Red Cross with Most of Barton’s work during this period such unrest surrounding the idea of reor- was in Annapolis and Washington, D.C., ganization, and a disheartened Barton re- but she also traveled extensively, speaking signed on June 16, 1904. She refused the to audiences about her work. She consid- move to make her honorary president for ered writing a book about all she had seen life with an adequate salary. She retired to during the war but decided instead to give Glen Echo, Maryland, outside of Washing- lectures in order to earn a living. She at- ton, D.C., which was her home. She contin- tended lectures given by other women in ued to be interested in some of the women’s order to observe and hone her skills. Audi- issues of the time and continued correspon- ences responded positively, and she found dence with friends and writing in her diary. the income sufficient to travel and support She died on April 12, 1912, and was buried herself. She lectured throughout the Mid- in Oxford, Massachusetts. west and New England until her voice failed from exhaustion and nervous pros- References: Barton, William E., Life of Clara tration. She was advised to go to Europe for Barton, Founder of the American Red Cross, rest and went to Switzerland in 1869. As Boston: Houghton Mifflin (1922); Bullough, she recovered, she became very interested Vern L., Olga Maranjian Church, and Alice in the International Red Cross and its treaty Stein, American Nursing: A Biographical Dic- of humanitarian assistance to all who tionary, New York: Garland (1988); Snod- needed it in times of war. Barton was as- grass, Mary Jane, Historical Encyclopedia of tonished that the United States had not Nursing, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO signed this treaty. (1999). She worked in Europe with some of the Red Cross volunteers during the Franco- Prussian War. After returning to the United Bassi, Laura Maria Caterina States, she worked for years to persuade 1711–1778 government officials that the United States should join the International Red Cross. The An Italian anatomist, Bassi was an unusu- American Red Cross finally became a reality ally talented woman from a family that af- on May 20, 1881. forded her a university education, an edu- Barton urged President James Garfield to cational opportunity rare for women of the become president of the American Red time period.

26 Blackwell, Elizabeth

Born October 29, 1711, in Bologna to References: Ceskoslovensky Biograficky Slov- Giuseppe Bassi and Rosa Cesari Bassi, she nik. Prague: Academia (1992); Navratil, was educated early in the home and tutored Michal, Almanach Ceskych Lekaru, Prague: by the family physician. One of the family Náklaem Spisovatelovy´m (1913); Necas, friends was Cardinal Lambertini (became Ctibor, “Prvni Uredni Lekarka V Bosnen,” Pope Benedict XIV in 1740), who felt Bassi Casopis Matice Moravske [Czechoslovakia] had a gift that should be demonstrated to 102, nos. 3–4 (1983). the public. After she had impressed many professors with her intellectual giftedness in the arts and sciences, Cardinal Lambertini Biheron, Marie Catherine told her she would be allowed to pursue a 1719–1786 university education. She earned a Ph.D. around 1732 from the Marie Biheron was a talented anatomist in University of Bologna and then lectured as a France. She gained considerable recognition professor. Her main areas of study were during her lifetime for her wax models, anatomy and physics. She married which she made to overcome the lack of ca- Giuseppe Verati on February 6, 1738, and davers for use in studying the human body. they had several children. She continued Her anatomically correct models were used teaching at the university and at home. a great deal to teach both male and female Bassi serves as an exception to traditional students who had an interest in medicine or roles of women of her day. She died in 1778 midwifery. in Bologna. What we know about Biheron comes from writings of her contemporaries. She References: Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Har- was born in Paris, and her father was an vey, eds., The Biographical Dictionary of apothecary. Madeleine Basseport, a talented Women in Science, New York: Routledge illustrator, was her teacher. Biheron never (2000). divulged her secrets in making the models she sold; some didn’t believe they were wax because they didn’t melt when heated. She Bayerova, Anna was invited by royalty on more than one oc- 1852–1924 casion to display her models or to lecture, and she was a well-respected anatomy Anna Bayerova was the first Czech woman teacher. physician. She attended college in Switzer- land, as no Czechoslovakian college al- References: Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Har- lowed women to enroll for a medical de- vey, eds., The Biographical Dictionary of gree. She graduated in 1881 from the Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from An- University of Bern. She also completed cient Times to the Mid-20th Century, New studies in Dresden and Paris. She practiced York: Routledge (2000); Schiebinger, Londa, in Baden and at a children’s hospital in Bern The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins and served as a state physician beginning in of Modern Science, Cambridge, MA: Harvard 1892 in Bosnia-Herzegovina. University Press (1989). While serving in Bosnia-Herzegovina as a state physician, she dealt with inadequate facilities and her own poor health. Prior to Blackwell, Elizabeth 1892, very little had been accomplished in 1821–1910 the field of health care. Her duties included attending to the many needs of Muslim Elizabeth Blackwell was the first woman to women and children. From 1900 to 1909 she attend medical school and become a physi- worked in several sanatoriums in Switzer- cian in the United States. She was a pioneer land and Prague. She authored a book in in opening doors that had been closed to 1923 on women as physicians. women for centuries. She championed med-

27 Blackwell, Elizabeth

daughters. Elizabeth would always concur with her father’s view on educating both men and women. The Blackwell family left for the United States in 1832 after the local sugar refinery burned down and their financial situation became bleak. Samuel was determined to introduce the vacuum-pan sugar-refining process, showing that it would alleviate the need for slavery. Thus they sailed for New York and a new start. They were met with a cholera epidemic that had left the city de- serted. Once it was over, he acquired a place for a refinery. In the United States, the family associated with the Quakers, but Samuel was still very open about most social events. While Han- nah worried about preparing her daughters for marriage, Elizabeth thought about career plans. Samuel suffered financially during the Great Panic of 1837 and the depres- Elizabeth Blackwell (U.S. National Library of sion that followed. He sold the sugar Medicine) refinery and shortly thereafter took Eliza- beth and her younger siblings to Cincinnati for a fresh start. Samuel bought a mill near the Ohio River ical education for women, helped found the but realized quickly that the depression had New York Infirmary for Women and Chil- affected the entire country. He did little dren, and served the medical profession business. Soon thereafter, his health de- with high ethical standards. clined, and he died of bilious fever in Au- She was born February 3, 1821, in Coun- gust 1838. Many of the children began to terslip near Bristol, England, to Samuel work to support the family; Elizabeth began Blackwell and Hannah Lane. Her father had to teach. She was moved by the more liberal a very heavy influence on his family. He thinkers of the time, such as Catherine supported women’s rights, was against Beecher and Horace Mann. She was restless slavery, and encouraged all his children to but continued to teach until a dying friend be active in society. He was also very reli- told her she would be a good physician. Af- gious, and Elizabeth participated in Bible ter studying on her own with a physician in study and daily prayers. She had eight sur- Charleston and later Philadelphia, she de- viving siblings: Anna, Marianne, Samuel cided to apply to medical school. She was Charles, Henry Browne, Emily, Ellen, John turned down by twenty-eight colleges and Howard, and George Washington. Three finally accepted by Geneva College in New children died in infancy. York. The faculty there had put the matter to Illiteracy was at an all-time high in Eng- the male students; they decided to allow her land. Samuel Blackwell was a Dissenter, and entrance, although many agreed as a joke, as such his children were barred from the feeling that a female would alleviate any Church of England schools, which were boredom. In the beginning few months at much better than any of the others. An ex- Geneva College, Blackwell was ostracized cellent tutor, Samuel brought his children and stared at as she walked to and from her up to study the same subjects together and classes, but students and staff soon adjusted had high expectations, making no distinc- to her presence. She became absorbed in her tions in this regard between his sons and his studies and looked forward to being a sur-

28 Blackwell, Elizabeth geon. She graduated in 1849 with outstand- lectures to girls, and eventually lectured on ing grades and became the first female several subjects for a fee. She also met Ann physician in the United States. Preston, who later founded the Women’s For practical medical experience, Black- Hospital of Philadelphia (1861). They en- well set her sights on Paris. She was able to couraged each other in their prospective en- study at clinics in England and eventually in deavors. Many Quaker women came to Paris at La Maternité. She was not accepted hear her, and even some men. They were as a physician, however, but only as an aide. impressed at her knowledge and convinced She observed the French physicians as they that her views on the importance of hygiene delivered babies in all kinds of circum- were not to be taken lightly. This work even- stances, and learned equally from her tually led to her being accepted in the med- twelve-hour days in the wards and from the ical community. Quaker women and chil- lectures on midwifery. It was at La Mater- dren also began to come to her office for nité that she let her feelings be known about treatment. Her practice grew as she worked using animals for experiments. Throughout both day and night. her life, she fought vivisection at every turn, She continued to keep in touch with her a stance that at this time was in the minority. family and to prepare public lectures. Some On November 4, 1849, she contracted prominent New Yorkers eventually came to ophthalmia, from a baby she had helped op- support her, such as Horace Greeley and erate on that morning. After losing sight in many Quaker men of the day. Elizabeth’s her left eye, she tried several cures. Eventu- sister Emily was at the same time enduring ally, however, an infection set in and she the frustrations Elizabeth had experienced had the left eye removed and a glass eye in- earlier. Medical schools were rejecting her serted. Her right eye remained unaffected, because she was a woman and she very and she resigned herself to giving up sur- much wanted Elizabeth’s support, which gery and pursuing general medicine or re- she received through correspondence. They search. She consulted with family members grew much closer when Emily visited New concerned about her outlook and her future York in 1852. and worked to be able to read and write It was not long before Rush College in well again. Two of her sisters, Marianne and Chicago accepted Emily as a medical stu- Ellen, wrote to Elizabeth at this time in sup- dent. She completed her studies while Eliz- port of the women’s rights movement. Eliz- abeth continued to expand her medical abeth, who had managed to garner some practice. Elizabeth tried again to work at a support and encouragement in a man’s dispensary in New York but was told a lady world, felt her sisters were in an antiman doctor would not do. In 1853, she opened movement and didn’t support their views. her own dispensary in a poor section of She saw no common thread between town in order to attend to poor women and women’s rights and education. children. During her two years in Europe, Black- It was here, in the slums and unsanitary well had met Florence Nightingale, whose tenement buildings near Tompkins Square, views on the importance of sanitation had that she saw the effects of unsanitary condi- profoundly influenced her. In her later life tions. She began lecturing mothers about she worked to educate people on proper hy- cleanliness and seeing that their children giene for good health. spend more time outdoors to benefit from Blackwell returned to the United States fresh air. When she later moved into a house, ready to practice medicine. She and her sis- she was still receiving abusive, anonymous ters had won a writing contest, and she letters for approaching the subject of hy- used the $100 to set up an office, furnishing giene with anyone who would listen. it herself. Society wasn’t ready for a female Emily visited over a few summers to get physician, however, and Elizabeth suffered practical experience at Bellevue Hospital as from loneliness and depression. well as help Elizabeth with her patients. She resorted to giving physical education They worked well together and learned

29 Blackwell, Elizabeth from each other, and Elizabeth sometimes On May 12, 1857, in honor of Florence despaired as to her future when Emily was Nightingale’s birthday, the New York Infir- away. In October 1854, she decided to adopt mary for Women and Children officially a daughter. Katharine Barry, a seven-year- opened with Dr. Marie as the resident old Irish child, became her daughter and physician, Dr. Emily as the surgeon, and Dr. treasured lifelong companion. Over the Elizabeth as director. Within a month the years, Katharine was Elizabeth’s accoun- beds were filled with patients from all tant, secretary, and housekeeper as well. backgrounds and speaking many different In that same year, Emily obtained her languages. medical degree from Western Reserve Col- Troubles still lay ahead. Elizabeth contin- lege. Elizabeth was still in New York and ued her lectures for the money they contin- met Marie Zakrzewska, a Pole who had ued to bring in. The infirmary was saved been working as a midwife in Germany. She from burning down when the wind hap- had been told to see Elizabeth Blackwell if pened to change direction. A patient died of she was interested in getting a medical de- puerperal fever, and the relatives formed a gree. The timing was good, as Blackwell mob outside, threatening the physicians was in need of an assistant and at the same and claiming the death was their fault. A time could help Zakrzewska qualify for en- similar incident occurred when a patient trance into Western Reserve College. died from a ruptured appendix. This time a At this time, Blackwell already had her male physician who had been consulted on sights set on opening her own hospital. the case quieted the mob. Over time, people With Marie’s arrival, she felt she could began to trust these women doctors. count on three women in her endeavor: her- One of Elizabeth’s noble causes was to self; Emily, who was getting very good clin- give female physicians fresh out of medical ical experience in Europe; and Marie when school a chance for some clinical practice, she graduated from medical school. Her pri- an opportunity that was rare in the United vate practice was still yielding a small in- States when she had graduated from med- come. She had moved her dispensary to a ical school. The infirmary thus became the better location, and she obtained a charter to great opportunity for many women physi- operate a hospital. Setbacks postponed her cians who had graduated from the New En- plans. In 1855 she had to close the dispen- gland Female Medical College in Boston sary for a time in order to transform it into and the Women’s Medical College of Penn- the hospital she wanted, and she had diffi- sylvania in Philadelphia, respectively. Eliz- culty raising the needed funds. She contin- abeth, Emily, and Marie held clinics for ued lecturing the public on sanitation and these new graduates, and later began train- informing those who would listen of her ing nurses. Blackwell was very particular plans. She continued to receive information about qualifications for the nurses’ training on medical advances from Emily, informa- program. tion that she incorporated into her public Although other members of their family lectures. were firmly behind the women’s move- The first to help in her campaign for a hos- ment, Elizabeth and Emily remained distant pital were her fellow Quakers, who raised from the cause, refusing to become a haven money through their sewing skills. The for the movement. They focused on estab- money came very slowly at first, but when lishing sound medical practices to prove Marie got out of medical school with her themselves to the public. As the infirmary diploma, she traveled in support of the cause became well grounded and funded after a and was also successful in raising money year of doubts, Blackwell looked to En- from some influential New Yorkers. Eliza- gland, where she’d been asked to speak on beth and Marie bought a house to turn into a women’s progress in the medical field in the hospital. Emily went to England to further United States. She decided she could con- her studies, and when she returned, the tribute to the cause of medical education for three were ready to embark on their project. women in England, a contentious issue

30 Blackwell, Elizabeth there. In 1859, she became the first woman to the front because of her rank of lieutenant in Great Britain accredited as a physician. in the army. Walker was captured at one Several prominent people, including Lady point but was exchanged for a man fairly Byron, wanted Blackwell to stay in England quickly. Both Blackwell sisters were work- and begin a teaching hospital there. Black- ing long hours at the infirmary as well as well thought the idea was premature and being involved with the Women’s Central wanted to go back to the United States and Relief Association, which met frequently at continue her work as a medical-education Cooper Union. reformer. The Union Conscription Act of 1863, She visited France and some of the men- which made it possible for rich draftees to tal institutions to which Dorothea Dix had buy their way out of the federal army for drawn so much attention. She also visited $300 (leaving the burden of service to freed Florence Nightingale, now ill but working slaves and immigrants), caused riots in toward her plans for the future Nightin- New York. The Blackwells were shocked by gale Training School for Nurses at St. white patients’ demands that black patients Thomas’s Hospital. Blackwell became a be excluded from the infirmary. Their infir- much-requested speaker on women’s med- mary, like orphanages and churches, served ical care and medical education. She was as a place for blacks to hide from the torture well respected also among poor mothers inflicted by some whites. The infirmary who needed her guidance. somehow survived the threats of destruc- On her return to New York, Blackwell tion during the four-day period of the Draft found that Zakrzewska had left the infir- Riots, which also were fueled by Northern- mary to take a position in Boston only to ers’ fears that blacks who had been freed find it didn’t meet her expectations. She would take their jobs. thus eventually founded the New England Elizabeth corresponded a little during Hospital for Women and Children in 1862 this time with Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, and did very well in private practice. who had received her apothecary license in The infirmary was still successful. Eliza- England. Blackwell had inspired Anderson beth and Emily obtained new quarters for when she lectured in England, and Black- the hospital and began making some head- well was gratified that progress was taking way financially. Elizabeth was not as inter- place in that country. ested in practicing medicine as in lecturing With the end of the Civil War, Blackwell and educating the masses about hygiene. realized that women had earned some She also was ready to plan for adding a recognition for their contributions in the medical college for women to the hospital. medical field. Women still found it difficult, The trustees of the infirmary were strongly however, to find schools and hospitals that supportive of this effort. would accept them. She also felt that even The plans for a medical college had to be long-established medical schools did not of- postponed when the Civil War broke out. fer adequate academic and clinical training. Elizabeth and Emily had both opposed slav- She devised an educational curriculum for ery since their early days with their father her infirmary that was extremely regi- and offered their infirmary in support of the mented with three years of medical school- Union’s cause. They set about to prepare as ing as the minimum in addition to rigorous many women as possible for the nursing clinical training. The trustees asked for a field. They sent women who seemed suited college charter and the college officially for training to their infirmary, Bellevue, or opened its doors in 1868. New York Hospital. They would then go to Medical advances at the time included in- Washington, where Dorothea Dix was the oculations for some diseases. In opposition superintendent of nurses. to most of her colleagues, however, Black- Elizabeth followed the progress of the well refused to support some kinds of inoc- war with great interest. Mary E. Walker, a ulation. She was influenced in this view by surgeon, impressed her by managing to get the fact that a baby she had vaccinated had

31 Blackwell, Elizabeth died. As she noted, “Although I have al- led a rather nomadic life. During this time, ways continued to vaccinate when desired, though, she felt she could reform through I am strongly opposed to every form of in- writing. Her book Counsel to Parents on the oculation of attenuated virus, as an unfortu- Moral Education of Their Children in Relation nate though well-meaning fallacy of med- to Sex at first did not find a publisher, but ical prejudice” (Blackwell 1895, 240). she persisted. The book was eventually The infirmary began to be held in high re- published and went through several edi- gard as graduates obtained positions at tions. Blackwell also was appointed profes- prestigious colleges. The women’s move- sor of gynecology at the London School of ment was also beginning to open new doors Medicine for Women in 1875. She continued for women. At the same time, the struggle to teach off and on there until 1907. was continuing in England, and it was here In 1878 she and her daughter traveled to that Elizabeth felt she could contribute to France, and on return to England, they the cause. Upon arriving in England in 1869, found a suitable house on the English Chan- she became very involved in social and nel at Hastings. Her health improved, and moral reforms. She became very disturbed she continued to campaign for public hy- about the disparity between the wealthy giene and moral reform. Numerous family and the poor, which drove her to continue members, friends, and physicians, as well as education in public hygiene and the preven- many male and female medical school stu- tion of disease. She was well ahead of her dents in England and graduates of her infir- time in seeing the worth of prevention as mary in New York, were guests in her new opposed to cure, her battle cry for the rest of home. her life. Two of Blackwell’s sisters, Marianne and While she continued her lectures, she Anna, came to live near her in England. formed the National Health Society in Eng- They were both suffering from failing land, which began promoting public health health. At this time, Elizabeth set out to free and hygiene issues. Blackwell also took an the local government of corruption, an ef- interest in three other women who were in fort that on occasion stirred up both Tories her field: Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, and Liberals. She also tried to have the Sophia Jex-Blake, and Mary Putnam, who brothels closed because of unsanitary condi- had taken her medical degree and was cur- tions. rently working at the infirmary in New During the 1880s and 1890s, she was un- York. Blackwell encouraged them all, corre- wavering in fighting for her causes, and she sponding all her life with women who wrote extensively from her lectures as well needed her support. as kept up her correspondence. In the 1890s, Elizabeth’s mother died in 1870, and al- some of her friends died. Then in 1900, her though most of her remaining family was sister Anna died, followed in 1901 by still in the United States, Elizabeth felt she Samuel and Ellen. was beginning to put down roots in En- She did visit the United States again and gland. She heard from Emily that the infir- saw that Cornell had absorbed her college mary was doing very well and growing. She in 1899; the infirmary was still growing and became an advocate of Christian Socialism thriving. She was very pleased at the because she believed the practice of medi- progress women had made in the medical cine could cure many social ills. At this field. As Dr. Cushier wrote of both Black- point, she considered health issues political wells late in life, “What we should never in terms of benefitting the whole human forget is that the dignity, the culture, and the race. She also believed that physical ail- high moral standards which formed their ments could stem from mental distress. character, finally prevailed in overcoming She herself had health problems for sev- the existing prejudice, both within and out- eral years, particularly in the 1870s. She side the profession. By their standards, the struggled with this and finding the best cli- status of women in medicine was deter- mate in which to live was difficult, so she mined” (Ross 1949, 291).

32 Blackwell, Emily

Blackwell returned to England knowing up by their father to study the same subjects she would probably never see her friends or together. He expected the same high stan- family in the United States again. In 1907 dards from both the boys and the girls. she fell down some stairs and became an in- Emily, like Elizabeth, felt the way her father valid shortly thereafter. Her daughter was did. with her most of the time in her final days. The Blackwell family left for the United She died on May 31, 1910, in Hastings. States in 1832 when Emily was only five years old. Samuel suffered financial losses See also: Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett; Black- in New York, and in 1844, the family moved well, Emily; Jex-Blake, Sophia; Nightingale, to Cincinnati, Ohio. There, the family asso- Florence; Zakrzewska, Marie Elizabeth ciated with the Quakers, but Samuel was References: Blackwell, Elizabeth, Pioneer still very open about most social events. Work in Opening the Medical Profession to While Hannah worried about preparing her Women: Autobiographical Sketches, London: daughters for marriage, Emily, again like Longmans, Green (1895); Ross, Ishbel, Elizabeth, thought about a career. Child of Destiny: The Life Story of the First Emily was shy and timid but was very Woman Doctor, New York: Harper (1949); much influenced by her older sister and Snodgrass, Mary, Historical Encyclopedia of wanted to follow in her footsteps. She ap- Nursing, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO plied to several medical schools and was (1999). turned down by eleven before Rush Med- ical College in Chicago accepted her. She was unable to complete her degree there be- Blackwell, Emily cause the state medical board did not agree 1826–1910 with Rush’s decision to admit a woman to the school. Emily finished her studies at Emily Blackwell obtained her M.D. from Western Reserve College in Cleveland; this Western Reserve College in 1854 and school had just begun allowing women into founded the New York Infirmary for its medical program. Women and Children with her sister, Eliza- She traveled to Europe to train with Sir beth Blackwell. Often overshadowed by her James Young Simpson, who saw no reason older sister, Emily nevertheless was an ex- that women should not practice medicine. cellent surgeon, physician, and educator of From him, she gained invaluable experience medical students. She enjoyed practicing in gynecology and obstetrics. He was also medicine much more than Elizabeth; the impressed with Emily’s talent as a surgeon. two worked well together. She then attended clinics elsewhere in Eu- Emily was born February 3, 1826, in rope to gain more experience. Counterslip near Bristol, England, to When she returned to New York in 1856, Samuel Blackwell and Hannah Lane. Her she was ready to help Elizabeth and Dr. father had an important influence on her. Marie Zakrzewska with the New York Infir- He supported women’s rights, was against mary for Women and Children, where she slavery, and encouraged all his children to worked as a surgeon. The three collaborated be active in society. He was also religious, well, and the beds filled quickly with pa- studying the Bible and participating in daily tients. prayers. After initial financial and other chal- Being a Dissenter meant that Samuel lenges, the infirmary thrived. Many female Blackwell’s children were not allowed to at- physicians just out of medical school came tend the Church of England schools, which to gain clinical experience. Elizabeth, Marie, were considered the best in the country. and Emily arranged clinics for the new stu- Aware of the high illiteracy rate and want- dents and later started training nurses. ing all his children to have a good educa- Emily, like her sister, did not want the in- tion, he decided to tutor them himself. firmary to become a center for the women’s Emily and her eight siblings were brought rights movement. Their most important ob-

33 Blanchfield, Florence Aby jective was to establish sound medical prac- Blanchfield, Florence Aby tice and prove themselves to the public. In 1882–1971 this stance, they were sometimes challenged by family members supportive of the movement. For example, two of her brothers were Florence Blanchfield served as superinten- very active in the women’s movement. dent of the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) dur- Henry had married the feminist Lucy Stone, ing both world wars and became the first and Samuel was married to Antoinette woman to be regularly commissioned into Louisa Brown, the first ordained minister in the U.S. Regular Army in 1947. She worked the United States. diligently over the years to gain for women The infirmary survived the Civil War, and military nurses’ status and recognition the three doctors obtained a college charter, equal to that of male nurses. their ultimate goal, in 1868. Elizabeth, who Born in Shepherdstown, West Virginia, on saw herself as a reformer and speaker on April 1, 1882, she was one of eight children public hygiene, left for England in 1869, and of Joseph Plunkett Blanchfield, a stonema- Emily took the initiative in the infirmary. son, and Mary Louvenia Anderson Blanch- Emily threw herself into her work for the field, a nurse. She wanted to be a nurse next thirty years. She served as a teacher early in life. She was educated in both pub- and administrator as well as a surgeon. She lic and private schools in Walnut Springs ran the infirmary and the medical school, and Oranda, Virginia. She attended the strengthening the curriculum, until the Southside Hospital Training School for school merged with Cornell in 1899. Nurses in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and Emily realized that the obstacles for graduated in 1906. women in medicine were not all within the She then went to Baltimore and worked education community: “Their troubles be- as a private-duty nurse while attending Dr. gin when they graduate. The walls are as Howard Kelly’s Sanitarium and Johns Hop- high as ever when it comes to internships or kins University. In 1907 she supervised the hospital posts. Much as we have gained, it operating room at Southside Hospital and will take more than one generation to the next year at Montefiore Hospital. She demonstrate to the full our scientific and so- also worked at Suburban General Hospital cial value” (Ross 1949, 281). in Bellevue, Pennsylvania, and later was the She retired in 1900, spending most of her supervisor of nurses. In this capacity she retirement time going back and forth be- was a leader in getting an approved school tween her home in New Jersey and her of nursing. summer cottage in Maine. She shared a She took leave from the hospital during house with her longtime partner, Dr. Eliza- World War I to answer the call for army beth Cushier, who had been trained at the nurses. After serving in France, she re- infirmary. Blackwell developed enterocolitis turned briefly to Bellevue and then went and passed away on September 7, 1910, back into the ANC in January 1920. At the shortly after her sister Elizabeth died. time, nurses could gain in rank but did not receive the same pay as or have equal au- See also: Blackwell, Elizabeth; Zakrzewska, thority with males. Marie Elizabeth Blanchfield served in numerous locations References: Blackwell, Elizabeth, Pioneer throughout the United States and abroad. In Work in Opening the Medical Profession to 1935, after a tour of duty in China, she set- Women: Autobiographical Sketches, New York: tled in Washington, D.C., and held a number Source Book Press (1970); Ross, Ishbel, Child of positions at the ANC over the next twelve of Destiny, the Life Story of the First Woman years. Nurses in the corps usually entered as Doctor, New York: Harper (1949). a second lieutenant and remained at that rank their entire career. Blanchfield, however, received a promotion in 1939 and held the rank of captain when she worked in the

34 Boivin, Marie Anne Victoire Gillain capacity of assistant to the superintendent, ing: A Biographical Dictionary, New York: at that time Julia Flikke. Both women saw Garland (1988); Sherrow, Victoria, Women the need to expand the ANC, particularly and the Military: An Encyclopedia, Santa Bar- with the outbreak of World War II in Europe. bara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1996). Blanchfield also wanted to gain permanent status for the ANC within the army. The best way to do this was to gain com- Bocchi, Dorothea missions in the regular army for women. Af- 1390–1436 ter a sustained effort, in 1942 both Flikke and Blanchfield received temporary com- Dorothea Bocchi was a well-respected pro- missions as colonel and lieutenant colonel, fessor of medicine and philosophy at the respectively. It took ten years and a congres- University of Bologna. Appointed to suc- sional bill, however, before they received ceed her father, she taught at a time in Italy adequate pay. when women were afforded the same edu- Blanchfield was appointed superinten- cational opportunities as men. In the four- dent of the ANC upon Flikke’s retirement in teenth century, Italy led the world in the 1943. She concentrated on strengthening the field of medicine. ANC and providing adequate clinical experiences for nurses who would serve in References: Hurd-Mead, Kate Campbell, A wartime. She also moved nurses closer to History of Women in Medicine from the Earliest soldiers on the battlefield to make sure they Times to the Beginning of the Nineteenth Cen- received immediate care after being injured tury, Haddam, CT: Haddam Press (1938). and changed the nursing uniforms to com- bat fatigues when appropriate. Blanchfield continued to fight for full military rank during the war, and in 1947 the Boivin, Marie Anne Army-Navy Nurse Act gave women nurses Victoire Gillain equal status in the military with equal pay 1773–1841 and promotion possibilities. It also created the ANC within the regular army. On July Marie Anne Boivin was a French midwife 18, 1947, General Dwight D. Eisenhower whose publications on childbirth and preg- commissioned Blanchfield as a lieutenant nancy became very popular textbooks in colonel in the army. France and Germany. She invented a new She communicated over the years with pelvimeter and a vaginal speculum and was nurses in the field in order to learn about the first to listen to a fetal heart using a their experiences and thus improve training stethoscope. for army nurses. Partly due to her efforts, Born in Montreuil and educated by nuns, special training programs grew in anesthe- she married Louis Boivin in 1797. After her sia, neuropsychiatric nursing, air evacua- husband died early in the marriage, leaving tion, obstetrics, and pediatrics, among oth- her with one daughter, she continued her ers. Blanchfield retired from active duty in medical training with Madame Lachapelle 1947 after twenty-nine years of service. She until she earned her degree and then went never married and in her later years lived in to Versailles. When her daughter was killed, Arlington, Virginia, with a sister and she returned to work at the Hospice de la brother-in-law. She died at Walter Reed Maternité in Bordeaux with Lachapelle, her Medical Center on May 12, 1971, from ath- good friend and teacher. She and Lachapelle erosclerotic cardiac disease and was buried stressed that midwives should be trained with full honors at Arlington National and licensed and know how to handle diffi- Cemetery in Virginia. cult pregnancies. In 1827 Boivin received an honorary M.D. References: Bullough, Vern L., Olga Maran- from the University of Marburg, Germany. jian Church, and Alice Stein, American Nurs- Her goal had been to obtain a French med-

35 Bourgeois, Louise

Louise Bourgeois (Leclos/U.S. National Library of Medicine)

Marie Anne Victoire Gillain Boivin (de Fonrouge/ U.S. National Library of Medicine) ents in Paris when her husband served during wartime. When Paris was devastated by troops of Henry of Navarre (later King ical degree, but she could not obtain admis- Henry IV), her family’s property was totally sion to the Academy of Medicine in Paris. destroyed, and Louise had to take work as a She died in poverty. seamstress. Disliking the work, she decided to become a midwife, training with Am- References: Hurd-Mead, Kate Campbell, A broise Pare, a gifted surgeon and very History of Women in Medicine from the Earliest knowledgeable in the field of obstetrics. Times to the Beginning of the Nineteenth Cen- At this time in France, prospective mid- tury, Haddam, CT: Haddam Press (1938); wives had to pass a licensing examination. Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, eds., The Bourgeois passed her exams and obtained Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: her diploma on November 12, 1598. She Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to the Mid- achieved early success, with members of the 20th Century, New York: Routledge (2000). aristocracy becoming some of her patients. Eventually she achieved the title of Royal Midwife after attending to three births of Bourgeois, Louise Queen Marie de Medici. The first baby, in 1563–1636 1601, later became King Louis XIII. (Initially King Henry IV had wanted an- Louise Bourgeois was an obstetrician and other midwife, but the Queen rejected her gynecologist as well as a surgeon in France. because she had delivered for his mis- Her work Observations, published in 1610, tresses.) was a landmark contribution to the knowl- After King Henry IV was murdered and edge of childbirth. Queen Marie de Medici no longer needed Born in Hainault at Mons of well-to-do midwife services, Bourgeois continued to parents, she married an army surgeon and practice her profession among the aristoc- had three children. She stayed with her par- racy. She lost some credibility when a fever

36 Brown, Dorothy Lavinia took the life of the Duchesse de Montpen- References: Lucas, Marion Brunson, A His- sier. Following this event, her practice de- tory of Blacks in Kentucky, vol. 1, Frankfort: clined and she spent much of the rest of her Kentucky Historical Society (1992); Wade- life writing her book Observations. She died Gayles, Gloria, “Britton, Mary E.,” Black in 1636. Women in America: An Historical Encyclope- dia, vol. 1, Brooklyn, NY: Carlson (1993). References: Hatcher, John, “Mme Louise Bourgeois—Royal Midwife and Remark- able Character,” Midwives Chronicle and Brown, Dorothy Lavinia Nursing Notes (January 1971); Hurd-Mead, 1919– Kate Campbell, A History of Women in Medi- cine from the Earliest Times to the Beginning of Dorothy Brown is the first black female in the Nineteenth Century, Haddam, CT: Had- the American South to become a surgeon. dam Press (1938); Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Her work in general surgery and education Harvey, eds., The Biographical Dictionary of has forged a path for future generations of Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from An- black female physicians and surgeons. cient Times to the Mid-20th Century, New Born in Philadelphia on January 7, 1919, York: Routledge (2000). she was taken by her mother to an orphanage in Troy, New York. She stayed there for the next twelve years. During this time, her Britton, Mary E. mother tried several times to take her back, 1858–1925 but Dorothy ran away each time to return to the Troy orphanage. After her tonsils were Mary Britton was the first black female removed when she was five, she decided to physician in Kentucky, serving both blacks become a doctor. She attended school in Troy and whites in the Lexington area. She at- and, when she was fifteen, went to live with tended Berea College and taught for a while foster parents Samuel and Lola Redmon. in Lexington. She was better known for her She graduated at the top of her high writing in newspapers throughout the east- school class and went on to earn her A.B. ern United States. degree in 1941 from Bennett College in Britton was born to Henry and Laura Brit- Greensboro, North Carolina. Her time there ton in 1858. Her father was half-Spanish and was difficult because even though she had a half-Indian; her mother was born of a white scholarship from the Women’s Division of slave owner and a slave mistress. She was the Methodist Church, college administra- one of the first free blacks to graduate from tors didn’t feel she was a suitable candidate college and pursue a career after the Ameri- for their school. They discouraged her from can Civil War of 1861–1865. Her older sister, taking science courses and from going to Julia, was a gifted teacher and musician medical school, believing teaching would who became the first black teacher in Berea. suit her better. After graduation she worked Britton taught school for a while before at the Rochester Army Ordinance Depart- deciding on a medical career. She trained at ment during World War II and then entered Battle Creek Sanitarium in Michigan, which medical school at Meharry Medical College had been established as a health-reform in- in Nashville, Tennessee. stitute by the Seventh Day Adventists. She She obtained her M.D. degree in 1948 and also studied at the American Missionary then served a one-year internship at Harlem Medical College in Chicago, graduating in Hospital. In order to become a surgeon, she 1903. She became a proponent of alternative went back to Nashville to complete a five- medicine, vegetarianism, hydrotherapy, year residency at Meharry and Hubbard massage, metaphysics, and phrenology. She Hospitals. She became an assistant profes- was an effective speaker on women’s rights sor of surgery in 1955 and in 1959 became and a prominent and respected black the first black female surgeon to become a woman leader of the times. She died in 1925. fellow of the American College of Surgeons.

37 Brown, Edith Mary

mons, Vivian Ovelton, Blacks in Science and Medicine, New York: Hemisphere (1990).

Brown, Edith Mary 1864–1956

Born on March 24, 1864, in Whitehaven, Cumbria, England, Brown became a physician who helped found the North India School of Medicine for Christian Women in Ludhiana. Edith developed an interest in medicine and missions because her older sister was a missionary. She earned a degree at Cam- bridge University and taught science in order to earn money to further her education with a medical degree. She studied medicine in London and gained her certification in Scotland in 1891, as women could not be certified in England at the time. She immediately went to India and was shocked at the condition of health care in Dorothy Lavinia Brown (Meharry Medical that country. She worked to educate and College/U.S. National Library of Medicine) heal women and children, and became increasingly interested in educating midwives. Eventually she saw a need for a medical school for Indian women and set about In 1956, a young pregnant girl offered organizing one with several cooperating so- Brown her baby, and Brown became the first cieties, including the Baptist Zenana mis- single woman to adopt a child (Lola Denise) sion. The North India School of Medicine in Tennessee. for Christian Women opened in 1894. Brown served as chief of surgery at River- After only two years, the government rec- side Hospital in Nashville from 1960 to ognized the college and its importance to 1983. She also built up her own private the country. In 1931 Brown was made Dame practice despite skepticism about black fe- Commander of the Order of the British Em- male physicians. In 1966, Brown served in pire (DBE) for her meritorious work. Brown the Tennessee legislature for a two-year retired to Kashmir in 1941 and died in Sri- term, becoming the first black woman to nagar on December 6, 1956. The school con- earn such an honor in Tennessee. tinued to thrive, beginning to train men in She has received many awards and hon- 1951, and awarding medical degrees by orary degrees and is a fellow of the Ameri- 1953. can College of Surgeons. She is also a life member of the National Association for the References: Haines, Catharine M. C., and Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Helen Stevens, International Women in Sci- ence: A Biographical Dictionary to 1950, Santa References: “Bachelor Mother,” Ebony (Sep- Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (2001); Murray, tember 1958); Notable Black American Scien- Jocelyn, “Brown, Edith Mary,” Biographical tists, Detroit: Gale Research (1998); Organ, Dictionary of Christian Missions, New York: Claude H., and Margaret M. Kosiba, Cen- Macmillan (1998). tury of Black Surgeons: The U.S.A. Experience, Norman, OK: Transcript Press (1987); Sam-

38 Brundtband, Gro Harlem

Brown, Rachel Fuller helped lead to a vaccine for the disease. 1898–1980 Later she worked on the causes of syphilis. Her long-distance collaboration with Hazen (Brown was in Albany and Hazen in New Along with Elizabeth Hazen, Rachel Brown York City), an expert on fungus, began in was responsible for discovering the first an- 1948. Penicillin had been discovered and tifungal antibiotic that could be used safely was able to cure many infections, but fungal on humans. This biomedical discovery was infections were a serious problem. considered by most to be the most impor- In 1950 Brown and Hazen discovered the tant since Sir Alexander Fleming discovered first antifungal agent that could be used penicillin in 1928. She and Hazen subse- safely on humans. E. R. Squibb and Sons de- quently donated all their royalties from the veloped the method for mass production of patent to scientific research, making a huge the agent, called Nystatin, and it became financial contribution to science. available to the public in 1954. Brown was born on November 23, 1898, Nystatin proved to have many uses. It can in Springfield, Massachusetts. Her father, be used to treat Dutch elm disease and fight George Hamilton Brown, worked in real es- molds in foods and was used after a flood in tate and insurance. Her mother was Annie Italy to save priceless artworks. Fuller. When she was very young, the fam- Brown received numerous awards in her ily moved to Webster Groves, Missouri, just lifetime. She was also a sought-after speaker outside of St. Louis. She had one younger who lectured on antibiotics and cautioned brother, Sumner Jerome, and when her fa- against their unnecessary use. When she re- ther left the family in 1912, her mother retired in 1968, she had served the state of turned to Springfield and worked to sup- New York for forty-two years and had taken port them. Brown graduated from high only two sick days. She died on January 14, school and went on to attend Mount 1980, at her home in Albany. Holyoke College, where her education was funded by Henrietta Dexter, a close friend See also: Hazen, Elizabeth Lee of her grandmother’s. Brown later paid References: Baldwin, Richard S., The Fungus Dexter back for the loan. Fighters, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Her primary interest had been history, but Press (1981); Notable Twentieth-Century Sci- she developed an interest in chemistry at entists, Detroit: Gale Research (1995); Vare, Holyoke and double-majored in history and Ethlie Ann, and Greg Ptacek, Mothers of In- chemistry, receiving her degree in 1920. She vention: From the Bra to the Bomb: Forgotten then obtained a master’s degree in organic Women and Their Unforgettable Ideas, New chemistry from the University of Chicago. York: Morrow (1988). After graduating, she worked for three years at the Frances Shimer School near Chicago, teaching physics and chemistry. Brundtband, Gro Harlem Unsatisfied with teaching, she returned to 1939– the University of Chicago to work on her Ph.D. in organic chemistry with a minor in Known more as a politician and environ- bacteriology. She completed her studies mentalist, Gro Harlem Brundtband is the short of her oral exams in 1926 and went to first woman to head the World Health Or- work for the New York Department of ganization (WHO), based in Geneva, where Health’s Division of Laboratories and Re- she is concerned with raising public aware- search in Albany, New York. It was in Al- ness of international health issues and bany that she met Dorothy Wakerley, her bringing the alleviation of poverty to the lifetime companion. Brown did not obtain forefront of WHO’s goals. her degree until seven years later. In 1998 she was elected to the World Brown’s work at first focused on the bac- Health Assembly after being nominated by teria that cause pneumonia; this work the executive board of WHO.

39 Budzinski-Tylicka, Justine

She was born in Oslo, Norway, April 20, References: Borchert, Thomas, “Norway’s 1939. Her father, Gudmund Harlem, was a Former Premier Puts Son’s Suicide at Center physician, political activist, and major influ- of Memoirs,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur (24 ence in her life. She married Arne Olav and November 1998); Kaiser, Jocelyn, “WHO had four children. She earned her medical Gets New Head,” Science 279, no. 5351 (30 degree in 1963 from the University of Oslo January 1998); WHO home page, http:// and in 1965 added a master of public health www.who.int/. degree from Harvard University. Brundtband was a physician for ten years in the Norway Public Health System. She Budzinski-Tylicka, Justine served as a medical officer at the Norwegian Late nineteenth century Directorate of Health and later with Oslo’s Board of Health. Her work included cancer Justine Budzinski-Tylicka became one of the prevention and childhood diseases. She be- first female physicians in Poland. She re- came the director of health services for ceived her medical training at the Univer- Oslo’s schoolchildren while raising a family sity of Paris and returned to Poland to work of her own. in her country’s clinics and hospitals. She At age forty-one, Brundtband became advocated birth control and was against le- prime minister of Norway, a position she galized prostitution. She was a strong sup- held for over ten years. She is the first fe- porter of women’s rights. male to hold the post and the youngest in Norway’s history. In her memoirs, Dramatic References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Years, she criticizes the Norwegian health Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan service for being too slow to import drugs (1957). that could help alleviate psychological illnesses like that of her manic-depressive son, Joergen, who committed suicide in 1992.

40 C

Calverley, Eleanor Jane Taylor daughters: Grace, Elisabeth, and Eleanor. 1887–1968 Calverley died on December 22, 1968, in Hartford, Connecticut. Eleanor Calverley was the first woman physician to work in Kuwait. A medical References: Calverley, Eleanor T., My Arabian missionary, she gained the trust of Arab Days and Nights, New York: Crowell (1958); women who were forbidden to see male National Cyclopedia of American Biography, vol. physicians. 57, Clifton, NJ: James T. White (1977). Calverley was born in Woodstock, New Jersey, on March 24, 1887; her parents were William Lewis and Jane Long Hillman Tay- Canady, Alexa Irene lor. She was educated in the public schools 1950– of New Haven, Connecticut, and later attended the Women’s Medical College of Alexa Canady is the first female African Pennsylvania, obtaining her medical degree American in the United States to become a in 1908. neurosurgeon. She has held various teach- She married Edwin E. Calverley, a mis- ing positions over the years and is currently sionary and preacher, on September 6, 1909, the director of neurosurgery at Children’s and together they trained for work in Ara- Hospital of Michigan. bia. They traveled to Kuwait in 1911, and Born in Lansing, Michigan, on November she opened a small dispensary connected to 7, 1950, Canady was the second oldest in a her home so that Kuwaiti women, among family of four and the only girl. Her father, others, could seek medical care. “We saw Clinton Canady, was a dentist, and her both wealth and poverty among the Arab mother, Elizabeth Hortense Golden, worked and Persian populations of Kuwait. Some in various educational occupations and was Persian families were rich; but there were the first black elected to the Lansing Board others, recently immigrated from Persia, of Education. She was a Fisk University who had no homes except the sand beside a graduate and fostered a love for learning in boat drawn up on the shore. Their only pro- Alexa and her three brothers. tection was a curtain of sacking, fastened Alexa did well in school and graduated above them to the side of the boat and from high school with honors. She then pegged down into the sand. Freed African went on to the University of Michigan to slaves, deprived of their former masters’ major in mathematics. She soon discovered support, were also often destitute. Of such she did not have a commitment to the sub- we could not require any fee for medical ject despite good grades. She participated in service” (Calverley 1958, 74). a minority health-careers program at Michi- She and her husband spent many years in gan and worked with Art Bloom, a pediatri- Kuwait. In 1919 a women’s hospital opened cian and geneticist, and decided to pursue a there under her leadership. She had three career in medicine.

41 Chevandier Law of 1892

She graduated with a B.S. in 1971 and en- home. The French Republic, however, was tered medical school at the University of concerned about depopulation and the Michigan with the initial intention of be- health of its citizens. The government deter- coming an internist. She earned her M.D. in mined that better health care from birth was 1975 and proceeded to the Yale New Haven more advantageous than stimulating an in- Hospital for an internship in 1975–1976. She crease in births and set out to define in an was later admitted to the Department of amended law which aspects of health care Neurosurgery at the University of Min- women could legally practice in the home. nesota and became the first black female resident there. References: Lacy, Cherilyn, “Science or In 1981 she continued her resident train- Savoir-Faire? Domestic Hygiene and Medi- ing under Luis Schut at the University of cine in Girls’ Public Education during the Pennsylvania and the Children’s Hospital Early Third French Republic, 1882–1914,” of Philadelphia. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the West- She returned to Michigan in 1982 to take a ern Society for French History 24 (1997): 25–37. position with the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit as both a teacher and a neurosurgeon. In 1987 she became the director of Chinn, May Edward neurosurgery at Children’s Hospital of 1896–1980 Michigan and has received much credit for making the hospital’s neurosurgery depart- May Chinn was one of the first black female ment one of the best. She married George physicians in New York City. Her work in Davis in 1988. Canady credits affirmative early cancer detection helped in the devel- action and other programs emanating from opment of the Pap smear. She was the first the civil rights era in helping her to achieve black female to graduate from Bellevue her goals. She mentors young people of Hospital Medical College and the first black color in following the profession of their female physician to intern at Harlem Hospi- choice. tal. After her internship, she was denied privileges at all hospitals until 1940. She References: Lanker, Brian, I Dream a World: persisted on her own and by the time of her Portraits of Black Women Who Changed the death was a well-respected physician. World, New York: Stewart, Tabori, and Born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, Chang (1989); Notable Twentieth-Century Sci- on April 15, 1896, Chinn was the only child entists, Detroit: Gale Research (1995); Rich, of William Lafayette Chinn and Lulu Ann Mari, “Canady, Alexa,” Current Biography 61 Evans. Her father had escaped from slavery no. 8 (August 2000): 11–15. on a Virginia plantation when he was eleven years old, and her mother was born on an Indian reservation near Norfolk. She grew Chevandier Law of 1892 up in New York City, where her mother sent her to boarding school. Passed in France, the Chevandier Law of After developing osteomyelitis, Chinn 1892 was intended to keep unlicensed had to leave school and lived with her physicians from practicing medicine. It gave mother on the estate of a wealthy white exception to mothers of families as long as family, where her mother worked. While be- they practiced medicine in the home. Public ing treated for the disease, she studied and schools were also allowed to teach women developed an interest in music through at- basic hygiene and first aid techniques. As a tending concerts with the white children of result of the law, conflicts arose over “do- the family. She later gave piano lessons to mestic” and “professional” medicine. Some youngsters. male physicians of the day objected that the Chinn attended Morris High School but law would encourage women to practice dropped out in order to help her family by medicine without a license outside of the taking a factory job. Later, with her

42 Claypole, Edith Jane mother’s encouragement, she took a high tween tuberculosis and infections that re- school equivalency test. She did well and sembled it. Her work in histology and entered Columbia University Teachers’ Col- hematology aided future researchers in lege in 1917. After a year there, she changed their explorations. her major from music to science. She gradu- Claypole was born along with a twin sis- ated in 1921 and entered Bellevue Hospital ter, Agnes, on January 1, 1870, in Bristol, Medical College, where she graduated in England. Their mother died a short time af- 1926. She interned at Harlem Hospital. ter the births. When her father remarried, he After being denied work in hospitals, she took his new wife and daughters to Akron, opened her own practice near the Edge- Ohio, where he had a teaching job. He had a combe Sanitarium. In exchange for living love of science, and he and his second wife and office space, she answered the all-night taught the girls at home. emergency calls for the group of black Edith majored in biology and graduated physicians who owned her space and the from Buchtel College in Akron in 1892. She sanitarium. Because she saw so many pa- went on to Cornell to study for an advanced tients in the advanced stages of cancer, she degree. She taught physiology and histol- became interested in cancer research. She ogy at Wellesley College in Massachusetts also continued her studies, receiving a mas- upon graduation and later became inter- ter’s degree in public health from Columbia ested in pathology and medicine. While in in 1933. During this time she gained per- medical school at the University of Califor- mission to do biopsies at Memorial Hospital nia (UC) at Los Angeles, she worked for a under George Papanicolaou, who later de- group of physicians as a pathologist. As a veloped the Pap smear. Eventually, black result, by the time she received her M.D. she physicians who found out about her access was knowledgeable about vaccines and bac- to Memorial Hospital began to send biopsy terial cultures. specimens directly to her. Without an offi- She continued her pathology work after cial affiliation with Memorial Hospital, she graduation, volunteering at the University had the work done in secret. of California, Berkeley, because she could In 1944 she joined the staff of Strang not find an academic position for pay in Clinic, a cancer-detection center affiliated 1904. The university offered her a research with Memorial Hospital and New York In- associate position in 1912, and she was able firmary Hospital. She stayed there twenty- to use the laboratory facilities there for her nine years. She became a legend in Harlem research. as a woman who overcame many racial and She began to study tuberculosis and the gender barriers in order to provide health bacteria associated with it. The bacteria also care to the poor. caused other infections, and Claypole developed a test that was helpful in determin- References: Clark, Darlene, Elsa Barkley ing the differences in infections that afflicted Brown, and Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, Black humans. Women in America: An Historical Encyclope- When World War I broke out, she and dia, Brooklyn, NY: Carlson (1993); Hayden, others began working on a vaccine for ty- Robert C., American National Biography, New phoid fever for the British and French York: Oxford University Press (1999); “May troops in Europe. Although she was vacci- Edward Chinn,” http://www.sdsc.edu/ nated against typhoid, over the course of a ScienceWomen/chinn.html. few years the exposures to it were so great that she died from it in 1915 at the early age of forty-five. Claypole, Edith Jane 1870–1915 References: Bailey, Martha J., American Women in Science: A Biographical Dictionary, Edith Claypole did early research in infec- Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1994); tious diseases in order to distinguish be- Shearer, Benjamin F., and Barbara S.

43 Cleveland, Emeline Horton

Shearer, Notable Women in the Life Sciences: A Cleveland had a son in 1865. In 1872 she Biographical Dictionary, Westport, CT: Green- succeeded Ann Preston as dean of WMCP. wood Press (1996). She resigned two years later due to poor health. She suffered from tuberculosis and died in Philadelphia on December 8, 1878. Cleveland, Emeline Horton At the time she was working for the De- 1829–1878 partment of the Insane at Philadelphia Hospital. Arespected physician and educator, Eme- line Cleveland was one of the first female See also: Medical College of Pennsylvania; surgeons to remove ovarian tumors. She Preston, Ann was the second female dean of the Women’s References: DeFiore, Jayne Crumpler, Medical College of Pennsylvania (WMCP) “Cleveland, Emeline Horton,” American Na- and created new educational opportunities tional Biography, vol. 5, New York: Oxford for women while strengthening the curricu- University Press (1999); Peitzman, Steven J., lum at her college. A New and Untried Course: Women’s Medical Born in Ashford, Connecticut, on Septem- College and Medical College of Pennsylvania, ber 22, 1829, Cleveland grew up in Madison 1850–1998, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers County, New York. Her parents were University Press (2000). Chauncey Horton and Amanda Chaffee Horton. Her father set up a school on their farm, and she received her early education from tutors. Her father died early, and she Cobb, Jewel Plummer taught in order to earn money sufficient for 1924– a college education. In 1850 she enrolled at Oberlin College in Jewel Cobb has contributed to the field of Ohio and graduated in 1853. Interested in cell biology in her research on how drugs af- becoming a missionary and a physician, she fect cancer and on the skin pigment melanin went to the Female Medical College of and the cause of melanoma, an increasing Pennsylvania (renamed the Women’s Med- skin cancer. Cobb has also supported nu- ical College of Pennsylvania in 1867), grad- merous programs throughout her career to uating in 1855. She had married the Rev- encourage young students, especially mi- erend Giles Butler Cleveland in 1854; they norities, to enter the science field. had both intended a life of missionary work, Cobb was born on January 17, 1924, the but his poor health changed their course. only child of Frank Plummer, a physician She started a small medical practice near and graduate of Rush College, and Car- her home in New York and the next year riebel Plummer, who taught in the public was asked to teach at WMCP. Before long, schools. Cobb came into contact with other she became the chair of anatomy and phys- professionals through her parents, whom iology. In 1860 she went to Paris for spe- she admired. Like her father, she enjoyed cialty training at the School of Obstetrics at science, and she did well in school, often La Maternité. Because WMCP needed a bet- facing racism. ter setting for its students to gain clinical ex- While at the University of Michigan, she perience, she also visited various hospitals encountered more racism in the dormitories to learn more about hospital administration. and local businesses and transferred to Tal- Once Cleveland returned, she became the ladega College in Alabama, where she grad- chief resident of Women’s Hospital, which uated in 1944. She went on to New York collaborated with the Women’s Medical University on a fellowship that lasted six College of Pennsylvania to provide clinical years. There in 1947, she earned a master’s training for medical students. Cleveland degree in cell physiology and in 1950, a also served the college as a professor of ob- Ph.D. She obtained a fellowship from the stetrics and gynecology. National Cancer Institute and began her cell

44 Comnena, Anna research at the Harlem Hospital Cancer Re- tioner with Elizabeth Blackwell at the New search Foundation. York Infirmary for Women and Children. She held several university positions fol- She had a great interest in helping poor lowing her time at the research foundation, women and children, so Blackwell assigned first at the University of Illinois Medical her to the slum areas of New York City. Cole School. In 1954 she married Roy Raul Cobb worked in harsh conditions, teaching and returned to the Harlem Hospital Cancer women and children proper hygiene and Research Foundation. She had a son, Roy basic medical care, and teaching mothers Johnathan Cobb, in 1957. She then worked how to better care for their infants. at New York University, Hunter College, After several years she ventured to Co- and Sarah Lawrence College. During this lumbia, South Carolina, and opened a pri- time she continued in her research on vate practice, later moving to Washington, melanoma and in 1960 published a five-year D.C., to work as the superintendent for the cytological study. Government House for Children and Old She then went to Connecticut College to Women. Later she moved back to her birth- become dean and professor of zoology. In place of Philadelphia and opened a practice 1976 she became dean and professor of biol- while coordinating a medical and legal di- ogy at Douglass College of Rutgers Univer- rectory for the poor with Charlotte Abby, sity. From 1981 until 1990 she served as another physician in Philadelphia. She died president of California State University at on August 14, 1922. Fullerton. In all positions she held, she assisted with program development for un- See Also: Crumpler, Rebecca Lee derrepresented ethnic groups. References: Krapp, Kristine M., ed., Notable Black American Scientists, Detroit: Gale Re- References: Notable Black American Scien- search (1999); Sterling, Dorothy, ed., We Are tists, Detroit: Gale Research (1998); Shearer, Your Sisters: Black Women in the Nineteenth Benjamin F., and Barbara S. Shearer, Notable Century, New York: W. W. Norton (1984). Women in the Life Sciences: A Biographical Dic- tionary, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (1996). Comnena, Anna 1083–1148

Cole, Rebecca Anna Comnena ran the huge hospital her 1846–1922 father built in Constantinople. He was Alex- ius I, emperor of the Romans, and thus she The second black woman in the United was a Byzantine princess and well edu- States to graduate from medical school and cated. She taught various aspects of medi- become a physician, Rebecca Cole devoted cine in his hospital as well as practiced med- over fifty years to the health care of women icine in other hospitals and in orphan and children during a time when women of asylums and attended her father during his any color were not well accepted as physi- last illness. She was an expert on gout. cians. She worked in patients’ homes, in the She is better known for her historical sparsely furnished clinics of the post–Civil writing, a massive fifteen-volume work War era, and into the twentieth century. about her father’s reign titled the Alexiad. Born on March 16, 1846, in Philadelphia, The work provides insight into the period in she had four siblings. She taught school after which she lived, although some of the graduating from the Institute for Colored chronology is incorrect. Youth (currently known as Cheyney Univer- She married Nicephorus Bryennius and, sity). A year later she entered the Women’s along with her mother, tried to persuade her Medical College of Pennsylvania, where in father, even on his deathbed, to disinherit 1867 she was the first black to graduate. her brother, John II, in favor of Nicephorus. She went to work as a visiting practi- Her father refused, so after John ascended

45 Comstock Act of 1873 to the throne, she plotted against him. She immoral nature, or any drug or medi- failed and had to retire to a convent. This is cine, or any article whatever, for the where she spent the rest of her days and prevention of conception, or for caus- wrote the Alexiad. ing unlawful abortion, or shall advertise the same for sale, or shall write or References: Buckler, Georgina, Anna Com- print, or cause to be written or printed, nena: A Study, London: Oxford University any card, circular, book pamphlet, ad- Press (1929); Hurd-Mead, Kate Campbell, vertisement, or notice of any kind, History of Women in Medicine from the Earliest stating when, where, how, or of Times to the Beginning of the Nineteenth Cen- whom, or by what means, any of the tury, Haddam, CT: Haddam Press (1938); articles in this section hereinbefore Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, eds., The mentioned, can be purchased or ob- Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: tained, or shall manufacture, draw, or Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to the Mid- print, or in any wise make any of such 20th Century, New York: Routledge (2000). articles. (U.S. Statutes 1873, 598–599)

Violation of the act was a misdemeanor. Comstock Act of 1873 Comstock was appointed a special agent of the U.S. Postal Service in order to enforce Passed by the U.S. Congress, the Comstock the law. His methods were extreme, con- Act of 1873 banned the distribution of liter- stantly entrapping criminals, prosecuting ature on birth control. It has been used without mercy, and writing vociferously on widely over the years to censor the mails, the vices of society. He intended to rid soci- limit contraceptive information, and prose- ety of everything and all pieces of informa- cute publishers, physicians, social reform- tion that could corrupt youth. He abhorred ers, and women’s rights advocates who vio- the feminists and women’s rights advocates late it. The major architect behind the law such as Margaret Sanger and persecuted was Anthony Comstock, a well-known cru- them. Many influential New Englanders, sader against obscenity, pornography, and such as Morris Jesup and William E. Dodge, literature or personal conduct considered by supported him. The law and his efforts in- him to be immoral. hibited the distribution of birth-control in- The interpretations of the act have been formation for women who desired it. It also broad over the years, violating human prevented physicians from distributing rights and personal liberties in many in- contraceptive devices and information. The stances. Officially called the Act for the Sup- act is still on the books and continues to be pression of Trade in, and Circulation of, Ob- controversial. scene Literature and Articles of Immoral Use, it was meant to punish those who References: Foer, Albert A., “Heroes of the First Amendment,” Washington Post, sec. 10 shall sell, or lend or give away, or in (16 November 1997): 4; U.S. Statutes at Large any manner exhibit, or shall offer to and Proclamations of the United States of Amer- sell, or to lend, or to give away, or in ica, vol. 17, 1871–1873, Boston: Little, Brown: any manner to exhibit, or shall other- (1873): 598–600. wise publish or offer to publish in any manner, or shall have in his possession, for any such purpose or pur- Conley, Frances Krauskopf poses, any obscene book, pamphlet, 1940– paper, writing, advertisement, circular, print, picture, drawing or other repre- Frances Conley became the first tenured sentation, figure, or image on or of pa- neurosurgeon in the United States and per or other material, or any cast, in- brought international attention to the gen- strument, or other article of an der discrimination she faced for thirty years

46 Cori, Gerty Theresa Radnitz at Stanford when she resigned her position for several months in 1991. She continues to fight for gender equity in education. Born on August 12, 1940, in Palo Alto, California, to Konrad Bates and Kathryn McCune Krauskopf, Conley attended Bryn Mawr College for two years and then transferred to Stanford University. She received a B.A. in 1962, an M.D. in 1966, and an M.S. in 1986, all from Stanford. She married Phillip R. Conley in 1963. A gifted neurosurgeon, Conley rose in the ranks at Stanford and became a tenured associate professor of neurosurgery in 1988. Unwilling to stay after a male colleague she considered sexist was appointed department head, she resigned and charged the university with sexual harassment. Other Stanford women who had been reticent to speak up before Conley went public came forward with similar complaints. Stanford had to seriously study the issues she raised, but never ruled on the matter. In her 1998 book Walking Out on the Boys, Conley details Gerty Theresa Radnitz Cori (U.S. National Library the conduct of some of her male colleagues of Medicine) that she considered unethical. She feels women have made very little progress since the 1960s with the exception that more women are in the field. well-to-do Jewish chemist and businessman who managed sugar refineries. The oldest References: Barinaga, Marcia, “Sexism of three girls, Cori was educated at home Charged by Stanford Physician,” Science before going to a school for girls, graduating 252, no. 5012 (14 June 1991): 1484; Conley, in 1912. She studied on her own the subjects Frances K., Walking Out on the Boys, New required to get into medical school because York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1998); at that time, although women were allowed Leslie, Connie, and Barbara Kantrowitz, to enter a university in Prague, few female “Showing Its Age,” Newsweek 118, no. 15 (7 schools taught the science and Latin re- October 1991): 54–58. quired for entrance. Her uncle was a pediatrician and encouraged her to go to medical school. She passed Cori, Gerty Theresa Radnitz the entrance examination in 1914 and re- 1896–1957 ceived her doctorate in medicine in 1920, the same year she married Carl Cori. Despite Gerty Cori, along with her husband and an- the fact that Gerty converted to Catholicism, other researcher, won the Nobel Prize in Carl’s parents felt that Gerty’s Jewish back- 1947 in physiology or medicine for their ground would harm Carl’s career. work on sugar and the enzymes that con- It wasn’t long after graduation that both vert glycogen to sugar. The Coris shared the Coris realized the need to go elsewhere to Nobel Prize with Bernardo Alberto Hous- do research. Eastern Europe was still recov- say. ering from World War I, and research facili- Born in Prague on August 15, 1896, Cori ties were not a priority there. Eventually was the daughter of Otto Radnitz, a fairly Carl was offered a position at a cancer re-

47 Correia, Elisa search institute in Buffalo, New York. Gerty long as the work was based on sound sci- was hired as an assistant pathologist. ence. Their lab was also unusual in that they Gerty Cori was troubled throughout her did not discriminate when hiring against professional life by the fact that she was not women, Jews, or other minorities. recognized for her work with her husband. On October 24, 1947, the Coris learned of Husband-and-wife teams were becoming their Nobel Prize, won for their earlier work more common in the United States, but the on synthesizing glycogen in a test tube. husband had the secure, tenured position, “Physiologists had been told for years that whereas the wife held a lower-level posi- large molecules could only be made within tion. A female researcher in this situation living cells. Yet the Coris had executed the was secure in her position only as long as first bioengineering of a large biological mol- she stayed married. ecule in a test tube” (McGrayne 1998, 106). After several years in Buffalo, Carl ac- The Coris shared the Nobel Prize with cepted a position in St. Louis at the Wash- their friend Bernardo Alberto Houssay of ington University School of Medicine. The Argentina. Coris moved there in 1931, with Gerty Cori Before the couple traveled to Stockholm hired as a research associate and Carl as a to receive the award, Gerty found she was professor. They had become naturalized suffering from agnogenic myeloid dyspla- American citizens in 1928. sia, a severe anemia wherein the body does In 1936, the Coris discovered the com- not produce red blood cells and fibrous tis- pound glucose-l-phosphate, also known as sue slowly replaces the bone marrow. For the Cori ester. This compound occurs as one the rest of her life she relied on blood trans- of the three steps in the breakdown of fusions to live. glycogen into sugar. They also found that The Coris shared their prize money with enzymes played a role in the sugar break- coworkers. They each gave part of the Nobel down, and before long they discovered lecture, sharing the recognition as they had phosphorylase, an enzyme that breaks done their research. Over the next ten years down glycogen into the Cori ester. Cori suffered from her illness but continued When World War II broke out, most of the to do research when she could. She became men in research had to turn to defense proj- interested in glycogen-storage diseases in ects, and women scientists were in demand children and identified four that were in the universities. Thus in 1944, Gerty Cori caused by a missing or defective enzyme. attained the rank of associate professor at As time went on she became weaker, and Washington University. She continued the in 1957 she published her last paper. She work on enzymes. When the war was wind- died at home on October 26, 1957. ing down and in response to offers the Coris had received from Harvard and the Rocke- References: McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch, No- feller Institute, Washington University of- bel Prize Women in Science, New York: Carol fered Carl a larger biochemistry department (1998); Nobel Foundation, Official Web Site to chair with Gerty as a professor. Many sci- of the Nobel Foundation, 2000, http:// entists were pursuing enzyme research at www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1947/ the time, and by 1947 their department had cori-gt-bio.html. become the world’s foremost center for enzyme study, drawing researchers from around the globe. Correia, Elisa Women who came to work with Cori 1866–? found her both exacting and supportive, especially the latter with women who were Elisa Correia was the first female physician wives and mothers like her. She had had a in Portugal. She graduated in 1889 from the son, Tom Carl, in 1936. University of Coimbra in Portugal. Both she and her husband cared little about who was credited for discoveries as References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women

48 Crosby, Elizabeth Caroline

Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan (1957).

Craighill, Margaret D. 1898–1977

Margaret Craighill was the first woman physician to be commissioned into the U.S. Army Medical Corps (1943). Craighill also served as dean of the Women’s Medical Col- lege of Pennsylvania from 1940 to 1946. Craighill was born on October 16, 1898, in Southport, North Carolina. She attended the University of Wisconsin and obtained an A.B. degree in 1920 and an M.S. in 1921. She earned her M.D. degree at Johns Hopkins University in 1924. She also graduated from the New York Psychoanalytic Institute in 1952. During World War II she took a leave of absence from her position as dean of the Margaret D. Craighill (U.S. National Library of Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania Medicine) to serve with the preventive-medicine division of the Army Medical Corps. She surveyed war conditions and reported on the welfare of nurses and other members of the Macmillan (1957); Who’s Who of American corps. She also worked in the office of the Women, 5th ed., Chicago: Marquis Who’s surgeon general as chief of the Women’s Who (1968). Health and Welfare Unit. After the war she became a consultant to the Veterans’ Ad- ministration on the care of women veterans, Crosby, Elizabeth Caroline the first position of its kind. 1888–1983 Craighill eventually turned her attention to psychiatry and attended the Menninger Elizabeth Crosby was recognized in her day School of Psychiatry as part of its first class, as one of the most learned experts on neu- transferring from there to the New York roanatomy. She worked well past retirement Psychoanalytic Institute. She started her age and was a prolific writer and researcher. own private practice in Greenwich and She was the first female full professor at the New Haven, Connecticut, as well as serving University of Michigan’s Medical School. at the Connecticut College for Women in Born in Petersburg, Michigan, to Lewis New London as its chief psychiatrist. Frederick Crosby and Frances Kreps on Oc- She never had children and was widowed tober 25, 1888, Elizabeth had a rather nor- twice. Her husbands were Dr. James Vickers mal and happy childhood. She attended and Alexander S. Wotherspoon. She died in public schools and received very good her home in Connecticut in July 1977 at the grades. She continued her studies at Adrian age of seventy-eight. College in Michigan, where she obtained her B.S. in 1910. Interested in anatomy, she References: “Dr. Margaret D. Craighill, at continued her studies at the University of 78, Former Dean of Medical College,” New Chicago, earning a master’s degree in 1912 York Times (26 July 1977): 32; Lovejoy, Esther and a Ph.D. in 1915. Pohl, Women Doctors of the World, New York: She returned to Petersburg to teach, but

49 Crumpler, Rebecca Lee after her mother died in 1918 she applied to She wrote a book in 1883 on the care of the University of Michigan in order to pur- women and children. sue her research interests. She gained an instructor position in 1920 and rose through References: Crumpler, Rebecca, A Book of the ranks to become the first female profes- Medical Discourses, Boston: Cashman, Keat- sor in the university’s medical school in ing (1883); Jolly, Allison, “Crumpler, Re- 1936. While there, she kept to a rigorous becca Lee,” in Darlene Clark Hine, ed., Facts schedule of teaching and research. She on File Encyclopedia of Black Women in Amer- stayed until 1958. ica, vol. 11, New York: Facts on File (1997); With the publication in 1936 of the two- Sammons, Vivian Ovelton, Blacks in Science volume Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous and Medicine, New York: Hemisphere (1990). System of Vertebrates, Including Man, she became known as an authority on brain morphology. She had collaborated on the work Curie, Marie Sklodowska with C. U. Ariens Kappers and G. Carl Hu- 1867–1934 ber before he died in 1934. The book received international recognition. Marie Curie, probably the world’s best- Although Crosby never married, in 1940 known woman scientist, was a pioneer in she adopted a daughter, Kathleen, who was the field of radiation and chemotherapy. She from Scotland. Crosby received numerous was the first woman awarded a Nobel Prize, awards and continued her research well in 1903, for her research on radioactivity. into her later years. She died on July 28, Sharing the prize were her husband, Pierre 1983, at her daughter’s home in Michigan. Curie, and Henri Becquerel, who had discovered radioactivity in uranium. She was References: Bailey, Martha J., American also awarded a Nobel Prize in 1911 for the Women in Science: A Biographical Dictionary, previous discovery of polonium and ra- Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1994); dium and for the isolation of pure radium. Haines, Duane E., “Crosby, Elizabeth Caro- She went beyond the study of the element line,” American National Biography, vol. 5, radium to discover a few of its medical uses. New York: Oxford University Press (1999); It is still widely used for cancer treatment. Shearer, Benjamin F., and Barbara S. Shearer, Curie was born in Warsaw, Poland, on Notable Women in the Life Sciences: A Bio- November 7, 1867, and was the youngest of graphical Dictionary, Westport, CT: Green- five children. Her parents were Wladyslaw wood Press (1996). and Bronislava Boguska Sklodowska, both intellectuals. She did exceptionally well in her schoolwork but suffered from depres- Crumpler, Rebecca Lee sion during much of her early life. At a very 1833–? young age, she and her siblings were subjected to Russian oppression: Officials de- Rebecca Crumpler was the first black nied students access to the literature of woman to become a physician in the United some countries and demanded that stu- States. She practiced in Boston after gradu- dents recite their Catholic prayers in Rus- ating from the New England Female Med- sian and be familiar with certain aspects of ical College and later moved to Richmond, Russian history. Virginia, to treat newly freed slaves follow- When she was nine, she watched as her ing the American Civil War. oldest sister, Sophia, died from typhus. Born in Richmond, Virginia, in 1833, she When she was eleven, her mother died from was raised by an aunt in Pennsylvania who tuberculosis. Curie turned to her father and worked as a doctor. She worked as a nurse his books for comfort and encouragement, in Massachusetts and then entered the New and after completing school in 1883, she England Female Medical College to become spent time in the country with her uncle a doctor. She graduated in 1864. Sklodowski. When she returned to Warsaw,

50 Curie, Marie Sklodowska she began tutoring, since girls were not allowed to enter universities in Poland. Curie supported the Polish movement for independence and was active in the under- ground, or “floating,” university, where many youths found fellowship and learned together, having been denied a higher education for one reason or another. Both she and her sister Bronia dreamed of attending a university in France. Because her father’s bad investments had left him with little to support the higher education of his children, Curie began working as a governess to finance the move. Bronia went to Paris first and entered medical school, passing all the required exams by 1890. She encouraged Marie to join her and her husband, Casimir Dluski. Al- though Marie was reticent to leave her father, she went to France in 1891 and enrolled in physics at the Sorbonne in November of that year. She passed her examination in physics in 1893, then in mathematics a year later. By now she desperately needed an adequate laboratory to continue working and was told to see Marie Sklodowska Curie (Library of Congress) Pierre Curie, a well-established physicist. Before long they were married and working together. In September 1897 their first daughter, Irene, was born. position at the Sorbonne, and she was man- Henri Becquerel had discovered radioac- ager of the Ecole Supérieur de Physique et tivity, a term coined by Marie, and the de Chimie, her husband’s laboratory. Curies worked on researching this phenom- On April 19, 1906, Pierre was run over by enon. The world had not taken great notice a large horse-drawn carriage and was killed of Becquerel’s discovery because of excite- immediately. Marie was asked to take over ment over Roentgen’s discovery of X rays in her husband’s position and lead the work 1895. By 1898, however, Marie and Pierre on radioactivity at the Sorbonne. She was had discovered two unknown radioactive the first woman professor there. During the elements in uranium—polonium and ra- same year, Lord William Thomson Kelvin dium. To prove their discovery, they would announced that radium was not an element need a huge amount of an expensive crude after all, just a compound of lead and he- material, specifically pitchblende, and a lium. He was mistaken, but Marie Curie place to work with it. The Austrian govern- could not prove it. She would have to keep ment gave the Curies a ton of pitchblende, working on isolating radium; she accom- and they used an old shed, a dissecting plished this in 1910. room the faculty of medicine had aban- During this time, a scandal erupted be- doned, to carry out their four-year attempt cause Curie and a former student of Pierre to isolate polonium and radium. Curie’s, Paul Langevin, also a gifted French Marie had a miscarriage during this pe- physicist and married, had begun seeing riod but had a very healthy second daugh- each other frequently. The press got wind of ter, Eve, in 1904. After winning the Nobel their meetings and claimed a foreigner had Prize in 1903, Pierre assumed a professor stolen a French woman’s husband. They im-

51 Curie, Marie Sklodowska mediately ended the relationship, Curie re- dium Institute. Also, at a White House alizing she could not have any kind of rela- ceremony, President Harding presented tionship with a married man. Curie with the key to a metal box contain- Also during this time, she received word ing radium. of her second Nobel Prize, this time in During the 1920s, Curie had numerous chemistry for the isolation of pure radium. symptoms of radiation exposure. She had With this award, she became the first to re- cataracts and numbness in her fingers from ceive two Nobel Prizes. handling radium and suffered fatigue. After World War I broke out, Curie spent Marie Curie had trained Irene in radium re- much of her time during the following four search and had worked side by side with years organizing an X-ray service to assist her during World War I. Irene and her hus- in treating wounded soldiers on the front band, Frederic Joliot, discovered artificial lines and in hospitals. By the time the war radioactivity, work for which Irene received was over, 1 million soldiers had been ex- a Nobel Prize in 1935. Frederic would much amined. She also began bottling the radon later realize that it was dangerous to handle gas from radium into small tubes and sent Marie and Pierre’s papers, which were still these to doctors around the world for contaminated with radioactivity decades af- the treatment of cancerous tumors. By ter they died. this time, she was experiencing frequent Curie tried to burn much of her personal exhaustion. papers before she died in order to gain more Although Curie was aware of the benefits privacy. She kept only the love letters from of radiation for people with cancerous tu- Pierre and a diary. She also tried to organize mors, it is clear that she was not aware of its and prepare for a transition at the Radium harmful effects. She was an avid outdoors- Institute, wanting an aide and then Irene to woman who felt that if people were strong take over. and got enough fresh air, they would be She was never recognized in France for fine. She continued in this belief even when her work during World War I because lab assistants later died from anemia and many still considered her a foreigner. She leukemia due to overexposure. It wasn’t was loyal to her native Poland, teaching until the 1920s that the public became her daughters Polish at an early age and aware of the damaging effects of exposure helping Poland establish its own radium to radiation. institute. After the war, Curie was determined to Curie’s health was in continual decline af- build a research institute in France. Her Ra- ter suffering a broken wrist in 1932 that dium Institute at the University of Paris never healed properly. In May 1934, she was opened after the war but had little in the misdiagnosed with tuberculosis. At this way of resources because of the depressed point even Curie saw that radiation could postwar economy. She came to change her be harmful. Eve cared for her almost con- mind about patenting scientific discoveries, stantly until Curie died from leukemia on realizing the income could finance further July 4, 1934. She was buried with Pierre in a research. small cemetery in Sceaux. Many years later, In 1920, she met Missy Meloney, a jour- on April 20, 1995, both their remains were nalist from the United States with whom moved to the Pantheon, France’s memorial she would form a lifelong friendship. Me- to the nation’s great men. Marie Curie is the loney was impressed by Curie’s work, and first woman to be buried there based on her when she learned that Curie’s Radium own merits. Institute had little to work with, including Today some still question whether Curie very little radium, she vowed to help raise deserves so much credit for what her hus- funds in the United States. Shortly there- band may have discovered. It is obvious after, when Curie traveled to the United from her writings and what she said on States with her two daughters, Meloney record that both she and Pierre were very welcomed her with $100,000 for the Ra- careful to take credit together for the work

52 Curie, Marie Sklodowska they shared and give credit to each other as of World Biography, Detroit: Gale Research appropriate. (1998); McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, References: Curie, Eve, Madame Curie: A Bi- and Momentous Discoveries, Secaucus, NJ: ography, New York: Doubleday (1938); Dic- Carol (1998); Pflaum, Rosalynd, Grand Ob- tionary of Scientific Biography, New York: session: Madame Curie and Her World, New Charles Scribner’s Sons (1971); Encyclopedia York: Doubleday (1989).

Dalle Donne, Maria Daly, Marie Maynard 1778–1842 1921–

Exceptionally talented and intelligent, Marie Daly was the first African American Maria Dalle Donne was dedicated to eradi- to earn a Ph.D. degree in chemistry. Her re- cating barbaric methods of medical treat- search focused on the physiological levels of ment for women. She educated numerous creatine, hypertension, protein synthesis, midwives at the University of Bologna; this and atherosclerosis. work was critical because there were few Daly was born in New York City on April doctors in that day to attend to the rural 16, 1921, to Ivan C. Daly and Helen Page population, and thus gynecological and ob- Daly. She had younger brothers who were stetric patients depended upon midwives twins. Her education started in the public for all necessary care. Dalle Donne did not schools of Queens, and she then attended turn away women who sought education Hunter College High School in Manhattan. even if they could not afford it. Her uncle, She did very well in school and had much recognizing her extraordinary talent, took support from her family, teachers, and her in and educated her. Her tutors were friends. eventually so impressed that they encour- She went on to Queens College and ob- aged, and arranged, a demonstration of her tained her B.S. in chemistry in 1942. She skills so that she could obtain a medical de- graduated magna cum laude and was ambi- gree and earn her own living. She im- tious for a research career. After obtaining a pressed the University of Bologna officials lab assistant position at Queens College, she and was admitted to the university, obtain- began the master’s program at New York ing her degree in philosophy and medicine University. She received her master’s a year in 1799. later and remained at Queens College, She became the director of midwives at teaching in the lab and tutoring. the university and was highly regarded for She later entered Columbia University to her teaching abilities. work on her Ph.D. in chemistry, which she obtained in 1947. She then went to Howard See also: University of Bologna University and taught in the physical sci- References: Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Har- ences, afterward moving on to the Rocke- vey, eds., Biographical Dictionary of Women in feller Institute for seven years. During this Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to time she was learning a great deal and the Mid-20th Century, New York: Routledge meeting well-established researchers such (2000). as Leonor Michaelis and Francis Peyton Rous. In 1955 she returned to Columbia Univer- sity and in 1960, she went to Albert Einstein

55 Daniel, Annie Sturges

College of Medicine. She published many students at the Women’s Medical College articles on her research involving the syn- about the circumstances of the poor. thesis of protein, the relationship between Eventually health officials came to her for hypertension and cholesterol, and the ef- advice, and in 1884 she was appointed to fects of cigarette smoking. She became an serve with the New York State Tenement associate professor in 1971 and held that po- House Commission. She investigated child sition until she retired in 1986. She married labor in homes and sweatshops and also ad- Vincent Clark in 1961. vocated prison reform. Daniel never married and died on August References: Grinstein, Louise S., Rose K. 10, 1944, in New York City. Rose, and Miriam H. Rafailovich, Women in Chemistry and Physics: A Biobibliographic References: Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Har- Sourcebook, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press vey, eds., The Biographical Dictionary of (1993). Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from An- cient Times to the Mid-20th Century, New York: Routledge (2000); Perry, Marilyn Eliz- Daniel, Annie Sturges abeth, “Daniel, Annie Sturges,” American 1858–1944 National Biography, vol. 6, New York: Oxford University Press (1999). A physician and public health crusader who worked in numerous settlement houses, Annie Daniel set early standards in proper Darrow, Ruth Renter hygiene and sanitation as well as empha- 1895–1956 sized adequate nutrition and space for families in substandard living conditions. Her Little is known about Ruth Darrow except practical handling of destitute individuals that she published various research articles and patients was a model for students re- on erythroblastosis foetalis, a hemolytic dis- quired to visit patients in run-down tene- ease of newborns (HDN), and concluded ment buildings, crowded shelters, and un- that an unknown fetal antigen caused the sanitary homes. disease. She herself was “a mother of sev- Born on September 21, 1858, in Buffalo, eral Rh-HDN-afflicted newborns” and “was New York, she was the daughter of John M. first to suggest a relationship between ma- Daniel and Marinda Sturges Daniel. Her ternal sensitization to a fetal blood antigen parents died when she was still a child, and and subsequent fetal pathology” (Lloyd relatives in Monticello, New York, raised 1987, 299). She worked in Chicago for a time her. She had an early interest in biology and with the Women and Children’s Hospital. entered the Women’s Medical College of the Her research led the way for the discovery New York Infirmary, where she obtained of the Rh factor and its importance for preg- her M.D. in 1879. Elizabeth Blackwell nant women and fetuses. placed Daniel in the Out-Practice Depart- ment, which gave her leadership responsi- References: Darrow, Ruth Renter, “Icterus bility for persons living in the tenements of Gravis (Erythroblastosis) Neonatorum,” New York City. Archives of Pathology 25 (1938): 378–417; She would find ensuring better health Kass-Simon, G., and Patricia Farnes, Women and circumstances for the poor to be her of Science: Righting the Record, Bloomington: life’s work. Many who lived in tenement Indiana University Press (1990); Lloyd, buildings during her time were immigrants Thomas, “Rh-Factor Incompatibility: A living in extended families. They earned Primer for Prevention,” Journal of Nurse- meager wages and did not always have the Midwifery 32, no. 5 (September–October education needed for basic health care and a 1987): 297–307. nutritious diet. By 1889 she was teaching many medical

56 Delano, Jane Arminda

Dayhoff, Margaret Oakley Dejerine-Klumpke, Augusta 1925–1983 1859–1927

Margaret Dayhoff was an early pioneer in Augusta Dejerine-Klumpke was an out- molecular biology. She initiated develop- standing neurologist who was an early pio- ment of the protein sequence database neer in treating patients with nervous dis- (PSDB), which led her to a great under- eases. She was also the first woman to standing of the evolution of proteins. This become a member of the Societé de Neu- database also led to the use of computers in rologie in 1914. the life sciences. Her series of books, begin- Born in San Francisco on October 15, ning with the 1965 Atlas of Protein Sequence 1859, Augusta was the daughter of John and Structure, would prove invaluable to re- Gerard Klumpke and Dorothea Matilda searchers in the field of molecular biology. Tolle. She received an early education in San Born on March 11, 1925, in Philadelphia, Francisco before the family moved to Pennsylvania, she was the daughter of Ken- France. She attended the University of Paris neth W. Oakley and Ruth P. Clark. They and obtained her medical degree in 1889. moved to New York City when Margaret She worked at La Laribosiére Hospital was ten, and she attended public schools, along with her husband, Jules Dejerine, also graduating from high school as a valedicto- a neurologist. They were married on July 11, rian. She went on to major in mathematics 1888, and had one daughter, Yvonne Dejer- at Washington Square College, part of the ine. Later, they both worked at the clinic for University of New York, and graduated nervous diseases at La Salpêtrière, con- magna cum laude in 1945. In 1948 she re- tributing much to the field. ceived a Ph.D. from Columbia University in Because of the many soldiers of World quantum chemistry. War I who suffered from paralysis, Dejer- Following school, she worked at the Rock- ine-Klumpke opened her own clinic for the efeller Institute and the University of Mary- purpose of studying that condition. Her land. In 1959 she took a position at the Na- work earned her a great deal of distinction tional Biomedical Foundation, where her and respect. She died in Paris on November interests were in the origins of life and the re- 5, 1927. lationship between protein sequences as well as the role they played in the evolutionary References: “Dejerine, Augusta Klumpke,” process. Her protein sequence database con- The National Cyclopedia of American Biogra- sisted of sixty-five sequences. She also devel- phy, vol. 31, New York: J. T. White (1944): oped an amino acid similarity-scoring ma- 404; Haines, Catharine M. C., and Helen trix, which was one of the first tools for Stevens, International Women in Science: A Bi- database searching, comparing protein se- ographical Dictionary to 1950, Santa Barbara, quences, and building evolutionary trees. All CA: ABC-CLIO (2001). this work is helpful to scientists researching macromolecules and their structure. She married Edward S. Dayhoff, a physi- Delano, Jane Arminda cist, in 1948, and they had two daughters who 1862–1919 became physicians. Dayhoff died on Febru- ary 5, 1983, in Silver Springs, Maryland, of a Jane Delano was the first director and or- heart attack at the age of fifty-seven. ganizer of the American Red Cross Nursing Service. She enabled the organization to References: Ledley, Robert S., “Dayhoff, provide over 20,000 professional nurses Margaret Oakley,” American National Biogra- during World War I. phy, vol. 2, New York: Oxford University Born in Townsend, New York, on March Press (1999); Proffitt, Pamela, ed., Notable 12, 1862, Delano was one of two daughters Women Scientists, Detroit: Gale Research of George and Mary Ann Wright Delano. (1999). Her father died in the Civil War, and her

57 Dempsey, Sister Mary Joseph

home. Delano became the leader of this initiative, replacing the Army Nursing Reserve with the Red Cross Nursing Service. She was very active in recruiting nurses of professional caliber and received many honors over the years for her dedication to the Red Cross. After World War I ended, Delano went abroad to oversee Red Cross activities in postwar Europe. She suffered from mas- toiditis and died in a base hospital in Save- nay, France, on April 15, 1919. She never married or had children. She was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.

References: Gladwin, Mary E., The Red Cross and Jane Arminda Delano, Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders (1931); Notable American Women 1607–1950, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press (1971); Reeves, Connie L., “Delano, Jane Ar- minda,” American National Biography, vol. 6, New York: Oxford University Press (1999).

Dempsey, Sister Mary Joseph Jane Arminda Delano (American Red Cross/U.S. 1856–1939 National Library of Medicine) Sister Mary Joseph Dempsey played an important role in the growth of St. Mary’s Hos- pital and in its collaboration with the Mayo mother remarried. Her sister died in 1883, Clinic. As nurse, hospital administrator, and and thereafter Delano felt the lack of family surgical assistant to Dr. Will Mayo, she con- ties even though she now had four stepsis- tributed to the success of both institutions. ters. She was educated at Cook Academy in Born in Salamanca, New York, on May 14, Montour Falls. 1856, Dempsey was the second of seven In 1884 she attended the Bellevue Hospi- children of Irish immigrants Patrick tal Training School for Nurses in New York. Dempsey and Mary Sullivan Dempsey. Not She showed unusual skill and proficiency long after she was born, the family moved and was chosen early on to attend a mayor. to a farm in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Her observations in the hospital of organi- Dempsey, christened Julia, and two of her zation and leadership skills served her well sisters became Franciscan nuns. Julia be- in later years. In 1888 she volunteered to came Sister Mary Joseph of the Third Order serve during the yellow fever epidemic in of St. Francis at the age of twenty-two. She Florida. Then she worked in Arizona, or- trained as a teacher and worked in several ganizing a hospital during an epidemic of schools over the next decade. scarlet fever. Following this, she went to the A terrible tornado hit Rochester, Min- University of Pennsylvania Hospital and nesota, in 1883, convincing the convent’s became the superintendent of nurses. Mother Alfred that the convent needed a It became very apparent after the Span- hospital. Dr. William Worrall Mayo agreed ish-American War that the Red Cross to staff the hospital if the sisters of the con- needed an organized reserve of ready pro- vent would build it. Mother Alfred felt that fessionals in case of wars or epidemics at Sister Joseph would be a good nurse and

58 Diaz Inzunza, Eloiza called on her to learn nursing and work at sionaries by a Scottish suffragist, Agnes the hospital. McLaren. McLaren was a physician and In 1889, Sister Joseph became head nurse needed more medical missionaries in India. at the newly created St. Mary’s Hospital. A Dengal pursued her premedical studies at year later she began to work for Dr. Will Cork University, Ireland, and in 1919 gradu- Mayo as a surgical assistant and in 1892 was ated from Queens College Medical School. the superintendent of the hospital. She was In India she worked at St. Catherine’s an exceptional administrator who had to Hospital, treating women and children of deal with financial planning, personnel all religious backgrounds. She traveled to problems, and the ongoing cooperation the United States in 1924 in order to raise with the Mayos’ medical practice. St. Mary’s funds to form the Catholic Medical Mission went through a period of tremendous Sisters. The sisters trained nurses, mid- growth and change as staff responded to an wives, and others for foreign missions. They increasing number of medical discoveries were the first to provide surgeons and ob- that changed the hospital’s procedures and stetricians for mission work within the Ro- treatments. man Catholic congregations. Sister Joseph, seeing a great need for Dengal laid out the foundations of mission nurses, started the St. Mary’s Hospital work in her Mission for Samaritans in 1945. School for Nurses in 1906. She was a stern She believed missions were a practical way disciplinarian who emphasized the impor- to follow the example of Jesus Christ and the tance of academic education as well as prac- Good Samaritan and to deliver the justice the tical experience and tried to raise the status white race owed to others who were less for- of nursing as a profession. She died of bron- tunate. She died in Rome in 1980. chopneumonia on March 29, 1939, at St. Mary’s Hospital. References: Dries, Angelyn, “Dengel, Anna,” Biographical Dictionary of Christian References: Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Har- Missions, New York: Macmillan (1998); vey, eds., The Biographical Dictionary of Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, eds., The Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from An- Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: cient Times to the Mid-20th Century, New Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to the Mid- York: Routledge (2000); Steller, Robert E., 20th Century, New York: Routledge (2000). “Dempsey, Sister Mary Joseph,” Notable American Women 1607–1950, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press (1971). Diaz Inzunza, Eloiza 1866–1950

Dengal, Anna Maria Eloiza Diaz Inzunza was the first woman in 1892–1980 Chile to obtain a medical degree. Graduat- ing from a high school for boys that she had Anna Dengal became a well-known medical special permission to attend, Diaz went on missionary and founded the Catholic Med- to the Instituto Nacional in Santiago and ical Mission Sisters in 1925. She is said to graduated in 1881 at the age of fifteen with have had some influence on Pius XI’s deci- a bachelor of arts. She then attended the sion to lift the ban on women in religious medical school at the University of Chile work entering the medical field. In 1936, af- and spent five years studying before earn- ter he had lifted the ban, Dengal’s group being a medical degree in 1887. She spent all came a religious congregation. Dengal was her career serving women and children. She born in Steeg, Austria, the oldest of nine died on November 1, 1950. children. Her mother died when she was eight, and she went to boarding school in References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women France. She was advised to go into the med- Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan ical field and of the need for medical mis- (1957); Vargas, Tegualda Ponce de, “Women

59 Dick, Gladys Rowena Henry

Doctors of Chile,” Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 7, no. 10 (1952): 389.

Dick, Gladys Rowena Henry 1881–1963

Gladys Dick, along with her husband, George, were key figures in researching the treatment and prevention of scarlet fever prior to the development of antibiotics during World War II. Their research proved that hemolytic streptococci caused scarlet fever. They were nominated in 1925 for the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine, although no award was given that year. Dick was born in Pawnee City, Nebraska, on December 18, 1881. Her father, William Chester Henry, was a banker and grain dealer and also raised horses. Her mother was Azelia Henrietta Edson Henry. Dick Gladys Rowena Henry Dick (U.S. National Library was the youngest of three children. The of Medicine) family moved to Lincoln, Nebraska, when she was still a baby. She was educated lo- cally, then attended the University of Ne- braska, where she obtained her B.S. degree being crippled for the rest of their life. After in 1900. Unable to convince her mother that the Dicks’ discovery of the agent causing medicine was an appropriate course of the disease, they developed a toxin and an- study, she settled for teaching biology in titoxin preparation and patented it in 1924. Carney, Nebraska. Some saw the patent as a move that fostered She also took graduate courses at the Uni- commercialism and that could hinder re- versity of Nebraska until her mother agreed search. The Dicks argued that their ap- to her pursuing a medical career. At that proach would ensure quality. They later point she entered the medical school at won a lengthy court battle when they Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. She brought a lawsuit against a manufacturer worked at Johns Hopkins after her gradua- for patent infringement and inappropriately tion in 1907, then spent a year in Berlin, preparing the toxin. where her research interests in blood chem- Their discovery led to the Dick skin test, istry intensified. After she returned, she which determined an individual’s suscepti- went to the University of Chicago in 1911. bility to scarlet fever. Once antibiotics be- It was here that she met George Dick. came abundant during World War II, their They were married in 1914, and she worked test was no longer needed. for a time in private practice while George Dick’s later research involved polio, and took a position at McCormick Memorial In- she also was deeply involved in the public stitute for Infectious Diseases. Soon she health and welfare issue of adoption. She joined her husband in researching scarlet was active in the Cradle Society, an adop- fever. tion organization in Evanston, Illinois, for At the time scarlet fever was a huge prob- many years. She and her husband adopted lem in North America as well as Europe. two children, Roger and Rowena, in 1930. The mortality rate was 25 percent, and those Dick suffered a stroke on August 21, 1963, children who survived had a great risk of and died in Menlo Park, California.

60 Dickens, Helen Octavia

References: Bailey, Martha J., American Women in Science, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO (1994); Notable Twentieth-Century Scientists Supplement, Detroit: Gale Research (1998).

Dickens, Helen Octavia 1909–

Helen Dickens became a specialist in obstetrics and gynecology and was the first African American woman to become a fellow of the American College of Surgeons. She is most noted for her counseling of students in the allied public health and medical fields and as an advocate of education in order to reduce the rate of teen pregnancy. Dickens was born to a former slave from Tennessee, Charles Dickens, on February 21, 1909, in Dayton, Ohio. She was the oldest of three. Her mother was Daisy Jane Green Dickens. She attended integrated public Helen Octavia Dickens (U.S. National Library of schools in Dayton. Upon graduation she at- Medicine) tended Crane Junior College in Chicago. There, she ignored the racist attitudes of some students and focused on her studies, doing well in her premed courses. ens took a residency at Harlem Hospital in She continued her studies at the Univer- New York City. Henderson returned to his sity of Illinois, receiving her B.S. degree in practice in Savannah, Georgia, and they 1932. She went on to the university’s med- thus had a long-distance marriage. ical school, graduating in 1934. She interned Dickens completed her residency at at Chicago’s Provident Hospital and later Harlem Hospital in 1946. She became certi- became a resident in obstetrics. She and oth- fied by the American Board of Obstetrics ers had a desire to go out into the commu- and Gynecology and in 1948 became direc- nity but did not have the opportunity dur- tor of the Department of Obstetrics and Gy- ing their residency. Afterward she was necology at Philadelphia’s racially inte- drawn to a Quaker practicing medicine in grated Mercy Douglass Hospital. She her home in Philadelphia, Dr. Virginia would remain there until 1967. In 1950 she Alexander. Dickens went to work with became a fellow in the American College of Alexander for a while, taking on the entire Surgeons. practice when Alexander left for further ed- Henderson eventually went to Pennsyl- ucation. She stayed for six years until decid- vania and took a residency in neurosurgery ing she needed to learn more about obstet- at the University of Pennsylvania Medical rics and gynecology. College. He and Dickens had two children. Upon learning that the University of He died in 1961. Dickens began her rela- Pennsylvania Graduate School of Medicine tionship with the University of Pennsylva- offered an advanced degree in medical sci- nia School of Medicine in 1965. In 1976, she ence, she studied there and then went back attained the position of professor of obstet- to Provident Hospital in Chicago for her res- rics and gynecology. She currently is profes- idency. There, she met Purvis Sinclair Hen- sor emerita at the University of Pennsylva- derson, a resident in general surgery. They nia School of Medicine. married in 1943, and soon thereafter Dick- Through her many publications on the

61 Dickey, Nancy Wilson subject of teen pregnancy, its prevention She has tackled tough ethical issues, par- and effects, Dickens had a great influence ticularly the end-of-life issue, while work- on prevention programs. She has also done ing within the AMA and as its president. extensive research on cancer and sexually Under her leadership the AMA ethics com- transmitted diseases. She also counsels stu- mittee resolved that “honoring the request dents, particularly women, who are inter- of terminal patients or their surrogates to ested in medicine or other science disci- discontinue artificial nutrition or hydration plines. She has received numerous awards was ethical” (Turner 1997, 1). over the years, including an honorary doc- She also feels that although physicians torate from the Medical College of Pennsyl- now have the capability to keep people vania. alive longer, that is sometimes not the ethical choice. She is opposed to physician- References: Contemporary Black Biography, assisted suicide but feels that “we do things vol. 14, Detroit: Gale Research (1997). because we can. We need to think more about whether we should” (Mangan 1997, A10). Dickey, Nancy Wilson Her husband is a football and basketball 1950– coach in Bryan, Texas. She has three children and is also active in her community. Nancy Dickey was the first female president She was the founding program director for of the American Medical Association the Brazos Valley Family Practice Program (AMA). Her yearlong term began in June in Bryan and treats patients there on a regu- 1998, and during that time she helped create lar basis. She is also a professor at the Texas the National Patient Safety Foundation, dis- A&M University College of Medicine, and cussed issues concerning terminal illness serves on staff at St. Joseph’s Hospital in and the rights of the patient, and challenged Bryan, Texas, and the College Station Med- the profession to be more forthright about ical Center, College Station, Texas. She is mistakes. currently president of the Health Science Dickey was one of seven children. She Center and vice chancellor for health affairs was born in South Dakota on September 10, for the Texas A&M University system. 1950, and was raised on a farm. She and her siblings gathered eggs, slopped hogs, and References: Mangan, Katherine S., “First helped with the other farm chores until she Female President: Texas A&M Professor was ten and the family moved south. They Prepares to Lead AMA,” Chronicle of Higher ended up in Katy, Texas, where Dickey first Education 44 (10 October 1997): A10; Turner, became interested in medicine. Her parents Allan, “Healthy, Irrepressible Perspective: were very encouraging, but some teachers AMA’s First Female President Breaks and others warned against such high ambi- Through Perceived ‘Old Boys’ Network,” tions. They urged her to have either a fam- Houston Chronicle (29 June 1997): 1. ily or a medical career. She was discouraged until she met her future husband, who supported her in pursuing both goals. She stud- Dix, Dorothea Lynde ied psychology at Stephen F. Austin State 1802–1887 University in Nacogdoches and worked as a nursing aide in the summers. She obtained Dorothea Dix was an early advocate for the her M.D. from the medical school at the rights of the mentally ill and responsible for University of Texas in Houston in 1976. She bringing state and national attention to the chose family practice instead of a limited problems of the day in caring for and treat- specialty because she felt she would like the ing those with mental illnesses. Without a diversity. She was a resident in family prac- formal education, she symbolizes the value tice from 1976 to 1979 at Memorial Hospital of common sense with her view that mental System in Houston. illness is a medical problem, not a moral

62 Dix, Dorothea Lynde one. Because of her efforts there were 123 mental hospitals in the United States in 1880 compared to only 13 in 1843. Without being aware of her influence, she also laid the groundwork—in her Remarks on Prisons and Prison Discipline in the United States—for the changes to come in the care and treatment of prisoners. She emphasized the need to educate inmates and give them psychiatric treatment and the need to keep certain types of prisoners separated from others. Born in Hampden, Maine, on April 4, 1802, Dix was the daughter of Joseph and Mary Bigelow Dix. Her father was a minister. She had two younger brothers, whom she cared for often because her mother was handicapped. Occasionally, she was able to spend time in Boston, where she visited her grandparents and became interested in gaining an education. She was an avid reader and, despite being raised by relatives in her early teens, managed to gain enough Dorothea Lynde Dix (Library of Congress) education to open a small school. She taught on and off for years until she became interested in the plight of the mentally ill. Her interest in the well-being of the men- her life but never gave up the fight for the tally ill grew out of her astonishment at the mentally ill. She also volunteered her ser- cruel and unusual punishment they were vices during the Civil War and was made receiving in jails and prisons around the the superintendent of army nurses. This country. She had gone to teach a Sunday was a frustrating role for her because she school class for women prisoners and was didn’t possess the organizational skills nec- shocked to find that some of them were im- essary for such a position. Eventually the prisoned only because they were mentally secretary of war lessened her authority be- ill. As time went on, she surveyed other in- cause she was not an effective leader. She stitutions and found that most facilities for continued her service until the war ended. the insane were entirely inadequate. Following the war, she picked up where She began to bring the problem before the she left off, visiting several southern states legislatures in many states, using the slav- and lobbying on behalf of various causes, ery issue in her arguments. How could abo- among them prison reform. While visiting litionists propose freeing slaves when they the mentally ill in numerous institutions, couldn’t take care of their own mentally ill? she also saw firsthand the prison conditions Soon many states appropriated funds for of inmates who were not mentally ill. She proper facilities. advocated better conditions for them. Eventually Dix presented her case at the During Dix’s career as a social reformer, national level, feeling that federal land she met many influential people, once visit- should be set aside for a trust whose income ing a welcoming Pope Pius IX in order to would benefit the insane. Congress grap- describe the conditions in prisons and asy- pled with this matter for six years, finally lums that existed in Rome. passing a bill in 1854. President Franklin She never married or had children. She Pierce vetoed the bill, saying the states retired to Trenton, New Jersey, and died on should deal with the problem. July 18, 1887. Dix suffered from poor health throughout

63 Dmitrieva, Valentina Ionovna

References: Marshall, Helen E., Dorothea face of the rural poverty which was closing Dix, Forgotten Samaritan, Chapel Hill: Uni- in on me from all sides” (Dmitrieva 1994, versity of North Carolina Press (1937); No- 158). Dmitrieva died in Sochi on February table American Women 1607–1950, Cam- 18, 1947. bridge, MA: Belknap Press (1971); Snodgrass, Mary Ellen, The Historical Ency- References: Buck, Claire, ed., Bloomsbury clopedia of Nursing, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC- Guide to Women’s Literature, London: CLIO (1999). Bloomsbury (1992); Davies, Mildred, “Valentina Dmitrieva,” Russian Women Writers, vol. 2, New York: Garland (1999); Dmitrieva, Valentina Ionovna Dmitrieva, Valentina, “After the Great 1859–1947 Hunger,” in Catriona Kelly, ed., An Anthol- ogy of Russian Women’s Writing, 1777–1992, Valentina Dmitrieva was one of the early Oxford: Oxford University Press (1994); En- Russian women physicians. She is better gel, Barbara Alpern, Mothers and Daughters: known as a revolutionary and writer, but Women of the Intelligentsia in Nineteenth Cen- her brief medical career led her to working tury Russia, Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- with the less fortunate during famine and sity Press (1983). epidemics. Her fiction and memoirs give one of the few early pictures of the desper- ate situation in Russia toward the end of the Dock, Lavinia Lloyd nineteenth century as medical providers 1858–1956 faced insurmountable odds in trying to help the helpless. Lavinia Dock was an early nursing leader She was born on April 28, 1859, in and educator who worked with Isabel Voronino, a village in Saratov Province. Her Hampton Robb at Johns Hopkins and was father was a serf, and her mother taught her inspired by the work of Lillian D. Wald, to read, which she did avidly. She was able which enhanced her vision of what the to attend high school in Tambov and did nursing profession should be. She was in- well. The family struggled after emancipa- strumental in the early years of her career in tion and lived a transient life. promoting a professional identity for nurses She pursued medical training in St. Pe- and in establishing high standards in the tersburg, and she also went to Moscow to nursing profession. Born on February 26, study obstetrics. She worked as a physician 1858, to Gilliard and Lavinia Loyd Bom- most of 1892–1894, when epidemics and baugh Dock, she was raised in Harrisburg, starvation were widespread in Russia. A Pennsylvania, and enrolled in the Training revolutionary, she spent years in exile in School for Nurses in New York at Bellevue Tver and Voronezh. She wrote an autobiog- Hospital. She graduated in 1886 and a few raphy in 1930, Tak Bylo: Put Moei Shizni (The years later assisted Clara Barton following Way It Was), and several of her memoirs de- the devastating Johnstown, Pennsylvania, pict the seemingly hopeless situation she flood of 1889. She made a lasting contribu- faced as a physician. tion to nursing with her publication the fol- In one village, she wrote, “I could see the lowing year of the Textbook for Materia Med- whole panoply of destruction wrought by ica for Nurses, a guide for nurses on the use chronic hunger: the ulcers, rashes, bleeding of drugs. It served as a textbook for many gums, paralysed muscles, and putrefying years and went through several editions. bones.... The crowd straggled after me, Isabel Hampton Robb appointed Dock staring at me with a mixture of hope and the assistant superintendent of nurses at desperation. And I realized my total impo- Johns Hopkins Hospital. She became very tence: all the medicine I could prescribe, the involved in the profession, realizing nurses visits I could make, seemed pointless and needed an organized voice. In 1893 she or- ridiculous, reduced to childish games in the ganized the American Society of Superin-

64 Dolley, Sarah Read Adamson tendents of Training Schools and a few Legal Aspects of the Venereal Diseases, New years later joined the community of women York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons (1910); Sklar, living in the Settlement House on Henry Kathryn Kish, “Dock, Lavinia Lloyd,” Amer- Street in New York City. Lillian Wald, who ican National Biography, vol. 6, New York: had started the house, was a tremendous in- Oxford University Press (1999). fluence on Dock. Her work there for the next twenty years formed a foundation for nurses having a Dolley, Sarah Read Adamson huge role in public health care. She was 1829–1909 very vocal about problems that others did not want to think about or discuss; she was One of the early women physicians in the one of the first nurses to talk about the prob- United States, Dolley provided leadership lem of prostitution and the need for treating for women wanting a career in medicine. venereal disease. When hospitals wouldn’t allow women to practice, she assisted and was elected as the Elizabeth Blackwell early declared, in first president of the Provident Dispensary a letter to her sister, her determination Association. The dispensary provided help not to be intimidated or discouraged for the needy women and children of in the difficult task of attacking the so- Rochester until 1894. cial evil by methods of education, and Born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, her books and addresses on this sub- on March 11, 1829, Dolley was the third of ject are classics in their dignity and no- five children. Her parents were Charles bility of position.... From that time on Adamson and Mary Corson Adamson, of women physicians as an entire body Quaker descent. She was educated at the have stood united for a single stan- Friends’ School in Philadelphia and later dard of morals and for the education became interested in medicine. She was de- of the public. In their ranks there can nied admission to many schools until Cen- be found no division or opposing tral Medical College accepted her. She opinions on this subject. They are ac- graduated in 1851. tive in the warfare against vice, in Following an internship at Blockley Hos- every country where medicine has pital, she married Dr. Lester Clinton Dol- opened its door to women, and in our ley, an anatomy professor. They had two own country they have been publicly children, Loilyn in 1854 and Charles Sum- called upon by their colleagues in the ner in 1856. Loilyn died in 1858 of typhoid medical profession to carry the teach- pneumonia. ings of hygiene to the women of the Dolley remained in Rochester for life, land” (Dock 1910, 80–81). continuing to be active in her medical practice, which she devoted to women and chil- Hygiene and Morality (1910) speaks dren, and continuing her education by go- strongly against prostitution and addresses ing to Paris, Prague, and Vienna to learn other public health concerns. She later from their physicians. She became very in- moved away from nursing and became volved in organizing professional women’s more involved in the women’s suffragist associations. Her husband’s career at Cen- movement and equality for women. tral Medical College didn’t last because the Dock died in Chambersburg, Pennsylva- college closed, but he also had a private nia, on April 17, 1956. practice. She had an unusually good reputation for See also: Barton, Clara; Robb, Isabel Hamp- a woman physician of the time due to her ton; Wald, Lillian D. training after her education in college. Even References: Dock, Lavinia L. Hygiene and male colleagues had respect for her talents. Morality: A Manual for Nurses and Others, Dolley died in Rochester, New York, on De- Giving an Outline of the Medical, Social, and cember 27, 1909.

65 du Coudray, Angelique Marguerite

References: Miller, Genevieve, “Dolley, but his greater priority was dealing with de- Sarah Read Adamson,” in Notable American population. France was losing many soldiers Women 1607–1950, Cambridge, MA: Belk- in its battles of the Seven Years War, and nap Press (1971); More, Ellen Singer, Restor- newborns were dying. It was at this time, in ing the Balance: Women Physicians and the Pro- 1759, that he commissioned du Coudray fession of Medicine, 1850–1995, Cambridge, with training midwives across the country. MA: Harvard University Press (1999). Du Coudray realized that she needed training tools and that same year wrote an obstetrical text, Abrégé de l’art des accouchements (Summary of the Art of Delivery), du Coudray, Angelique which has many illustrations. The book was Marguerite helpful, but after her trip to Auvergne, where 1714/5–1794 she heard numerous stories of malpractice by midwives, she felt she needed more effective Angelique du Coudray was a midwife in training materials. Illiteracy was very high in eighteenth-century France. Because many the rural areas of France, and the midwives newborns died from the brutal practices of needed hands-on experience as well as the il- women not properly trained or licensed to lustrations from her text. She then invented a practice midwifery, King Louis XV ap- mechanized anatomical model of a pregnant pointed her to go on an urgent mission woman along with a child. The anatomical across all of France to train women as well model aided a great deal, as students could as men to deliver babies. He invested her practice turning models of babies into the with broad authority. correct position before birth. Hundreds of Through all her correspondence, which is these models were made and sent to others plentiful, du Coudray does not reveal much to use in training. about her personal life. She may have been Du Coudray never got lost in the mechan- orphaned or abandoned; one can only spec- ics of training, always reminding her stu- ulate. She trained with the able midwife dents that they would be dealing with hu- Anne Bairsin, passed her examinations, and man beings and precious new lives. She went to Paris to earn her living. Records gave very practical advice as well. In regard show she was a registered midwife in Paris to twins, she told her students that if a mid- in 1740 at the age of twenty-five. On record wife saw a left foot and a right foot protrud- also is a petition from 1745 that she and ing, “before pulling them out she must check forty other midwives signed, asking the fac- that they both belong to one baby. If instead ulty of medicine at the University of Paris to she is holding one foot of each twin, it would give them lessons. Since 1733 the midwives be futile and fatal to pull. She will need to had been attending sessions conducted by push them back in and search around until the school of surgery, but the surgeons had she is confident that she has found two feet stopped these lessons, and the midwives of the same child” (Gelbart 1998, 70). were left with no one to give them ongoing Many babies died who could have been training and instruction. The faculty of saved had someone given them the proper medicine, who had a higher status than the attention: “A weak, motionless baby mis- surgeons did and who were their old rivals, taken for dead will be wrapped up and put immediately obliged the midwives. away in a corner to spare the mother such a The midwives complained that many sad sight. Some are buried alive, and with- women were practicing without licenses and out baptism” (Gelbart 1998, 137). Du doing harm. These women, who didn’t have Coudray went on to explain to her students the knowledge to deliver babies when com- how she had brought four such infants back plications existed, were competing with the to life, one having had his toe eaten by a midwives for business and damaging the dog. She constantly told midwives in train- profession. Louis XV was also concerned ing to pay attention to the baby. about women practicing without a license, Du Coudray trained 10,000 midwives in

66 Dunn, Thelma Brumfield about forty different cities. She earned a rep- While she and her husband were in India, utation that preceded her wherever she the colonial government was very support- went. Not all people were happy with her; ive of the effort, and support also grew in she had to deal with jealous women, sur- England. When she left India in 1888, how- geons who saw her as unwanted competi- ever, no one was as enthusiastic in main- tion, and the politics of the day. However, taining the same level of assistance that she she was able to deal with these problems had achieved. with equanimity and work within the system. Her letters are very professional. She References: Lal, Maneesha, “The Politics of seems to have derived the motivation for Gender and Medicine in Colonial India: The her work from her patriotism. Countess of Dufferin’s Fund, 1885–1888,” Du Coudray did not even protest in later Bulletin of the History of Medicine 68, no. 1 years when Louis XVI became king in 1774 (Spring 1994): 29–66. and wanted her to train men as veterinarians, because in many rural situations when a woman giving birth was having trouble, people called on the nearest shepherd to help. Dunn, Thelma Brumfield Du Coudray was found dead by authori- 1900– ties on April 17, 1794, during the Reign of Ter- ror. She had wisely trained her niece, another Thelma Dunn became a leading authority able midwife, to take her place, but soon after on the tumors in mice and directed the Can- her niece died in 1825, no one seemed to take cer Induction and Pathogenesis Section of the mission as seriously as they had. the Pathology Laboratory at the National Cancer Institute. References: Gelbart, Nina Rattner, The Born in Pittsylvania County, Virginia, on King’s Midwife: A History and Mystery of February 6, 1900, she attended Cornell Uni- Madame du Coudray, Berkeley: University of versity and graduated with a bachelor’s de- California Press (1998); Snodgrass, Mary gree in 1922. She proceeded to the Univer- Ellen, Historical Encyclopedia of Nursing, sity of Virginia and earned her medical Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1999). degree in 1926. She interned at Bellevue Hospital in New York and later worked in pathology at the University of Virginia and Dufferin Fund George Washington University, eventually taking a position at the National Cancer In- The Dufferin Fund was established in 1885 stitute researching cancer. to fund medical training for nurses, mid- She wrote a book on cancer in 1975 on the wives, physicians, and hospital assistants as importance of research. Her knowledge of well as provide for small hospitals and the mouse tumors greatly aided in the research care of women and children in India. Queen she did at the National Cancer Institute. She Victoria was convinced there was a great is a realist about the disease and its conse- need for medical women in India, and Lady quences but not pessimistic—“a cure may Dufferin, wife of the viceroy to India, initi- come unexpectedly as insulin did for dia- ated the fund. It was the first organized ef- betes, as liver did for pernicious anemia, or fort to help the women and children of India as the antibiotics did for bacterial diseases. with a strong argument for its support be- In the meantime we can continue to fight a ing that women of the Hindu and Muslim limited war, a war of containment where faiths would not see male physicians. cancer deaths are reduced and life pro- When Lady Dufferin surveyed the condi- longed. We have not yet applied all we tions in India, she saw firsthand the needs know about preventing cancer” (Dunn that existed. She worked very hard at pro- 1975, 191). She married in 1929 and had moting the fund’s success, and it helped nu- three children. She currently lives in Char- merous women and children over the years. lottesville, Virginia.

67 Durocher, Marie Josefina Mathilde

References: American Men and Women of Sci- D.C., she was the daughter of Joseph E. Dyer ence, 14th ed., New York: Bowker (1979); and Florence Robertson Dyer, who had four Dunn, Thelma Brumfield, The Unseen Fight children. She graduated from Western High against Cancer: Experimental Cancer Re- School in 1913. She went on to Goucher Col- search—Its Importance to Human Cancer, lege in Baltimore to study biology and phys- Charlottesville, VA: Batt Bates (1975); Kass- iology and graduated in 1917. Simon, Gabriele, Women of Science: Righting She worked for the Civil Service Commis- the Record, Bloomington: Indiana University sion and the Red Cross during World War I. Press (1990). Afterward, she wanted to advance her education in order to teach. She took courses at Mount Holyoke, then went back to Wash- Durocher, Marie Josefina ington, D.C., to take a position at the Hy- gienic Laboratory, which was part of the Mathilde Public Health Service. She worked there for 1809–1893 seven years, researching the effects of chemotherapeutic drugs on animals. She One of the first woman doctors in Latin also studied tumor growth rates. America, Marie Durocher became a famous In order to gain more education, she went Brazilian obstetrician and was awarded the to George Washington University to do grad- first medical degree of the newly reorganized uate work. She earned a master’s degree and Medical School at Rio de Janeiro in 1834. stayed on to teach biochemistry while work- Durocher was born in Paris but moved to ing on a doctorate degree, which she received Brazil with her family at the age of eight. in 1935. She continued to teach and had a She married early and had two children. very good reputation with the students. Her husband died young and thus she had She went to the National Cancer Institute to seek a profession. Durocher was active in 1942 and stayed for twenty-three years. for sixty years, usually dressing in men’s She was invaluable in creating the index of clothes because she felt they were more tumor chemotherapy and published numer- practical than dresses for her work. ous articles on the topic. She also did research on amino acids. References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Doc- Dyer was active in the Washington Chem- tors of the World, New York: Macmillan (1957); ical Society and in 1962 was selected as a Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, eds., The Bi- delegate to the International Cancer Con- ographical Dictionary of Women in Science: Pio- gress in Moscow due to her international neering Lives from Ancient Times to the Mid-20th reputation. She earned numerous awards Century, New York: Routledge (2000). and honors over the years, including the Garvan Medal in 1962 for her work in biochemical research. Dyer, Helen Marie Dyer never married or had children. She 1895–1998 retired in 1965 but continued to do research for several years. She died September 20, Helen Dyer’s development of the index of 1998, at her home in Washington, D.C., at tumor chemotherapy in 1949 was requisite the age of 103. for the National Cancer Institute to develop a chemotherapy program. The index is a com- References: “Helen Dyer, 103, Cancer Re- pilation of data she had gathered on earlier searcher,” Washington Times (22 September chemical treatments of tumors and their evo- 22, 1998): C6; Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Har- lution. She was a gifted biochemist who con- vey, eds., The Biographical Dictionary of tributed to the understanding of cancer and Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from An- its treatment. She was also a proponent of cient Times to the Mid-20th Century, New more women going into science disciplines. York: Routledge (2000). Born on May 26, 1895, in Washington,

68 E

Edinburgh School of Medicine Arkansas. She then worked as a nurse’s aide 1887–1898 in the Veterans’ Administration in Milwau- kee before joining the U.S. Army in 1953. Founded in Edinburgh by Sophia Jex-Blake, She trained as a physical therapist. Once out it was an early medical school for women in of the army, she went to medical school and Europe. Jex-Blake had very high standards received her M.D. degree from the Univer- and was considered by many to be too strict. sity of Arkansas Medical School in 1960. The school closed in 1898 because of com- Elders interned at the University of Min- petition from other medical schools, partic- nesota Hospital and did a residency in pedi- ularly the Medical College for Women, atrics at the University of Arkansas Medical which had lower tuition and access to clini- Center. While in Arkansas she also earned cal facilities at the Edinburgh Royal Infir- an advanced degree in biochemistry. She mary beginning in 1892. was an assistant professor in pediatrics there after receiving a National Institutes of See also: Jex-Blake, Sophia Louisa Health Career Development Award. In her References: Todd, Margaret G., The Life of research, she focused on endocrinology and Sophia Jex-Blake, London: Macmillan (1918). pediatrics and by 1976 was a full professor. Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas appointed her director of the Arkansas De- partment of Health in 1987. They had met at Elders, Minnie Joycelyn the funeral for one of her brothers, who had 1933– been murdered. While in that office, she increased immunization rates, made it more Joycelyn Elders became the first African possible for poor women to get mammo- American to hold the position of surgeon grams, and increased early preventive-med- general in the United States. She was out- icine screenings for children. spoken in her commitment to health reform, Elders could see what early pregnancy health education, and particularly sex edu- and sexually transmitted diseases were do- cation in schools. ing to young people and the health of the Born in Schaal, Arkansas, on August 13, country, and she worked hard on educating 1933, Elders was the oldest of eight children the young. She was a strong advocate of sex of Haller and Curtis Jones, who were loving education and contraception, opposed by parents. They were sharecroppers with no many conservative politicians and religious running water or electricity, and Elders, leaders. along with her brothers and sisters, worked President Clinton nominated her in 1993 in the cotton fields. She was very good in for the surgeon general position. She faced a school, earning a scholarship to attend col- battle during her confirmation hearings lege. She received a B.A. in biology from with many opponents in Congress feeling Philander Smith College in Little Rock, that she was too liberal. She was eventually

69 Elion, Gertrude Belle confirmed and took office. She is a proponent drug approved by the FDA for AIDS pa- of plain talk about sex, condoms, and mas- tients, and made organ transplants possible turbation, which she sees as part of human with the development of a drug to inhibit sexuality. Young people seemed to embrace organ rejection. her frankness, but some of their parents, and Born on January 23, 1918, in New York some government officials, did not. She City, Elion was the daughter of two immi- served as surgeon general for only fifteen grants. She had one younger brother. Her fa- months because of controversy over some of ther, Robert, had come from Lithuania and her remarks. She has no regrets and still feels descended from a long line of rabbis. He as- “committed to the issues I have always been pired to be a dentist and in 1914 graduated about: comprehensive health education, pre- from the New York University School of vention of teenage pregnancy, early-child- Dentistry. Her mother, Bertha Cohen, had hood education, school-based clinics to make come from Poland. Elion was educated early health care available for all children, a pre- in the public schools and proved an excel- ventive approach to health care for every- lent student, graduating from high school at one” (Elders and Chanoff 1996, 336). the age of twelve. She wanted to attend col- She married Oliver Elders in 1960 and lege but was unsure of what to major in. Her had two sons, Eric and Kevin. After serv- father had lost a lot of money in the stock ing as surgeon general, Elders returned to market crash of 1929, but she was able to at- the University of Arkansas as a pediatric tend Hunter College for free because of her endocrinologist. grades. She felt that the professors at Hunter, an all-female college, didn’t expect students References: Elders, M. Joycelyn, and David to set out on a career, but Elion planned to Chanoff, Joycelyn Elders, M.D.: From Share- do so from the beginning. cropper’s Daughter to Surgeon General of the She majored in science and chemistry, United States of America, New York: Morrow wanting, in emulation of her beloved (1996); Notable Black American Scientists, De- grandfather, to help others. He had died of troit: Gale Research (1998). cancer when she was fifteen. She graduated from Hunter with an A.B. degree in 1937. Like many others during the Elion, Gertrude Belle Great Depression, she struggled to find 1918–1999 work. For three months, she taught biochemistry at the New York Hospital School Gertrude Elion received the Nobel Prize in of Nursing. Then she found a low-paid po- physiology or medicine in 1988 “for sition as a laboratory assistant for a chemist. demonstrating the differences in nucleic She stayed with the chemist for a year and a acid metabolism between normal cells and half and saved her money. With her savings disease-causing cancer cells, protozoa, bac- and some help from her parents, she was teria, and viruses” (McGrayne 1998, 302). able to enter graduate school at New York She shared the award with George Hitch- University in 1939. ings and Sir James Black. It was the first She received an M.S. in chemistry in 1941. time in thirty-one years that an award was World War II was just beginning, and there given for drug research, and Elion was one was a shortage of chemists. Wanting to do of the few to receive a Nobel Prize without research, she could find only laboratory having a doctorate. jobs, which bored her. Eventually she took a Elion developed many new drugs for can- job as an assistant to George Hitchings at cer treatment. Before her research, most Burroughs Wellcome, a pharmaceutical children with leukemia were not expected company. “I never felt constrained to re- to survive; because of her contributions, a main strictly in chemistry, but was able to larger percentage of them now survive broaden my horizons into biochemistry, (Elion 1988, 449). She also laid the founda- pharmacology, immunology, and eventu- tion for azidothymidine (AZT), the first ally virology” (Elion 1988).

70 Emerson, Gladys Anderson

Elion also became interested in getting a ment convinced scientists that enzymes doctorate, but because she loved her job and could be specific to viruses. Acyclovir was could not keep it and pursue further educa- marketed as Zovirax in 1991. tion, she chose to stay at Burroughs Well- In 1970, Elion moved with the company come. Hitchings was very supportive and to North Carolina. She retired in 1983 and encouraged her work on purines and the served as a consultant to Burroughs Well- enzymes involved, letting her make com- come. Within one year her division had de- pounds and then experiment to find out veloped AZT, the first drug approved by the how they worked. She began to publish her FDA to treat AIDS patients. findings. In 1950, Elion synthesized two In October 1988, a reporter called to tell cancer-treatment drugs. A purine com- her she’d won the Nobel Prize. She was sur- pound called diaminopurine could interfere prised until she heard that the other two with leukemia cells, but the side effects winners were Hitchings and Sir James W. were very strong, and eventually patients Black. She was thrilled but stressed that the relapsed. Elion continued her studies. Later biggest reward in her career was knowing she developed a new compound called mer- she had helped develop tools to cure dis- captopurine (6-MP), which was also effec- eases. tive; but again, patients with leukemia re- She continued to work, teaching Duke lapsed after a time. She was committed to University students research methods, con- making 6-MP better. sulting at Burroughs Wellcome, and serving Another drug she synthesized was on national and international committees. thioguanine, a close relative of 6-MP. When Elion died February 21, 1999, in Chapel physicians began treating leukemia patients Hill, North Carolina. with thioguanine or 6-MP combined with other drugs, they were successful. Still Elion References: Elion, Gertrude B., “The Purine continued to try to make the effects of 6-MP Path to Chemotherapy,” “Elion, Gertrude last longer. She also became interested in B.,” Official Web Site of the Nobel Foun- immune-system suppressants, and research dation, http://www.nobel.se/medicine/ led her to the development of Imuran, a laureates1988/elion-autobio.html; more sophisticated version of 6-MP. It McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch, Nobel Prize wasn’t long before it proved useful in organ Women in Science, New York: Carol (1998). transplants, which had usually failed prior to Imuran because recipients’ bodies rejected the new organ. By 1961 it had become Emerson, Gladys Anderson possible to successfully transplant organs. 1903–1984 Hitchings retired in 1967, and Elion could admit that they’d had their differences and Gladys Emerson isolated vitamin E for the that he never gave her proper credit for her first time in 1936 after her husband, Oliver work. She was glad to be on her own to Emerson, discovered it. She contributed choose her projects without reporting to much to the understanding of the impor- him. tance of vitamins and minerals in daily nu- Antivirals were of interest because scien- trition and aided the government in estab- tists felt that any drug developed to kill a lishing dietary guidelines. She also virus would also harm the DNA of a healthy contributed a great deal of research on vita- cell. Elion returned to the aminopurine, min B deficiencies. which had been observed to have antiviral Born July 1, 1903, in Caldwell, Kansas, properties back in 1948 but was also too she and her parents, Otis and Louise Ander- toxic. She developed a related compound son, moved to Fort Worth, Texas. She at- that was successful against herpes. tended public schools there and eventually Later, in the mid-1970s, her team tested graduated from high school in El Reno, Ok- acyclovir, which was successful against lahoma. She went on to higher education at viruses but not at all toxic. This develop- the Oklahoma College for Women, graduat-

71 Erxleben, Dorothea Christiana

Gladys Anderson Emerson (UCLA School of Public Health/U.S. National Library of Medicine)

ing with A.B. and B.S. degrees in 1925. She She and her husband divorced in 1940, attended Stanford and received an M.A. in and she never remarried or had children. 1926, followed by a Ph.D. in nutrition and One of the highest honors she received was biochemistry from the University of Califor- the Garvan Medal, in 1952. It is given in the nia, Berkeley, in 1932. field of chemistry to a woman who has She and Oliver traveled to work in Ger- made significant accomplishments. many for a brief time before beginning work Emerson died of cancer on January 18, at the University of California, Berkeley. She 1984, at her home in Santa Monica, Califor- worked as a research associate there for the nia. She was buried on January 24, 1984, Institute of Experimental Biology from 1933 next to her parents in El Reno, Oklahoma. to 1942. She then went to the Merck Institute in New Jersey to head its department of nu- References: Folkers, Karl, “Gladys Ander- trition. During her stay there she did a great son Emerson (1903–1984): A Biographical deal of work on the vitamins E and B. She Sketch,” Journal of Nutrition 115, no. 7 (July did experiments on both rats and monkeys 1985): 837–841; Notable Twentieth-Century to determine the effects of various vitamin Scientists Supplement, Detroit: Gale Research deficiencies. (1998). She next took a position as head of the Department of Nutrition and Home Eco- nomics at the University of California in Los Erxleben, Dorothea Christiana Angeles. She was an enthusiastic teacher 1715–1762 and lecturer on nutrition. By this time she was known as an expert in the field and had Germany’s first woman doctor, Dorothea frequent requests for lectures around the Erxleben, was fortunate enough to practice country. publicly as a physician by being bold

72 Evans, Alice Catherine enough to petition King Frederick II for con- ited the United States and practiced medi- sent to attend the University of Halle with cine in Oregon and Massachusetts. her brother. She was born in Quedlinburg in 1715 to Christian Polycarpus Leporin and References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Woman Anna Sophia Meinecken. She felt early on Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan that she benefited from reading and aspired (1957); Olkkonen, Tuomo, “Suomen Ensim- to learn all she could. By the time her mainen Naistohtori,” Opusculum 5, no. 3 brother entered the University of Halle, she (1985): 122–128; Riska, Elainne, “Women’s had prepared herself for further study and Careers in Medicine: Developments in the was interested in medicine. She had learned United States and Finland,” Scandinavian a great deal from her father, a physician Studies 61 (Spring–Summer 1989): 185–198. who supported her goal. With King Frederick II’s approval, she and her brother went to the University together. Evans, Alice Catherine Many opposed her attendance, feeling that 1881–1975 females were far too fragile to ever be well educated, much less become physicians. Alice Evans’s pioneering work in milk bac- When Austria and Germany went to war teria led to the acceptance of pasteurization. and her brother was called into military She was the first woman to serve as a bacte- service, she left school because she was not riologist for the U.S. Department of Agricul- comfortable attending classes without him. ture (USDA). She married Johann Erxleben, a deacon, and Born in Neath, Pennsylvania, on January assumed responsibility for his five children, 29, 1881, she was the daughter of Anne B. adding four of her own. While raising her Evans and William Howell Evans and had family, she did practice medicine even one brother, Morgan. Both her parents were though she did not have a university degree. teachers, and her father was also a farmer. In 1753 she was accused of not treating She became a teacher as well and, after four patients correctly after one of her patients years, enrolled in a program for rural teach- died. She addressed the charges and was allowed to defend her dissertation and take the exams to prove her knowledge. She did an excellent job on the exams, receiving her degree on June 12, 1754. She continued her medical practice until her death in 1762.

References: Schiebinger, Londa L., The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univer- sity Press (1989).

Eskelin, Karolina 1867–1938

Karolina Eskelin was the first woman to receive a doctorate (1895) in medicine in Fin- land and the first woman to be a surgeon in Finland. She was allowed to practice medicine as a physician at the Surgical Hospital in Helsinki prior to founding another hospital in Tampere. She also founded a second Alice Catherine Evans (Underwood & Underwood/ private hospital in Helsinki. She briefly vis- U.S. National Library of Medicine)

73 Evans, Alice Catherine ers at Cornell that her brother had told her listened until two other researchers, Dr. about. Charles M. Carpenter of Cornell University There Evans became interested in science and Dr. Karl F. Meyer of the University of and completed a degree in bacteriology in California, confirmed her findings. Carpen- 1909. She went on to the University of Wis- ter found that the same germ that led to un- consin for a master’s degree. Upon gradua- dulant fever in humans caused Bang’s dis- tion, she worked for the government, inves- ease (brucellosis) in animals. Meyer tigating the microbes in cow’s milk. After suggested a new genus be named Brucella to obtaining a position with the USDA in its incorporate both organisms. By the 1930s, dairy division, Evans discovered, in 1917, the dairy industry was pasteurizing all milk that bacillus abortus, which causes Bang’s in the United States. disease in cows and was thought to be a During her own research, Evans con- harmless germ to humans, was very similar tracted brucellosis in 1922 and suffered with to the bacteria known as Micrococus meliten- it for twenty years. Nonetheless, she contin- sis, which was from raw goat’s milk and ued her bacteria research, which included made people sick with what was called un- looking for the cause of meningitis and dulant fever. Undulant fever had been a streptococcus infections. In 1928 she became problem since the nineteenth century. Evans the first woman to become president of the concluded that the disease that became Society of American Bacteriologists. She re- known as brucellosis could be contracted by tired in 1945 but stayed active in microbiol- humans from drinking both cow’s and ogy research until her death from a stroke on goat’s milk. September 5, 1975, in Alexandria, Virginia. Later scientific investigations led to the realization that many people who had bru- References: Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Har- cellosis were at times misdiagnosed as hav- vey, eds., The Biographical Dictionary of ing influenza or tuberculosis. Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from An- Evans published her findings but was ig- cient Times to the Mid-20th Century, New nored because she held no doctorate degree. York: Routledge (2000); Stevens, Marianne She moved on to work for the U.S. Public Fedunkiw, American National Biography, vol. Health Service but continued to argue about 7, New York: Oxford University Press the importance of pasteurizing milk. No one (1999).

74 F

Fabiola, Saint Farquhar, Marilyn Gist d. ca. 399 1928–

Saint Fabiola founded a public hospital in A cell biologist, Marilyn Farquhar has con- Rome that was the first such hospital in tributed a significant amount of research on western Europe. She was also responsible renal disease and more recently on the char- for establishing a hospice in Porto, Italy, acteristics of G proteins. with the help of St. Pammachius. A Chris- Born on July 11, 1928, in Tulare, Califor- tian noblewoman, Fabiola dedicated her life nia, to Brooks Dewitt Gist and Alta Green to helping the poor and needy after con- Gist, Farquhar had one older sister. She was verting to Christianity and following the educated in the public schools and then at- teachings of St. Jerome. She studied the tended the University of California at scriptures, as she knew Latin, Hebrew, and Berkeley. She majored in zoology as a Greek. premed student. She graduated in 1949 and Fabiola came from a wealthy family de- was one of only three women admitted to scended from Julius Maximus. She married medical school at the University of Califor- very young and then separated from the nia in San Francisco. church because she married a second time After two years, she became interested in before her first, abusive, husband died. the study of diseases. She changed her Upon the death of her second husband and course of study and received a Ph.D. in her public penitence, she sold her posses- pathology in 1955 at the University of Cali- sions and worked for the good of the poor. fornia, Berkeley. She went with her hus- At the hospital she founded, she attended to band, John Farquhar, to the University of the patients herself regardless of their dis- Minnesota and studied kidney disease. Cell ease or condition. biology was a new field, and electron mi- She followed Jerome to Bethlehem in 395 croscopy made it possible for scientists to and stayed with her relative, Oceanus. She see much more detail. returned to Rome following the Huns’ Farquhar returned to the University of threat to invade Palestine in 396. She con- California at San Francisco in 1962 and templated a long journey due to her rest- eventually became a full professor of lessness but died before she could com- pathology. Her first marriage ended in di- mence. All of Rome admired her greatly. vorce, and in 1970 she married George December 27 is her feast day. Palade, a future Nobel Prize winner. Farquhar has published hundreds of arti- References: Carter, E. D., “Fabiola, St.” New cles and papers on cell biology, renal disease, Catholic Encyclopedia, New York: McGraw- kidney problems, and G proteins. In 1988 Hill (1967); “Fabiola, Saint,” Encyclopedia she was elected to the National Academy of Britannica, vol. 4, Chicago: Encyclopedia Sciences. Currently she serves as professor Britannica (1997).

75 Felicie, Jacoba of pathology and is the chair of cellular and With so many undesirable effects of molecular medicine at the University of Cal- excision and infibulation it might ifornia, San Diego. She has two sons, Bruce appear most extraordinary that such and Douglas, by her first marriage. practices survive. But the practices themselves have been kept so secret References: Notable Twentieth-Century Scien- and there are indeed many who have tists, Detroit: Gale Research (1995); Shearer, not suffered the after-effects described, Benjamin F., and Barbara S. Shearer, Notable themselves, and are therefore quite Women in the Life Sciences: A Biographical Dic- unaware of the medical hazards. tionary, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press Moreover many rural dwellers still do (1996). not associate certain medical conditions with the excision operation. The lack of communication sometimes Felicie, Jacoba between the educated urban 1280–? population and unschooled rural Jacoba Felicie was a very learned healer in people encourages the continued belief the thirteenth century in Paris. She was pos- in traditional mythological rationaliza- sibly as skilled as male physicians of the tions for the customs, and ideological time were. arguments remain unchallenged. Most women then could not obtain li- (Sanderson 1981, 44) censes to practice medicine and were not See also: admitted to universities, with the exception Ramsey, Mimi; el Saadawi, Nawal References: of Italian universities, and thus they had Sanderson, Lilian Passmore, Against the Mutilation of Women: The Struggle limited training. Skilled physicians some- to End Unnecessary Suffering, times taught women. Felicie, an empiric, London: Ithaca was prosecuted several times for practicing Press (1981); Toubia, Nahid, and Susan Izett, Female Genital Mutilation: An Overview, medicine without a license. Geneva: World Health Organization (1998). References: Hughes, Muriel Joy, Women Healers in Medieval Life and Literature, New York, King’s Crown Press (1943); Ogilvie, Fenselau, Catherine Clarke Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, eds., The Biograph- 1939– ical Dictionary of Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to the Mid-20th Cen- Catherine Fenselau contributed to the de- tury, New York: Routledge (2000). velopment of mass spectrometry and its use in analyzing chemical compounds to determine molecular mass, structure, and com- Female Genital Mutilation position. Researchers use the method extensively today to determine the benefits of Many cultures use female genital mutilation many drugs in treating diseases. (FGM) to circumcise young girls. Many of Born in York, Nebraska, on April 15, 1939, these girls die from the procedure or de- Fenselau became interested in science in velop physical and emotional problems. high school. She was encouraged to go to Over the past two centuries, women who college at Bryn Mawr and graduated with an were subjected to this procedure have A.B. in chemistry in 1961. She chose Stanford sought the help of female physicians and for graduate study and received her Ph.D. in medical missionaries. Many have also tried 1965. By this time she was married to Allan to escape those societies that practice this H. Fenselau. At Stanford she began working procedure, which is often bound up in cul- in the new field of mass spectrometry. tural and religious beliefs. FGM is now Her first teaching job was at Johns Hop- against the law in many countries due to kins School of Medicine, where she rose better awareness of the damage it can do. from instructor to professor. She worked

76 Ferguson, Angela Dorothea there from 1967 to 1987. In 1985 she won the catch up with some of the other students Garvan Medal from the American Chemical and graduated in 1941. Society for her outstanding contributions to She decided to seek a career in science chemistry. and was accepted at Howard University. She left Johns Hopkins for a position at the Her parents could afford her first year there, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, since she lived at home. After that she ob- as professor and chair of the Department of tained scholarships for tuition and fees and Chemistry. Her interests in mass spectrome- covered other expenses by working in the try led to studies of laetrile, an anticancer laboratories at Freedmen’s Hospital, the drug. The World Health Organization also teaching hospital at Howard University and asked her to study the metabolism of clo- the predecessor of Howard University Hos- fazamine, a drug used to treat leprosy. pital. She graduated from Howard in 1945. In 1992 Fenselau received a Merit Award Her interests changed to biology and for her work from the National Institutes of medicine with a desire to help children, and Health. Currently she is a professor in the she pursued pediatrics training in medical Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry school at Howard University. She graduat the University of Maryland, College Park. ated with her medical degree in 1949 and in- She has two sons. terned in all departments of Freedmen’s Hospital. After passing her final examina- References: Roscher, Nina Matheny, “Cath- tions, she went into private practice. During erine Clarke Fenselau,” in Benjamin F. this time, she realized that research focused Shearer and Barbara S. Shearer, eds., Notable primarily on children of European descent, Women in the Physical Sciences: A Biographical and she did not have sufficient information Dictionary, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press to treat her black patients. (1997). Howard University School of Medicine hired her to begin to rectify this lack, and during her research, she discovered that Ferguson, Angela Dorothea many black children suffered from sickle 1925– cell anemia. It was a very hard disease to diagnose, as its symptoms vary by age and are Angela Ferguson did pioneering research common to other ailments. She studied in the diagnosis and treatment of sickle cell hundreds of cases in order to determine the anemia. She also made it clear that more re- most obvious signs and shared her findings search was needed on African American with colleagues. One of her greatest contri- children so that black pediatricians like butions was promoting the use of a blood herself would know what norms to expect test at birth to determine if African Ameri- in their clients and what advice to give can babies had the disease. She also devel- mothers. oped helpful treatments for sickle cell ane- She was born in Washington, D.C., on Feb- mia, among them increasing fluid intake to ruary 15, 1925, to a poor family. Her father help the flow of blood. taught at a segregated high school and also In 1965 her work changed dramatically served in the U.S. Army Reserves, but he did when she became involved in building a not earn enough during the depression to new teaching hospital at Howard Univer- support a family of eight. Angela worked in sity. From the beginning of the project, she the school cafeteria in exchange for meals, advised government officials and others on and many times at home dinner consisted of what was needed in a teaching hospital. The only potatoes or cocoa and water. new Freedmen’s Hospital opened ten years Never intending to go to college, Angela later, and Ferguson held the position of as- attended Cardoza High School. It was here sociate vice-president for health affairs for that she discovered her love of and gift for over twenty years, until she retired in 1990. science, particularly chemistry and mathe- She is married to Dr. Charles M. Cabaniss matics. She took summer-school courses to and has two daughters.

77 Flexner Report

References: Kessler, James H., Distinguished Footbinding African American Scientists of the 20th Cen- tury, Phoenix: Oryx Press (1996); “Scientist,” For over a century, it was the custom in Ebony (August 1960): 44. China for women to bind their feet in order to make them tiny. According to Pruitt, “A girl’s beauty and desirability were counted Flexner Report more by the size of her feet than by the 1910 beauty of her face” (1945, 22). Also, Hong says, “Bound feet were associated with se- The Flexner Report came about as a result of curity, mobility and status” (1997, 25). concerns over educational standards. In the Western medical missionaries were late nineteenth century and the early twen- among the first to help the women who suf- tieth century, large numbers of proprietary fered from the practice. Footbinding emo- colleges and universities were starting up tionally affected the women physicians without sufficient standards and governing more than men in the field because the cus- boards in place. The Carnegie Foundation, tom was associated with male dominance charged with the evaluation of education in and kept Chinese women and girls in de- the country because of these developments, spair. It was the female missionaries, stirred appointed Abraham Flexner to investigate by their own reform movements at home in the problem. His 1910 Flexner Report dras- Western Europe, Canada, and the United tically changed medical education in the States, who fueled the antifootbinding United States and Canada in the following movement of the late nineteenth and early decades. Flexner was very critical of propri- twentieth centuries. etary medical schools, reinforcing the importance of scientific education and clinical In the missionaries’ eyes tiny-footed experience. His report encouraged stan- girls usually looked as if they were in dardization in medical school curriculums pain, for instead of jumping about and resulted in massive reforms and the happily they needed help in walking, closing of many schools over the next sev- as if they were wounded. Footbinding eral years. was consequently denounced as an Unfortunately for women, the report re- evil which crippled approximately half sulted in the closing of some of the schools the population, added to the misery of that allowed them to enter, and some of the the poverty stricken, increased child schools that survived continued to refuse deaths, prevented women from sup- admittance to women for quite some time. porting themselves and from caring Thus despite its positive ramifications for adequately for their children, inhibited medical education as a whole, the report ‘the cheer and cleanliness’ of their resulted in a decline in women physi- homes, and confined women and their cians during the early part of the twentieth thoughts to the narrowest of spheres” century. (Hong 1997, 55).

References: Flexner, Abraham, Medical Edu- Girls with bound feet could not attend cation in the United States and Canada: A Re- school or engage in any physical activity; port to the Carnegie Foundation for the Ad- many suffered infections, broken bones, in- vancement of Teaching, New York: Carnegie tense pain, and sometimes death. “My Foundation for the Advancement of Teach- grandmother had wanted me to have bound ing (1910); King, L. S., “Medicine in the feet. She told me that big feet were not beau- USA: Historical Vignettes, XX. The Flexner tiful. I thought that was fine, so I had my feet Report of 1910.” JAMA 251, no. 8 (February bound, but it was very painful. When you 24, 1984): 1079–1086. bind your feet, you have to wear at least two pairs of cloth shoes, plus several layers of cloth strips binding your feet tightly inside

78 Franklin, Martha Minerva the shoes” (Young 1995–1996, 535). The Chi- in 1863, where she continued to be involved nese outlawed the custom in 1902. in the temperance movement. She died of pleuropneumonia on January 26, 1879. References: Hong, Fan, Footbinding, Femi- nism, and Freedom: The Liberation of Women’s References: Ford, Bonnie, “Lydia Folger Bodies in Modern China, London: F. Cass Fowler,” in Frank N. Magill, ed., Great Lives (1997); Pruitt, Ida, A Daughter of Han, New from History, American Women Series, vol. 2, Haven, CT: Yale University Press (1945); Pasadena, CA: Salem Press (1995). Wang, Ping, Aching for Beauty: Footbinding in China, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press (2000); Young, Helen Praeger, “From Franklin, Martha Minerva Soldier to Doctor: A Chinese Woman’s Story 1870–1968 of the Long March,” Science and Society 59, no. 4 (Winter 1995–1996): 531–547. Martha Franklin was a leader and organizer of black nurses in the United States at the end of the nineteenth century and begin- Fowler, Lydia Folger ning of the twentieth century. She founded 1822–1879 the National Association of Colored Gradu- ate Nurses (NACGN) in 1908 with support Lydia Fowler became the second female from other black nurses, notably Mary Eliza physician in the United States in 1850 and Mahoney and Adah Belle Samuels Thoms. was the first woman to become a professor She also had support from the National at a U.S. medical school. She lectured fre- Medical Association (NMA), the major quently and argued for the need of women black physicians’ association of the time. in the medical profession. Born in New Milford, Connecticut, to Fowler was born May 5, 1822, in Nan- Henry J. Franklin and Mary E. Gauson on tucket, Massachusetts, to Gideon and Eu- October 29, 1870, Franklin had a sister, Flo- nice Macy Folger. She had a good basic ed- rence, and a brother, William. Her father ucation, including math and science, and had been a soldier in the Civil War. She at- left school in 1838 to teach in Norton at the tended public school in Meriden, Connecti- Wheaton Seminary. She married Lorenzo cut, where there were few blacks. She chose Niles Fowler in 1844 and had a daughter, a nursing career and went to Philadelphia, Jessie Allen, in 1856. where she became the sole black graduate of Lorenzo Fowler was a phrenologist who the December 1897 class of the Women’s lectured extensively on this new science. Ly- Hospital Training School for Nurses. dia accompanied him and eventually began Like most black nurses, Franklin experi- speaking on physiology and hygiene. She enced discrimination. The American Nurses decided to enroll at Central Medical College Association did not allow blacks to join, and in New York, which was one of the first she felt that having no voice was a major ob- medical schools to accept women on a regu- stacle to progress. She conducted a survey lar basis. She learned a great deal about of 1,500 black nurses and urged a meeting. anatomy and became a lecturer at the col- In 1908 a meeting finally took place, and lege. Later on she was promoted to professor the NACGN was officially founded with in order to teach in the area of midwifery Franklin as president. There were fifty-two and the diseases of women and children. nurses at the first meeting in New York City. Her post was short-lived because the school By 1940 there were over 12,000 members. merged with a competitor in New York. Franklin worked very hard within the as- Fowler left to begin private practice. She also sociation and with other groups who were taught and gave periodic lectures to women. supportive. She became a registered nurse Eventually the women’s rights movement in New York after completing a postgradu- and the temperance drive took more of her ate course at Lincoln Hospital. She worked time. She and her husband moved to London as a nurse in the public schools and contin-

79 Franklin, Rosalind Elsie ued to obtain more education as needed. Once the war ended she turned her atten- Franklin died on September 26, 1968. In tion to X-ray crystallography and diffrac- 1976 she was posthumously inducted into tion in order to find out more about how the Nursing Hall of Fame. molecules form. In 1947 she went to France and began work at the Laboratoire Centrale See also: Mahoney, Mary Eliza des Services Chimiques de l’Etat. There dur- References: Davis, Althea T., Early Black ing the next three years, she furthered her American Leaders in Nursing: Architects for In- work on carbon fibers. She then returned to tegration and Equality, Boston: Jones and England and in 1950, Sir John Randall at Bartlett (1999); Davis, Althea T., “Franklin, King’s College asked her to join Maurice Martha Minerva,” American National Biogra- Wilkins and Raymond Gosling, who were phy, vol. 8, New York: Oxford University already working at King’s on DNA; Randall Press (1999). wanted someone to study the photos Gosling had already taken. Franklin preferred to work indepen- dently and from the beginning did not get Franklin, Rosalind Elsie along with Wilkins. There were further 1920–1958 problems regarding the roles each would play, and the partnership did not last. Rosalind Franklin contributed an enormous Franklin and Gosling did work well to- amount of information toward the under- gether and published five papers. standing of DNA’s structure. Her work was Franklin found King’s College very for- vital to the discovery of nucleic acids and mal. The segregation of men and women their molecular structure. there was a hindrance to cooperative re- Born in London on July 25, 1920, to Ellis search efforts. She led a social life outside of and Muriel Waley Franklin, she grew up the college, keeping busy also with social re- with three brothers until a sister came along forms. She continued to work on DNA and when she was eight. She received a good ed- its structure, making a lot of headway and ucation at St. Paul’s Girls’ School, where she producing some of the best existing photos became very interested in science. Her par- of DNA. Working with coal had helped her ents were devoted to public service and were to work with structures that were not totally philanthropists. Her father helped numerous crystalline. She was able to show that the Jews escape from Nazi Germany. Many in DNA molecule could exist in either a more her family were socialists, as was she. Rela- crystalline A form or a B form. tives were oftentimes involved in women’s Wilkins eventually showed James D. Wat- causes, and their work had an impact on her. son one of Franklin’s photos without her Her father did not encourage her interest knowledge or permission. The photo gave in science because he wanted her to go into Watson a piece to the puzzle that he and social work. After he refused to pay for her Francis Crick had been looking for, and they education at Cambridge, an angry Aunt Al- were able to publish an article on the struc- ice and her mother agreed to finance her ture of DNA. They would win the Nobel schooling. Later her father relented and was Prize in medicine in 1962 along with supportive. She attended Newnham Col- Wilkins, four years after Franklin’s death to lege at Cambridge University in London ovarian cancer. and received a degree in chemistry in 1941. Franklin went on to Birkbeck College in She stayed at Cambridge and studied gas- 1953 and studied virus structures. Her work phase chromatography while on a research there helped lay the foundation for bio- scholarship. She earned her Ph.D. in 1945 molecular science. She died on March 20, while studying the structure of coal and car- 1958, after having been diagnosed with can- bons to help in the war effort. She con- cer in 1956. Franklin continued to work de- tributed a great deal to the industry by help- spite being gravely ill. ing to find high-strength fibers in carbon. Franklin was very dedicated to her work

80 Freud, Anna and was not good at small talk. Although most admired her, some colleagues found her difficult. In The Double Helix, James Watson’s account of the discovery of the structure of DNA, Franklin is portrayed in a very negative way. Some critics have called the book very cruel, and some scientists feel Watson should have given a good deal of credit to Franklin for her work on DNA. Franklin did not appear as an entry in the Dictionary of National Biography until the 1993 Missing Persons volume was published.

References: Klug, Aaron, “Franklin, Ros- alind Elsie,” Dictionary of National Biogra- phy: Missing Persons, Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press (1993); McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries, Secaucus, NJ: Carol (1998); Sayre, Anne, Rosalind Franklin and DNA, New York: Nor- ton (1975). Anna Freud (U.S. National Library of Medicine)

Freud, Anna 1895–1982 lent public speaker, appealing to audiences of diverse backgrounds. She also was a clear Anna Freud was a pioneer in psychoanaly- writer who published a number of papers sis. She carried on after her father and es- and books during her lifetime. tablished her own theories in child therapy. Psychoanalysts are still developing many Born in Vienna, Austria, on December 3, of her ideas, and she is widely read. “She 1895, the last of six children, she was the has gone forward where he left off, giving daughter of the founder of psychoanalysis, her life to children from unhappy homes, to Sigmund Freud, and his wife, Martha children in the midst of the terrors of war, to Bernays. She was educated as a teacher, but normal children in their puzzling, inspiring her father had a profound impact on the di- variety” (Coles 1992, 198). Freud died Octo- rection her work would take. ber 9, 1982, in London. She worked closely with her father in Vi- enna until the Nazi invasion, at which time References: Coles, Robert, Anna Freud: The she and her family escaped to England. She Dream of Psychoanalysis, Reading, MA: Ad- continued her work there and with Dorothy dison-Wesley (1992); Jahoda, Marie, “Freud, T. Burlingham established a nursery and Anna,” Dictionary of National Biography: later a clinic in Hampstead in order for chil- 1981–1985, London: Oxford University dren to receive medical and educational Press (1990); Limentani, Adam, Between services following World War II. Freud and Klein: The Psychoanalytic Quest for Freud’s work focused on child therapy Knowledge and Truth, London: Free Associa- and human defense mechanisms. She built tion Books (1989); Sheehy, Noel, Antony J. on her father’s work but also contributed Chapman, and Wendy A. Conroy, Biographi- much to our understanding of children and cal Dictionary of Psychology, London: Rout- how their environments affect them. She ledge (1997). had tremendous energy and was an excel-

81 Friend, Charlotte

Friend, Charlotte Center for Experimental Cell Biology. She 1921–1987 was both a professor and the director. She continued her research there, and her cell cultures, which were used all over the Charlotte Friend was the first scientist to dis- world, made a significant impact on cell and cover that a virus could cause cancer. Many molecular biology. She received many were skeptical about this at the time, but her awards during her lifetime. hard data, published in 1957, were convinc- Friend, who never married, developed ing. Friend was also an activist for women’s lymphoma when she was sixty and suffered rights and a leader among women in sci- with it for six years. She died in New York ence. She was elected to the National Acad- City on January 13, 1987. emy of Sciences in 1976 and became the first woman president of the New York Academy References: Diamond, Leila, “Charlotte of Sciences and later, president of the Amer- Friend (1921–1987),” Nature (23 April 1987): ican Association for Cancer Research. 748; Diamond, Leila, “Friend, Charlotte,” Born March 11, 1921, during the depres- American National Biography, vol. 8, New sion, Friend grew up in New York City York: Oxford University Press (1999); Dia- along with her two older sisters and a mond, Leila, and Sandra R. Wolman, Viral younger brother. Her parents, Morris Friend Oncogenesis and Cell Differentiation: The Con- and Cecelia Wolpin, had emigrated to the tributions of Charlotte Friend, New York: New United States from Russia as young adults. York Academy of Sciences (1989). Her father died when she was three years old, and her mother moved the family to the Bronx to be closer to her own extended fam- Fulton, Mary Hannah ily there. 1854–1927 Friend was educated at Hunter High School and later Hunter College. She Mary Fulton founded the Hackett Medical worked at a doctor’s office at night while College for Women, the first women’s med- going to college. She loved New York City ical college in China. A physician and med- and took advantage of the many free cul- ical missionary, she was bold enough to tural and educational opportunities as she take on the responsibility of educating Chi- was growing up. She developed a love of nese women medical students when the art, music, and science. college that originally admitted them, Can- Upon graduation in 1944 she enlisted in ton Medical Missionary Hospital, decided the navy and worked in Shoemaker, Califor- not to continue to educate women. Had it nia, at the naval hospital’s hematology labo- not been for Fulton, the female medical stu- ratory. After World War II ended, she used dents would have had to discontinue their the GI Bill to go to graduate school at Yale. education. She earned a Ph.D. in 1950 in bacteriology. Born May 31, 1854, in Ashland, Ohio, she Friend’s first job after graduation was received a good education at Lawrence Uni- working at the Sloan Kettering Institute for versity and received her B.S. from Hillsdale Cancer Research in New York City. She was College in 1874. free to do research that interested her, and it She taught in public school in Indianapo- was here that she was able to isolate what lis, Indiana, before entering the Women’s became known as the Friend leukemia virus Medical College of Pennsylvania, from (FLV), which caused leukemia in rats. She which she received her medical degree in published her findings in 1957 in the Journal 1884. She took a great interest in doing med- of Experimental Medicine. Many researchers ical missionary work in China, and that asked for samples of the virus from her, and same year, the Presbyterian Board of For- numerous research projects followed. eign Missions appointed her and her In 1966 she moved on to Mount Sinai brother, Albert, a Presbyterian minister, to Hospital to work in its new medical school’s serve in South China.

82 Fulton, Mary Hannah

They initially settled in Canton, and fol- ... Chinese medicine and Chinese supersti- lowing a brief stay in Kwangsi, which tions had full and unrestricted sway’” proved to be too violent, returned to Can- (Benedict 1996, 135). ton. Fulton was very successful in setting up Despite these overwhelming problems, dispensaries and worked at the Canton Fulton persevered in establishing the med- Medical Missionary Hospital. When there ical school, and also a school for nurses. She was a fallout between two of the male lead- retired to Pasadena, California, after poor ers of the hospital, one physician left and health forced her to leave China. She wrote took all his male students with him. The fe- of her missionary work and died on January male medical students were left with no 7, 1927. teachers or support. Fulton took it upon herself to set up a women’s and children’s See also: Guangzhou, China medical hospital and later the Hackett Med- References: Balmer, Randall, and John R. ical College for Women. Fitzmier, The Presbyterians, Westport, CT: Throughout the late nineteenth century Greenwood Press (1993); Benedict, Carol, she treated bubonic plague, endured the Bubonic Plague in Nineteenth-century China, opium wars, and treated women slaves in Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press China. “I often returned from attending (1996); Cadbury, William Warder, and Mary those ill at home, sick at heart. In every Hoxie Jones, At the Point of a Lancet: One house I found either bound feet, those af- Hundred Years of the Canton Hospital, 1835– flicted with tuberculosis or those addicted 1935, Shanghai: Kelly and Walsh (1935); Ful- to the use of opium; sometimes all three” ton, Mary H., “Inasmuch”: Extracts from Let- (Fulton 1915, 106). The bubonic plague was ters, Journals, Papers, etc., West Medford, devastating to the Canton population: MA: Central Committee on the United “John Kerr, the director of the Canton Mis- Study of Foreign Missions (1915); Tucker, sionary Hospital, lamented that in ‘the great Sara W., “Opportunities for Women: The city of Canton, . . . there was no Sanitary Development of Professional Women’s Board, the government adopted no sanitary Medicine at Canton, China, 1879–1901,” or preventive measures, there was no isola- Women’s Studies International Forum 13, no. 4 tion of cases, no removal of filth or rubbish, (1990): 357–368. no water supply, no system of drainage, and

83 84 G

Geneva Medical College and William Smith: The History of Two Col- 1835–1872 leges, Geneva, NY: Hobart and William Smith Colleges (1972). Geneva Medical College was the first institution of higher education in the United States to confer a medical degree upon a Giliani, Alessandra woman, Elizabeth Blackwell, the first fe- 1307–1326 male physician in the United States. Geneva College wanted a medical school Alessandra Giliana was the first female pro- in order to bring in more money. This move sector. She studied with and was an assis- was very problematic, as the College of tant to Mondino dei Luzzi, considered a Physicians and Surgeons in New York (later great anatomy teacher of the time, at the part of Columbia University) was against it. University of Bologna in Italy. College officials and others persisted until She was skilled at dissecting cadavers and the college’s doors opened in 1835. used a colored dye that dried quickly to At the time Elizabeth Blackwell attended, show the smallest of blood vessels to stu- the college had a two-year program. The dents. This demonstration was an indispen- school had a faculty of physicians who also sable learning aid for medical students of the engaged in private practice when the col- time. She died very young on March 26, 1326. lege was not in session. The school did quite well until the 1850s and 1860s brought References: Hughes, Muriel Joy, Women Heal- much new competition from other medical ers in Medieval Life and Literature, New York: schools; some of these, unlike Geneva Col- King’s Crown Press (1943); Shearer, Benjamin lege, were near hospitals. F., and Barbara S. Shearer, Notable Women in In 1872, Geneva Medical College con- the Life Sciences: A Biographical Dictionary, ferred its last medical degree. Most of the Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (1996). medical school faculty then moved to Syra- cuse University, which had better facilities. Geneva Medical College had been a small part of Geneva College, which was started Goodrich, Annie Warburton in 1796 as Geneva Academy, gaining a char- 1866–1954 ter to become a college for men in 1825 with the help of John Henry Hobart. It was Annie Goodrich implemented new stan- known as Geneva College until 1852, when dards for nurses that became nationally ac- it became Hobart College, named after its cepted and directly improved patient care founder. It is known as Hobart and William in the United States. In Washington, D.C., in Smith Colleges today. 1918, Goodrich also established the first U.S. Army School of Nursing and served as the References: Smith, Warren Hunting, Hobart first dean.

85 Goodrich, Annie Warburton

superintendent of nurses at the New York Post-Graduate Hospital. She helped improve the nursing-education standards and stayed for seven years before moving on to work at St. Luke’s Hospital for two years. In 1902 she took a position as the superintendent of nursing at New York Hospital. She was there until 1907, when she resigned to take work at Bellevue and Allied Hospitals as the general superintendent. The state of New York also hired her to oversee its licensing and registration of nurses; many training schools were in need of educational standardization. She worked as an assistant professor at Columbia in 1917 in nursing administration until she was needed in World War I. For the U.S. Army hospitals during the war she became the chief nursing inspector to the hos- Annie Warburton Goodrich (U.S. National Library pitals in the United States and France. She of Medicine) organized the U.S. Army School of Nursing in Washington, D.C., in order to meet the demands of nurses training for work in the military. Born in Brunswick, New Jersey, on Feb- She later became the first dean of Yale’s ruary 6, 1866, she was the second child of School of Nursing, which had high stan- Annie Williams Butler and Samuel Gris- dards for entrance and graduation. The first wold Goodrich. She and her older sister, woman to get a degree at Yale graduated in Grace, had five more siblings: John, the field of nursing. Goodrich also assisted Samuel, Chauncey, Catherine, and Sophie. in starting Yale’s master’s degree program. The family moved to New York City when From the beginning she realized that she was still very young. She was tutored “tragedy can result from placing responsi- at home and then in 1877 went to Berlin, bility in hands that lack the intelligent skill Connecticut, to attend Miss Churchill’s Pri- which results from mastery of both the sci- vate School. The family then moved to En- ence and the art of nursing” (Werminghaus gland, where her father’s job selling insur- 1950, 75). ance took them, and she finished her Goodrich retired from Yale in 1934 and secondary education at private schools served as a consultant to a number of or- abroad. ganizations. Later, when World War II was They returned to Hartford, Connecticut, under way, she helped the U.S. Public in 1885 because of her father’s failing Health Service organize the Cadet Nurse health. Goodrich later moved to Boston and Corps. She died in Cobalt, Connecticut, on earned a living by being a companion to so- December 31, 1954. cialite Miss A.S.C. Blake. In 1890, Goodrich Because of her high expectations and per- entered the New York Hospital Training severance, the nursing profession made School for Nurses, prompted by her feeling great progress. She wrote, served on many that she could earn a living being a better organizational committees, and worked nurse than the woman who aided her aging tirelessly to care for the sick and to educate grandparents could. those who would take up the job that she Upon graduation she stayed and worked would leave behind. She stated, “Knowl- at the hospital for a few months, then was edge is more than power; it is a definite re- highly recommended to take the position as sponsibility” (Koch 1951, 148).

86 Guangzhou, China

References: Carey, Charles W., Jr., pulsory standard of floor space per bed, our “Goodrich, Annie Warburton,” American spacious theatre suites, our general stan- National Biography, vol. 9, New York: Oxford dard of surgery, and very proud of our uni- University Press (1999); Koch, Harriett Rose fied nursing stand” (Gordon 1958, 55–56). Berger, Militant Angel, New York: Macmil- She had four children, three sons and a lan (1951); Werminghaus, Esther A., Annie daughter. She felt being a mother was ex- W. Goodrich: Her Journey to Yale, New York: tremely fulfilling. She was strong-minded Macmillan (1950). and determined and did not hesitate to get involved in political matters. She strongly opposed government control of medicine, Gordon, Doris Clifton Jolly feeling doctors could make better decisions 1890–1956 in health matters. She remained active with public health concerns all her life. Doris Doris Gordon was the second woman to be- Gordon died on July 9, 1956, at the Marire come a physician in New Zealand and the Hospital. first woman in Australasia to be recognized by a fellowship (granted in 1925) to the References: Bryer, Linda, “Gordon, Doris Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. Clifton,” Dictionary of New Zealand Biogra- Born in Melbourne on July 10, 1890, she phy, vol. 4, 1921–1940, Wellington: Bridget was the daughter of Lucy Clifton Crouch Williams Books and the Department of In- and Alfred Jolly. They emigrated in 1894 to ternal Affairs (1998); Gordon, Doris Jolly, New Zealand and lived first in Wellington, Doctor Down Under, London: Faber and then later, in 1905, in Tapanui, Otago. Faber (1958). Doris did not attend school until she became interested in becoming a medical missionary. She graduated from the Tapanui Guangzhou, China District High School and went on to the University of Otago Medical School, gradu- Guangzhou, China, became the center for ating in 1916. She became a house surgeon Protestant missionary work in the nine- at Dunedin Hospital that same year. teenth century, welcoming female medical She married William Patteson Pollock missionaries and also serving as an educa- Gordon, a physician, in 1917. Following tional center for women physicians in World War I she and her husband set up China, first through the Canton Medical practice in Stratford on the North Island. Missionary Hospital and then through the She spent much of her career dealing with Hackett Medical College for Women. childbirth matters, particularly pain med- Guangzhou is in the province of Guang- ications for women going through child- dong, but Westerners had also come to birth, and other obstetric and gynecologic know the city as Guangdong—Canton—by concerns of the times. She helped establish a late in the sixteenth century. The first chair in obstetrics at Otago Medical School women’s medical college in China was and founded the New Zealand Obstetrical founded there by Mary Hannah Fulton in Society. High standards were very impor- 1902 and thrived until the late 1920s, when tant to her. political changes forced its closure. “We are young enough not to be encouraged by antiquity. Comparatively speaking See also: Fulton, Mary Hannah we have no shortage of money. Certainly References: Cohen, Saul B., The Columbia skyscraper hospital buildings are not popu- Gazetteer of the World, New York: Columbia lar because of our earthquake menace, and University Press (1998); Rubinstein, Murray amazing population spurts in northern ar- A., The Origins of the Anglo-American Mis- eas leave many hospitals in the predicament sionary Enterprise in China, 1807–1840, Lan- of the small boy who habitually outgrows ham, MD: Scarecrow Press (1996). his pants. But we can be proud of our com-

Hamilton, Alice When she returned home, she and her sister 1869–1970 Edith determined to prepare for a career, as the family’s finances were dwindling. Alice Hamilton was a physician who pro- Alice chose medicine, the only other gressively advocated occupational health choices for women at the time being teach- among workers in the industrial trades; she ing and nursing, neither of which appealed also served as the first female faculty mem- to her. She also felt she could do the most ber at Harvard Medical School in 1919. As a good as a physician. She was not well edu- pioneer in occupational medicine, she be- cated in the sciences, however, so she got came the foremost authority in the new field some tutoring in physics and chemistry and during her lifetime. Without her persever- then attended a small medical school in Fort ance, occupational health hazards would Wayne for a year to study anatomy. have gone undetected in many industries in Once her father was convinced she was the United States. serious about a medical career, she enrolled Born in New York City on February 27, at the Medical School at the University of 1869, to Montgomery Hamilton and Ger- Michigan in Ann Arbor. There she loved the trude Pond, she grew up in Fort Wayne, In- atmosphere and the depth of courses of- diana, in a fourth-generation home. She and fered. She also did not have to fight the sex- her siblings, Edith, Margaret, and Norah, ism that existed in so many other schools. were all very close in age, and their parents “The school was coeducational and had taught them at home. A brother, Arthur, been for about twenty years, so we women whom everyone called Quint, was born were taken for granted and there was none when she was seventeen. of the sex antagonism which I saw later in Hamilton felt her home education was Eastern schools. A man student would step not very sound. Her lessons had included aside and let the woman pass through the reading, languages, history, and literature door first, the women had the chairs if there but very little math or science. Also, her were not enough to go round, but when it mother had instilled in her a deep social came to microscopes or laboratory appara- consciousness. Gertrude Pond Hamilton felt tus it was first come, first served” (Hamilton very strongly about the shortcomings of so- 1943, 40). ciety that allowed cruelty to prisoners, Graduating in 1893 from medical school blacks, child laborers, and the poor. She ad- at the University of Michigan, Hamilton mired those who did something about a wanted to pursue bacteriology and pathol- problem as opposed to only talking about it. ogy, but she was urged to take on some hos- As was the family tradition, when Alice pital work for the added experience. She was seventeen she attended a school in held two internships, two months in the Farmington, Connecticut, for two years. The Hospital for Women and Children in Min- school was inadequate in some ways, but neapolis and nine months in Boston at the there Alice began lifelong friendships. New England Hospital for Women and

89 Hamilton, Alice

in Illinois to study industrial diseases. At this time, awareness of occupational hazards was growing, and Hamilton’s work would focus on many of these specific health hazards. The commission’s report in 1911 led Illi- nois and six other states to pass occupational disease laws. The laws required employers to provide periodic medical exams for workers and incorporate safety measures. Violators could be prosecuted. Following her work with the Illinois commission, Hamilton worked for the federal government in various capacities from 1911 to 1920, studying the deleterious effects of working with lead, rubber, munitions, and rayon. In 1915, U.S. munitions factories were busy making explosives for France to use in World War I. Hamilton realized that no one knew much about the health effects of munitions production, and doctors knew very little, if anything, about nitrous fumes. On one of her first trips to New Jersey, she Alice Hamilton (U.S. National Library of Medicine) witnessed two workers involved in making picric (an explosive) for the French. The two men, one black and one white, had orange stains on their skin and yellow in their hair and eyebrows. Children. In this work, she became aware of a wide variety of problems in public health. I edged nearer and being greeted with Hamilton’s professors told her that to a friendly grin by the Negro, ventured specialize in bacteriology and pathology, a question: “Dyeing cotton goods?” she would need some education in Ger- “No, Miss, we’re working over to the many, so she and Edith traveled to Leipzig Canary Islands, making picric for the in 1895. She worked in Leipzig and Munich, French.” “Is it dangerous?” I asked. returning to study at Johns Hopkins Med- “Not this yellow stuff ain’t, but there’s ical School in Baltimore. a red smoke comes off when the The Women’s Medical School of North- yellow stuff is making and it like to western University was where Hamilton knocks you out and if you don’t run it first began teaching. It was her desire to go gets you. You don’t suspicion nothing to a settlement house, Hull House in much, you goes home and eats your Chicago, and work, but it was hard to get in supper and goes to bed, and then in because many new students were interested the night you starts to choke up and in working there. She was able to gain a by morning you’re dead.... Sure it’s room at Hull House in 1897 and lived there true, Miss. The man who had the bunk while teaching at Northwestern. At Hull under me, he died that way. I ain’t House, Hamilton realized she needed more going to stay myself after next pay education on industrial diseases. She saw day.” (Hamilton 1943, 185) many working-class people suffering from lead and carbon monoxide gas poisoning She saw this dangerous munitions work and pneumonia. everywhere; nitrous fume poisoning was In 1910, Hamilton headed a commission very frequent and the cause of many deaths

90 Han Suyin in workers making explosives for the war “Hamilton, Alice,” American National Biogra- effort. phy vol. 9, New York: Oxford University Hamilton was a pacifist during the war, Press (1999); Hamilton, Alice, Exploring the but she did not make her views public be- Dangerous Trades: The Autobiography of Alice cause she felt she was doing important Hamilton, M.D., Boston: Little, Brown (1943); work and did not want to jeopardize her Sicherman, Barbara, Alice Hamilton: A Life in job. She was on good terms with most of the Letters, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univer- government officials she worked with. sity Press (1984). After the war ended, her reputation as an authority in the field of public health gained her an appointment to the Harvard Medical Han Suyin School in 1919, a time when the school still 1917– did not admit women as students. She stayed there and taught until retiring in An early physician in Asia, Han Suyin is 1935, never attaining a position higher than best known for writing fiction, particularly assistant professor. A Many Splendored Thing, which was made She served on many state, national, and into a movie in 1955. Her writings include international committees working for pub- autobiographical stories, historical and po- lic health and social reform. She supported litical accounts of revolutionary China, and and spoke for women in industry and for romances. the protection of their health in legislation Born in Sinyang, China, as Elizabeth and regulations. Her major contribution Chou on September 12, 1917, she served as was the work Industrial Toxicology in 1934 a physician after receiving an education at and its subsequent revised edition in 1949, the University of London and the Univer- which was the first work of its kind to en- sity of Brussels. She worked at the Queen lighten professionals on dangerous indus- Mary Hospital in Hong Kong from 1948 to trial practices. 1952 and then went to the Johore Bahru In her autobiography, which she wrote during World War II, she notes that the progress between the two wars was very evident. Even though the same kinds of dangerous materials were used for making weapons, more safety regulations were in place, and engineers and doctors knew much more about protecting workers. Even employers found that a high turnover of workers in these industries was not a prof- itable answer to the problems. “Industrial medicine had at last become respectable” (Hamilton 1943, 198). Hamilton suffered from increasingly poor health during her nineties; deafness and a series of strokes hampered her. She died on September 22, 1970, in Hadlyme, Connecti- cut, at the age of 101. It seemed appropriate that the Occupational Safety and Health Act was passed a few months later. President Nixon signed it on December 29, 1970. The act serves to ensure safety and health in the workplace. Han Suyin (World Health Organization/U.S. References: Corn, Jacqueline Karnell, National Library of Medicine)

91 Hautval, Adelaide

Hospital in Malaya. She maintained a pri- them immediately because of its infectious vate practice for about ten years. nature. Hautval hid some of the women on Her later years have been substantially top of the bunks in her block. filled with political and literary endeavors; She was later sent to Birkenau and gave in her early life she showed perseverance in medical aid as best she could under the cir- pursuing a medical education when few cumstances. She then worked at Ravens- women sought such a profession. She was bruck until liberation. She testified in 1964 one of the first Chinese women physicians in a libel trial in England involving the ac- in Asia. tions of Wladyslaw Dering, a physician who had participated in the medical experiments References: International Who’s Who of at Auschwitz. “Justice Frederick Horace Women, London: Europa (1997). Lawton, in his summation to the jury called Hautval ‘perhaps one of the most impressive and courageous women who have ever Hautval, Adelaide given evidence in the courts of this coun- 1906–1988 try’” (Gutman 1990, 650). Hautval died in 1988. A book of her writ- Adelaide Hautval was a French physician ing about her experiences and the inhuman- and psychiatrist who aided women in the ity of the Nazi medical experiments was German concentration camps during World published in 1991. War II. She later testified about the medical experiments on Jewish women in the camps References: Epstein, Eric Joseph, and Philip of Auschwitz. She was recognized in 1965 Rosen, Dictionary of the Holocaust: Biography, by Yad Vashem as one of the Righteous Geography, and Terminology, Westport, CT: Among the Nations, an honor bestowed on Greenwood Press (1997); Gutman, Israel, the courageous men and women who The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, New York: risked their lives to help the Jews under per- Macmillan (1990); Hautval, Adelaide, Méde- secution in Nazi Germany. cine et Crimes Contre l’Humanité, Le Mejan, Born in France to a Protestant family, Arles: Actes Sud (1991); Rozett, Robert, and Hautval studied medicine in Strasbourg Shmuel Spector, Encyclopedia of the Holo- and then worked in many psychiatric clinics caust, New York: Facts on File (2000). there and in Switzerland. She encountered resistance from the Nazis upon trying to cross occupied France in 1942 in order to at- Hazen, Elizabeth Lee tend her mother’s funeral. She was arrested 1885–1975 and imprisoned and witnessed the inhumane treatment of the Jewish prisoners by Along with Rachel Fuller Brown, Elizabeth the Gestapo. She protested continually and Hazen was responsible for discovering the was eventually sent to Auschwitz to work first antifungal antibiotic that could be used as a doctor treating sick Jewish women. safely on humans. Most scientists consid- During her time there she was asked to ered this biomedical discovery to be the practice gynecology and agreed until she most important since Sir Alexander Fleming discovered that inhumane medical experi- discovered penicillin in 1928. She and ments were being performed on Jewish Brown subsequently donated all their royal- women. They were sterilized by means of X ties from the patent to scientific research. rays or ovariectomies, sterilization being Hazen was born in Rich, Mississippi, on part of the grand plan for all Jewish women August 24, 1885. Her parents were William after the awaited Nazi victory. Hautval re- Edgar Hazen and Maggie Harper Hazen. fused to participate and instead gave med- Both died when she was a child, and an ical aid as best she could to women who had aunt and uncle adopted her. She attended typhus. Had the Nazis known any of the college at Mississippi Industrial Institute women had typhus, they would have killed and College. After receiving her B.S., she

92 He Manqiu taught school in order to earn money for Her father was supportive of her early edu- graduate study at Columbia University. cation at a missionary school in Chengdu, Hazen earned her master’s degree in and she “wanted to participate in the revo- 1917 and worked at the West Virginia Hos- lution and help liberate women for a long pital’s bacteriological laboratory while pur- time. A lot of students in Chengdu were or- suing her Ph.D. at Columbia. She earned it ganized to cut off pigtails and unbind feet, in 1927 and went to work for the New York to propagate the spirit of the May 4th move- State Department of Health. Her work in ment against feudal ideas. Although I was analyzing bacteria and possible vaccines young, I accepted the idea of women being led to her interest in finding an antifungal liberated” (Young 1996, 536). antibiotic. She eventually worked with He Manqiu joined the Red Army when Rachel Fuller Brown, and they developed she discovered women could become sol- Nystatin. Hazen and Brown patented their diers. It was during a stay at a short-staffed discovery in 1950, and E.R. Squibb and hospital that she developed a desire to learn Sons developed a method for mass produc- about medicine. She became a nurse and af- tion. Nystatin became available to the pub- ter that had an opportunity to take an exam lic in 1954. and become a medical student in the Chi- Nystatin proved to have many uses. It is a nese army. During the long march, she and treatment for Dutch elm disease, fights the other students learned medicine under molds in foods, and saved priceless art- primitive conditions as they had no paper works that had developed fungus after a and pencils (only sticks for writing in the flood in Italy. dirt), and had to memorize everything the Hazen and Brown were both interested in teachers taught. For cadavers they had to furthering women’s education in science. use what they found. Their donation of all income from the Ny- statin patent benefited numerous students On our way back we just happened to and researchers. Hazen became a professor find an intact, fresh corpse in a cave. at Albany Medical College in 1958. She died We felt sure that this person had had on June 24, 1975, in Seattle, Washington. no family to prepare him for death and that no one would try to find the See also: Brown, Rachel Fuller body because this corpse had had no References: Baldwin, Richard S., The Fungus funeral or burial. We had seen several Fighters: Two Women Scientists and Their Dis- funerals in this Tibetan area. The fam- covery, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press ily always claimed the dead body and (1981); Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, disposed of it in one of several ways. eds., The Biographical Dictionary of Women in One funeral practice was to flay the Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to skin and expose the body to the vul- the Mid-20th Century, New York: Routledge tures. Another was cremation, and the (2000); Vare, Ethlie Ann, and Greg Ptacek, third was to put the body in a river or Mothers of Invention: From the Bra to the Bomb: stream. Sometimes when a person Forgotten Women and Their Unforgettable died, the body was tied to a tree and Ideas, New York: Morrow (1988). stones were piled up around until it was completely covered. That’s why it wasn’t easy to find a cadaver in such a He Manqiu place. Of course, we couldn’t use our 1920?– own soldiers or prisoners of war. Usu- ally when our soldiers died we He Manqiu became one of the first Chinese claimed the bodies and then buried female doctors by training during the Long them, because the Communist Party March in harsh and primitive conditions. was humane. If we hadn’t found that Born to a liberal father, she had one person’s body in the cave, we would brother and was close to her grandmother. have had to wait for the body of a

93 Healy, Bernadine

criminal who had been sentenced to ical professionals who don’t see manage- death. (Young 1996, 545) ment duties as detracting from research and patient care. Her leadership has influenced He Manqiu continued to work as a physi- thousands of physicians, politicians, and pa- cian for many years in the Chinese military tients. “As a doctor and researcher, I have and retired to Beijing. dedicated my life to alleviating human suffering,” Healy says. She was pressured to re- References: Young, Helen Praeger, “From sign her position at the Red Cross following Soldier to Doctor: A Chinese Woman’s Story controversial remarks after the terrorist at- of the Long March,” Science & Society 59, no. tacks on September 11, 2001 (she had asked 4 (Winter 1996): 531–547. U.S. Muslims to support Israel’s inclusion in the International Red Cross). She is married to Dr. Floyd Hoop and has two daughters. Healy, Bernadine 1944– References: Encyclopedia of World Biography, vol. 7, Detroit: Gale (1998); Stapleton, Bernadine Healy has the distinction of be- Stephanie, “Former NIH Chief to Lead Red ing the first woman appointed to head the Cross,” American Medical News (2 August National Institutes of Health (NIH), in 1999): 241; www.redcross.org/healyart.html. 1991–1993 under George Bush. She was also the first woman to hold the position of dean of the College of Medicine and Public Heikel, Rosina Health at Ohio State University before as- 1842–1929 suming her duties as president of the Amer- ican Red Cross, the first physician to hold Rosina Heikel was the first female physician that title. She was also CEO of the organiza- in Finland, receiving her medical degree tion until her resignation in 2001. from the University of Helsinki in 1878. Her Healy was born on August 2, 1944, in parents were Carl Johan Heikel and Kristina New York City. She is the second of four Elisabet Dobbin. She did well in school and, daughters of Michael J. and Violet McGrath like her brothers before her, wanted to study Healy. Her parents operated a perfume medicine. business at home while she was growing up When she was ready for university study, in Queens. She graduated from Hunter Col- no medical schools in Finland were open to lege High School and went on to Vassar, her. She went to Stockholm and took a phys- where she majored in chemistry, graduating iotherapy course, studied midwifery back in in 1965. She received her M.D. from Har- Helsinki, and then went back to Stockholm to vard Medical School in 1970 along with 9 learn more about physiology and anatomy. other women in a class of 120. She was eventually allowed to study medi- She did her internal medicine and cardi- cine by special permission of the emperor. ology postgraduate work at Johns Hopkins After completing her degree, she was re- University School of Medicine and Hospi- stricted to practicing medicine on women tal, where she later served as full professor and children. She worked as a pediatrician and directed the coronary care unit. and gynecologist in Helsinki most of her Healy has done extensive research as well life. Outside of her medical career she was as worked with patients of all ages and very involved in the women’s rights move- backgrounds. Her excellent management ment in Finland (Naisasialiitto Unioni) and skills have proved an asset wherever she has was a proponent of women’s education. worked within the medical community. While she served the Research Institute of References: Forsius, Arno, “Emma Rosina the Cleveland Clinic Foundation as director, Heikel (1842–1929)—Suomen ja Pohjois- funding rose from $8 million to $36 million maiden ensimmainen naislaakari,” http:// in only five years. She is one of the few med- www.saunalahti.fi/arnoldus/heikel.html;

94 Hemenway, Ruth V.

Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Doctors of the each patient came children and babies, World, New York: Macmillan (1957); sisters-in-law, mothers-in-law, and a “Rosina Heikel: First Woman Doctor in few neighbors. Many men were pres- Finland, 1842–1929,” Women of Learning, ent and they all shoved themselves http://www.helsinki.fi/akka-info/ into the front row so that they could tiedenaiset/english/heikel.html; Seppanen, hear all the histories and symptoms. Anni, “Medical Women in Finland,” Journal No privacy was possible. A sick per- of the American Medical Women’s Association son at each end of the table shouted 5, no. 7 (1950): 291. her symptoms to one of us doctors. She had to yell louder than all the screaming babies and shrieking rela- Hemenway, Ruth V. tives as well as shouting men who at- 1894–1974 tempted to help her out in her narra- tion. One baby’s ears were packed A pioneering medical missionary in China with dirt. When I asked why, the prior to World War II, Ruth Hemenway young mother told me that her baby grew to embrace practical medical science was only two years old, and she was to meet the needs of the Chinese in the early afraid he was too young to bathe. decades of the twentieth century and to in- (Hemenway 1977, 44–45) troduce some measure of health care in rural areas. She placed health care above her Hemenway was in China from 1924 until Christian missionary goals in order to better 1941 during very turbulent political times. serve the people she saw in need. Although the villages she worked in were Born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts, in generally far removed from the revolution, 1894, she grew up on her father’s farm and sometimes it came very close. She contin- had an early desire to become a physician. ued to focus on proper health care service to She graduated from Northampton High the people who needed it most. During this School in 1910 and then taught school in or- period she occasionally spent brief periods der to save money for medical school. in the United States and elsewhere. On one She continued to work odd jobs while at- sojourn in the United States to recover from tending Tufts Medical School. China was in an illness, she realized she had developed great need of physicians, and Hemenway an appreciation of China’s “long history of was motivated by her religious convictions philosophy and high ethical teachings, her to serve others; she also wanted to learn love of beauty in nature, in literature, in mu- about other cultures and religions. Having sic and all arts. I thought of China’s young grown away from traditional religions, she people with their great artistic ability, their nevertheless realized that she would require high intelligence, their reverence for learn- support from an organized religious group ing, their respect for the aged, and their pas- in order to serve as a missionary. She ac- sionate patriotism. I remembered Chinese cepted support from the Methodist Wo- ways of courtesy and gentleness; their fine men’s Board of Foreign Missions in 1924 sensitivity and intuition were characteristics and was destined for Mintsing, Fukien. in even the illiterate mountain people. Even She arrived, began working in primitive the poorest people possessed a wonderful conditions, and realized a great need for graciousness and dignity. Confucius and sanitary practices, health clinics, and basic sons had given their people a great deal” education. Early on she conducted a clinic (Hemenway 1977, 92). in a village church: Hemenway died in 1974.

Hordes of people of all ages and both References: Hemenway, Ruth V., Ruth V. sexes began to push up to the table. Hemenway, M.D.: A Memoir of Revolutionary We made them walk single file past China, 1924–1941, Amherst: University of the opposite side of the table. But with Massachusetts Press (1977).

95 Hildegard of Bingen

Hildegard of Bingen Puritanism on the lives of Elizabethan 1098–1179 women. The daughter of Arthur Dakins and Hildegard’s writings include a great deal of Thomasine Genevieve, Hoby married three information on the medicinal properties of times. Her last husband was Sir Thomas plants, minerals, and animals. This informa- Hoby. She was educated in the household of tion came to her in visions that both she and Henry Hastings and became the caregiver her parents believed were a gift from God. for workers of her husband’s estate. It is not The use of the spiritual to explain the phys- clear how vast her medical knowledge was, ical world was acceptable during her time; but it is clear that she believed that God was science was considered a bridge between the great healer: “I may truly conclude it is the physical and spiritual worlds. Hilde- the Lord, and not the phisision, who both gard used her knowledge to treat the sick. ordaines the medesine for our health and She was well respected during and after her orderethe the ministring of it for the good of time, and many health practitioners sought his children” (ca. 1599; Hoby 1998, 13). out her writings. She witnessed much death due to disease She was born in summer 1098 in Bermers- and plagues, which reinforced her faith in heim, south of Mainz, Germany, the tenth God. “This day I hard the plague was so child of Hildebert and Mechthilde. Her par- great at whitbie that those wch were cleare ents were wealthy and belonged to the no- shutt themselues vp, and the infected that bility. Hildegard began having her visions escaped did goe abroad: Likewise it was re- at a very early age. Apparently they were so ported that, at London, the number was strong that she was ill much of the time. Her taken of the Liuinge and not of the deed: parents sent her to Disibodenberg, where Lord graunt that these Iudgementes may her Aunt Jutta and others at the Benedictine Cause England wt speed to tourne to the monastery educated her. When her aunt Lord” (ca. 1603; Hoby 1998, 195). In her day, died she became abbess of the convent. In the faithful saw disease as a punishment 1147 she founded her own convent at Ru- from God. She had no children and died in pertsberg. She died at Rupertsberg, near 1633. She was buried in the chancel of Hack- Bingen, in 1179. ness Church on September 6, 1633.

References: Flanagan, Sabina, Hildegard of References: Hoby, Lady Margaret, The Pri- Bingen, 1098–1179: A Visionary Life, London: vate Life of an Elizabethan Lady: The Diary of Routledge (1998); Pagel, Walter, “Hildegard Lady Margaret Hoby, 1599–1605, ed. Joanna of Bingen,” Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Moody, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton vol. 6, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons (1998); Slack, Paul, “Hoby, Margaret, Lady,” (1970–1980); Shearer, Benjamin F., and Bar- Dictionary of National Biography: Missing Per- bara S. Shearer, Notable Women in the Life Sci- sons, Oxford: Oxford University Press ences: A Biographical Dictionary, Westport, (1993). CT: Greenwood Press (1996); Snodgrass, Mary Ellen, Historical Dictionary of Nursing, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1999). Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot 1910–1994 Hoby, Lady Margaret 1571–1633 Dorothy Hodgkin received the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1964 for her use of crystal- Throughout her life, Lady Margaret Hoby lography as an exceptional analytical tool in played the role of a physician in taking care shedding new light on the structure of mol- of neighbors and family. Her diary is the ecules. She identified the structure of over earliest that shows the deep influence of 100 molecules, including vitamins D and

96 Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot

B-12, insulin, and penicillin. She was the X-rays had revealed the structure of a mole- second woman after Florence Nightingale cule that synthetic and organic chemists to be a recipient of Britain’s Order of Merit could not decipher” (McGrayne 1998, 237). and also received the Royal Medal, the This success encouraged Hodgkin to study Royal Society’s highest honor, in 1965. She as many crystals as she could. Before long, was the first woman to receive this honor. other scientists learned of her work and be- She was born in Cairo, Egypt, then a gan sending samples for her examination. British colony, on May 12, 1910. Her father, In 1937, she married Thomas L. Hodgkin; John Crowfoot, worked for the British gov- they would have three children, Luke, Eliza- ernment in the education department, and beth, and Toby. Thomas was involved in pol- her mother, Grace Mary Hood Crowfoot, itics and was a member of the Communist enjoyed weaving in the ancient methods Party; Dorothy was interested in the world and botanical studies. After the outbreak of peace movement. Having lost four of her World War I, the family was dispersed. brothers in World War I, Dorothy would be When Dorothy was four, the Crowfoots sent involved in controversies throughout her life her and her three younger sisters to En- because she campaigned for peace during gland for safety; there, they stayed with a the post–World War II and Cold War years. nursemaid and had their grandmother She had obtained her Ph.D. in 1937 from nearby. They saw their mother only once Oxford and soon thereafter became inter- during the four years of the war, but ested in cracking the code for insulin and Dorothy felt the separation made her more penicillin. With the outbreak of World War independent. II, she focused on penicillin. At that time After the war, her mother taught the girls many chemists thought this work could not at home for a time. Dorothy attended the Sir succeed because penicillin was far too com- John Leman School from 1921 to 1927. She plex. Dorothy was determined to find its was interested early on in chemistry and chemical structure using X-ray crystallogra- biochemistry, and also in crystals. phy. “Due to the increasing number of casu- She graduated from Somerville College at alties in World War II, soldiers were in dire Oxford University in 1931. She then took an need of the medicinal properties of peni- opportunity to work with John D. Bernal at cillin, as the number of bacterial infections Cambridge University. He was working on contracted during the war was increasing at sterol crystals and had a well-financed labo- a rapid rate. The world, however, was at a ratory. She continued her exploration of standstill in terms of mass-producing peni- X-ray crystallography on protein crystals. cillin because its chemical structure was still In 1934 she was diagnosed with severe unknown” (Van der Does 1999, 170). rheumatoid arthritis. Hodgkin complained By 1944, Hodgkin had determined the little during her life about the pain she en- structure of penicillin. She was promoted dured from this crippling disease, and it did from fellow to university lecturer at Oxford not slow her work or determination. in 1946 and received international recogni- She accepted a job at Somerville College tion. She aided in founding the Interna- even though she would miss Bernal and his tional Union of Crystallography, a political well-equipped lab. At Somerville she had to worry to some Western governments be- work in antiquated laboratories, and there cause the union welcomed members from was a shortage of equipment. She also did not any country and did not exclude those who enjoy the isolated life of a woman scientist at belonged to the Communist Party. This in- Oxford. Many clubs excluded women, which clusiveness suited Hodgkin’s goal of unity she felt was a huge problem. She did work off in the world of science. and on at Cambridge when she could while Her next success was with B-12, a much teaching chemistry at Somerville. larger molecule than penicillin and key in While at Somerville, she and her research curing anemia. John White worked with her student, C. H. Carlisle, determined the struc- on this mystery. She was finally promoted ture of cholesterol iodide. “For the first time, to full professor at Oxford in 1958 and had a

97 Honzakova, Anna new laboratory. In 1964 she received the No- Hoobler, Icie Gertrude Macy bel Prize in chemistry. She kept on the trail 1892–1984 of insulin, which had interested her thirty years before, and determined its structure in 1969. “She had the imagination to insist that Icie Hoobler made important contributions the problem she chose could be solved, even to the field of nutrition, particularly the nu- though she had to wait for many years for trition of nursing mothers and their infants, the answer. In fact Dorothy pioneered many by studying nutrient values of vitamins and of the methods of macromolecular structure analyzing milk. She also discovered that determination that we now take for cottonseed products varied in toxicity. This granted” (Glusker 1994, 2469). Hodgkins finding later resulted in better manufactur- died on July 29, 1994. ing methods that “greatly reduced or removed the toxicity and made the cotton References: Glusker, Jenny P., “Dorothy seed products safer to use in animal foods” Crowfoot Hodgkin,” Protein Science 3, no. 12 (Hoobler 1982, 56). (December 1994): 2465–2469; McGrayne, Born in Gallatin, Missouri, on July 23, Sharon Bertsch, Nobel Prize Women in Sci- 1892, Hoobler had two brothers and a sister. ence, Secaucus, NJ: Carol (1998); Nobel Lec- Their parents, Perry Macy and Ollevia Elva- tures: Chemistry 1963–1970, River Edge, NJ: ree Critten Macy, managed a farm. Hoobler World Scientific (1999); Van der Does, received her early education in a one-room Louise Q., and Rita J. Simon, Renaissance schoolhouse and later attended Central Col- Women in Science, Lanham, MD: University lege for Women, as did her sister. Press of America (1999). In the beginning she wanted to please her father, who wanted a musician in the family. She spent three years of intense practice on Honzakova, Anna the piano only to discover music was not for 1875–1940 her. She did enjoy her classes with Lily G. Egbert, an enthusiastic female biology Anna Honzakova was the first Czech teacher, and thought about a career in sci- woman to graduate from a Czechoslovakian ence. She received an A.B. degree in English university and become a physician. After in 1914. graduating from Minerva high school in She wanted to attend the University of Austria, she attended medical school at the Chicago, but her parents were concerned University of Czechoslovakia in Prague. that she was too young and inexperienced She obtained her physician credentials in for a big-city university. Instead she at- 1902. She went on to serve as a school physi- tended Randolph-Macon College for cian at a girls’ grammar school and later Women for a year to prepare. She was fur- specialized in gynecology and midwifery. ther encouraged in her endeavor to study She authored a book on protecting children science and went to the University of against tuberculosis and also wrote a book Chicago in 1915 to earn enough credits to about Anna Bayerova. obtain a B.S. After receiving that degree, she She was born in Kopidlno on November taught chemistry at the University of Col- 16, 1875. She served as the first president of orado and at the same time earned her M.S. the Women’s Medical Association of degree. Czechoslovakia. She died on October 13, She entered Yale University Graduate 1940. School in 1918 and received her Ph.D. in 1920 in physiological chemistry. It was at See also: Bayerova, Anna Yale that she did her study on cottonseeds References: Ceskoslovensky Biograficky Slov- and their toxicity. She was at the same time nik, Prague: Academia (1992); Lovejoy, Es- aware of new developments in the sciences. ther P., Women Doctors of the World, New “What intrigued me most was the fact that York: Macmillan (1957). chemistry and physics were becoming in-

98 Horney, Karen Theodora Clementina Danielsen creasingly relevant in the study of biology Woman Scientist, Smithtown, NY: Exposition and physiology. Body and mind processes Press (1982); Shearer, Benjamin F., and Bar- were being recognized as physiological in bara S. Shearer, Notable Women in the Physi- nature and the basis of mental activity. The cal Sciences: A Biographical Dictionary, West- interlinking of the human body and mind port, CT: Greenwood Press (1997). chemically and physiologically had a profound effect on my desire to ultimately be involved in these areas of study and re- Horney, Karen Theodora search” (Hoobler 1982, 69). Her first position was as an assistant Clementina Danielsen chemist at Western Pennsylvania Hospital. 1885–1952 She had to work many hours in the laboratory and faced much discrimination, such as Karen Horney was a physician and world- not being allowed to eat in the doctors’ din- renowned psychoanalyst who challenged ing room and not having a women’s rest- Freud’s theories. She received a great deal of room nearby. The lack of a convenient rest- respect within the psychiatric community in room led to a serious bout of nephritis, a the early twentieth century and is still re- kidney infection; it was only after a year’s spected today. leave that she was well enough to return to Born September 16, 1885, in Blankense, work. After complaining to no avail, she Germany, Horney was the daughter of submitted her resignation. However, once Clotilde Marie Van Ronzelen Danielsen and the president of the board of trustees found Berndt Henrik Wackels Danielsen. She re- out what was happening, facilities were im- ceived her medical education at the Univer- proved after she left. sity of Freiburg and received her medical She moved on to become director of the degree in 1915 from the University of Berlin. Nutrition Research Laboratories at the Mer- She specialized in psychiatry and was rill-Palmer School and Children’s Hospital deeply involved in psychoanalysis, which in Detroit. There, she demonstrated good or- Karl Abraham had brought to Berlin. ganizational skills and became an expert on She had married Oskar Horney, a doc- nutrition. She studied metabolism, the toral student, in Freiburg. She became un- chemical characteristics of growth in chil- happy and asked Abraham, a follower of dren and how nutrition affects growth, hu- Freud, to psychoanalyze her. She began lec- man milk composition, and the chemistry of turing and teaching on the techniques of red blood cells. On June 11, 1938, she mar- psychoanalysis. In the 1920s her marriage ried Dr. Raymond Hoobler, who encouraged ended in separation and later divorce. She her to pursue her professional goals. He had three daughters. died after only five years. Hoobler contin- She differed very much with Freud’s view ued her work and eventually retired in Gal- of “penis envy” and also was the first to ar- latin, Missouri. She died on January 6, 1984. gue that “womb envy” existed. She believed Hoobler wrote her autobiography in part cultural factors had a greater influence on “because of my hope that young women women’s subordination to men. She wrote students of like desires and intellectual in- persuasively and challenged some of terest as my own, may find some optimistic Freud’s other views as well, such as his guidance and encouragement to enter the view that biological development is a pri- science arena where their participation and mary force in personality development. She full life commitment are needed and their gained many followers over the years. unique talents and skills may be given full Fascism was rising in Germany, and in expression, in a worthy, womanly, and satis- 1932 she moved to Chicago to work at the fying manner” (Hoobler 1982, 3). Institute for Psychoanalysis. She stayed two years before leaving for New York City. Her References: Hoobler, Icie Gertrude Macy, lectures there at the New School for Social Boundless Horizons: Portrait of a Pioneer Research at the New York Psychoanalytic

99 Hubbard, Ruth

Institute were very popular and caused much friction between the Chicago and the New York psychoanalytic institutes. There seemed to be two growing schools of thought, one espousing Freud’s theories and the other, Horney’s. The New York Psychoanalytic Institute eventually demoted Horney, and she resigned. She founded the Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis, where she worked for the last nine years of her life. Horney had a very good understanding of the relationship between physical ailments and psychological illness. “It is impossible to tell from a cough alone whether the patient has a cold or tuberculosis. The same is true of functional female disorders, especially in borderline cases. The physician must determine whether they require physical or psychological treatment, or some combination of the two. As I have suggested, this can be a very difficult diagnosis. If the patient’s problems are psychological, Ruth Hubbard (Bachrach/U.S. National Library of Medicine) in whole or in part, the physician must further decide whether his help will suffice or whether psychoanalytic therapy is called for” (Horney 2000, 116). She died in New York City on December tists in the applications of genetics research, 4, 1952. encourage women in the sciences, and climb the ladder of academia at Harvard. References: Horney, Karen, The Unknown Born March 3, 1924, in Vienna, Austria, Karen Horney, Essays on Gender, Culture, and Hubbard grew up making rounds with her Psychoanalysis, New Haven, CT: Yale Uni- physician father, Richard Hoffman. Her versity Press (2000); Paris, Bernard J., Karen mother, Helene, was also a physician. At an Horney: A Psychoanalyst’s Search for Self- early age, Ruth assumed she would be a Understanding, New Haven, CT: Yale Uni- doctor. Her family moved to the United versity Press (1994); Quinn, Susan, A Mind States in 1938 following Hitler’s annexation of Her Own: The Life of Karen Horney, New of Austria. She attended school in Brook- York: Summit Books (1987); Sokal, M. M., line, Massachusetts, and then entered Rad- “Horney, Karen (Danielsen),” in Martin cliffe College for premedical studies. She Kaufman, Stuart Galishoff, and Todd L. later saw that a traditional medical career Savitt, eds., Dictionary of American Medical was unusual for a woman and turned her Biography, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press attention to biochemistry: “The fact that (1984). women were more successful in gaining access to biochemistry than to anatomy and physiology has its parallel in the fact that Hubbard, Ruth biochemistry was also more accessible to 1924– Jews than were anatomy and physiology. It may be that the young, aspiring science of Ruth Hubbard was the first tenured female biochemistry was simply more open than professor at Harvard. She is a prominent bi- the old, established medical sciences” (Hub- ologist who has worked to educate scien- bard 1990, 44).

100 Hugonay, Countess Vilma

She earned her Ph.D. in 1950. She enjoyed As a feminist and scientist, Hubbard has research more than teaching, a preference written for both scholarly and popular pub- that presented problems for many women. lications. She writes clearly about her con- Either universities hiring research scientists cerns within the scientific community. were not hiring women or institutions that Aware of the advances in medical science were hiring women had small or inade- over the years, she is also aware of and out- quate research facilities. Hubbard, however, spoken about the dangers of proceeding had the good fortune of working at George without a conscientious effort to maintain Wald’s laboratory at Harvard and eventu- proper policies and procedures for the good ally worked her way up, combining teach- of humanity. ing and research. Her early interests lay in Hubbard is professor emerita at Harvard. photochemistry and vision, retinal pig- She married Frank Hubbard in 1942, but ments, and photoisomerization. She later they later divorced. She married George became concerned about the emphasis on Wald in 1958, and they had two children, genetics as the sole basis for explaining peo- Elijah and Deborah Hannah. ple’s characteristics. She is also very concerned about ethical standards in genetic re- References: Hubbard, Ruth, The Politics of search. Women’s Biology, New Brunswick, NJ: Rut- gers University Press (1990); Hubbard, Beyond asking what genetic research Ruth, and Elijah Wald, Exploding the Gene should be done and how it should be Myth: How Genetic Information Is Produced applied, we need to question the cur- and Manipulated by Scientists, Physicians, Em- rent emphasis on genes as determining ployers, Insurance Companies, Educators, and our development, health, and behav- Law Enforcers, Boston: Beacon Press (1997); ior. Focusing on genes leads almost in- Kropf, Allen, and Ruth Hubbard, “The Pho- evitably to an assignment of values: toisomerization of Retinal,” Photochemistry these genes are good, those genes are and Photobiology 12, no. 4 (October 1970): bad. We may start with relatively 249–260. clear-cut cases like Tay-Sachs disease, which is invariably fatal in early childhood, but we almost immediately get into gray areas where people leading Hugonay, Countess Vilma quite ordinary lives can suddenly find 1847–1922 themselves stigmatized as defective. Scientists and physicians should not Countess Vilma Hugonay was the first fe- be given the right to assign such la- male physician to graduate at a medical bels, but the problem is greater than school in Hungary. She was motivated to re- that. The labels themselves are inher- ceive medical training after her first child ently wrong, no matter who is doing died. She received her M.D. in 1879 at the the labeling. There is no way to say University of Zurich but for many years which lives are or are not valuable. I was allowed to practice only midwifery. In am glad Woody Guthrie was born, 1897, she was finally allowed by the Hun- though he developed Huntington Dis- garian Ministry of Culture to practice as a ease. I am glad for all the blind poets physician. and musicians, from Homer to Stevie Wonder. Who knows, maybe Helen References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Keller would have led a completely Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan undistinguished life instead of becom- (1957); Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, ing a famous writer and political ac- eds., The Biographical Dictionary of Women in tivist had her immune system not Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to failed her as a child. (Hubbard and the Mid-20th Century, New York: Routledge Wald 1997, 161) (2000).

101 Hyde, Ida Henrietta

Hyde, Ida Henrietta glands, then came back to the United States 1857–1945 to work at Harvard Medical School. She studied the heart’s blood flow and also Ida Hyde broke down the barriers in Ger- taught at some preparatory schools. In 1898 many to advanced education for women she moved to the University of Kansas, be- and was the first women to work in the coming professor of physiology in the med- medical school at the University of Heidel- ical school. berg. She did research on a variety of phys- Hyde was active in community health and iological aspects of health and wrote two lectured on numerous public health con- textbooks as well as numerous papers on cerns while at Kansas. She also began a pro- physiology, all of which were well received. gram to examine children with communica- She was born in Davenport, Iowa, on Sep- ble diseases. Her research included many tember 8, 1857, to Babette Loewenthal and aspects of physiology. “She studied the ef- Meyer H. Hyde. Her father left the family, fects of the environment and nutrition on the and her mother, her brother, and she moved nervous system, the reactions of various an- to Chicago, where Hyde attended public imals to drugs, alcohol, and stress, and the schools. She eventually taught in the public effects of caffeine on humans. She also de- schools and introduced science courses. In veloped a microelectrode that enabled her to 1891 she received an A.B. degree from Cor- stimulate and study a single cell” (Shor 1999, nell with a major in the biological sciences. 613). From 1922 to 1923 she went to the Uni- She continued her studies that year at versity of Heidelberg and did research on ra- Bryn Mawr College, but after a professor at dium and its biological effects. the University of Strassburg heard about Hyde worked hard to ensure equal edu- her research project on jellyfish, he invited cational opportunities for women in the sci- her to Germany on a fellowship in 1893. At ences. She was the first woman to become a that time there were no German universities member of the American Physiological Soci- that allowed women students, but she was ety (1902). She died in California on August allowed use of the laboratory. When she 22, 1945. could not gain entrance at Strassburg, she persisted with the University of Heidelberg, References: Shor, Elizabeth Noble, “Hyde, which accepted her as a Ph.D. candidate. Ida Henrietta,” American National Biography, She graduated with honors in 1896. vol. 11, New York: Oxford University Press Hyde worked at the Naples Zoological (1999). Station, doing research on octopus salivary

102 I

Inglis, Elsie Maude and with whom she had corresponded al- 1864–1917 most daily was a severe blow to her. In 1899 the University of Edinburgh admitted Elsie Inglis was a pioneer and leader of women to the medical examinations; Inglis women physicians in Scotland, founded the passed and became an official physician Elsie Inglis Hospital for Women and Chil- with a medical degree. From then on her dren, and for the cause of World War I practice grew, and she responded to the founded the Scottish Women’s Hospitals. needs she saw in the community. She She proposed, and had accepted by some of opened a clinic, called a hospice, that was the Allies, women medical units in the field staffed by women and included a maternity to treat wounded soldiers. ward. As the hospice grew, it was clear that Born in Naini Tal, India, at a Himalayan her idea of locating it on High Street, near hill station where her father worked in the her patients’ homes, had been a good one. civil service, she had seven siblings and was Eventually, “she had a small ward of five encouraged at an early age to gain a good beds for malnutrition cases, a baby clinic, a education. Her father was very supportive milk depot, health centres, and the knowl- of her decision to go into medicine. edge that the Hospice has the distinction of She first attended the Edinburgh School being the only maternity centre run by of Medicine for Women, which had been women in Scotland. This affords women stu- founded and was run by Sophia Jex-Blake. dents opportunities denied to them in other She later went to Glasgow to attend the maternity hospitals” (Balfour 1919, 133). Medical College for Women because she Inglis never denied treatment to those was interested in surgery and the college who could not afford it. According to one of had better facilities for those interested in her patients, “‘That woman has done more clinical practice. She passed her Triple Qual- for the folk living between Morrison Street ification in 1892 and went to work in the and the High Street than all the ministers in Hospital for Women in London as a house Edinburgh and Scotland itself ever did for surgeon. any one. She would never give in to diffi- During these early years she worked with culties. She gave her house, her property, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and other pio- her practice, her money to help others’” neers in England. She went to Dublin and (Balfour 1919, 136). took a three-month course in midwifery in Over the next decade, Inglis continued the Rotunda. There were more mixed her work as a physician in London and classes there (both men and women), and Dublin. She also continued to work for she felt the teaching was exceptional. She women’s suffrage and to promote equality later opened a practice in Edinburgh with in education for women, involvements she Dr. Jessie MacGregor. had taken up while still in medical school. Inglis’s father died in 1894. The loss of the Her organizational skills were well honed man who had always supported her career when World War I broke out. She decided to

103 Inglis, Elsie Maude form a unit of women to help with caring stayed with her units until the Bolshevik for the wounded in the field. Suddenly the Revolution was inevitable and they had to Edinburgh Suffrage offices became the Scot- pull out. She returned to England and died tish Women’s Hospitals. Inglis had an enor- the day after she arrived, on November 25, mous circle of friends in the medical com- 1917. munity as well as the suffrage movement, and all were willing to help her. See also: Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett; Edin- Britain did not accept the women’s med- burgh School of Medicine; Jex-Blake, Sophia ical units, but the French and others were Louisa; Scottish Women’s Hospitals glad to have them. The Scottish Women’s References: Balfour, Lady Frances, Dr. Elsie Hospitals went to France, Belgium, Corsica, Inglis, New York: George H. Doran (1919); Serbia, and Russia. Inglis and her unit did Leneman, Leah, In the Service of Life: The much work in Serbia even after being taken Story of Elsie Inglis and the Scottish Women’s prisoner. She and her colleagues worked Hospitals, Edinburgh: Mercat Press (1994); under horrendous conditions with inade- Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, eds., The quate facilities and medical supplies. She re- Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: turned to England briefly after being re- Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to the leased, only to take a medical team to Mid-20th Century, New York: Routledge Russia, where help was badly needed. She (2000).

104 J

Jacobi, Mary Corinna Putnam 1842–1906

One of the most prominent women physicians and educators of the late nineteenth century, Mary Jacobi was the first woman to teach at the all-male New York Postgradu- ate Medical School. She was also a gifted writer, a leader in promoting equal education and training for women in medical schools when few were allowed entrance, and a vocal activist in the women’s suffrage movement of the late nineteenth century. Born in London, England, on August 31, 1842, Jacobi was the daughter of George Palmer Putnam, a New York publisher who had taken his family to London to open an office there, and Victorine Haven. Mary was the oldest of eleven children and was determined early in life to be a physician. Her father returned with his family to New York in 1847. She graduated from school in 1859, although much of her education had taken Mary Corinna Putnam Jacobi (MCP Hahnemann place at home. University) She first studied at the College of Phar- macy in New York and was the first female graduate in 1863. She spent some time in New Orleans during the Civil War, tending fulfilled the requirements, then that she is in- to an injured brother and writing both non- competent, and intermittently that her cre- fiction and fiction. Upon leaving New Or- dentials were not sufficient for advanced leans, she enrolled in the Female Medical placement. He then escalates the charges to College of Pennsylvania and graduated in misrepresentation and a possibility of delib- 1864. Some faculty members there felt she erate fraud. When he calls her ‘unworthy,’ it had not had enough education to graduate, is not clear whether his objections are techni- particularly the dean, Edwin Fussell. How- cal, relating to formal requirements; princi- ever, Ann Preston, a professor at the college, pled, relating to competence and knowledge; strongly supported Jacobi and felt she or moral, relating to deceptions” (Gartner should be allowed to take graduation exam- 1996, 474). Fussell resigned following this in- inations: “[Fussell] contends that she has not cident, and Ann Preston became the dean.

105 Jacobi, Mary Corinna Putnam

Following her internship at the New En- fessional world were due at least in part to gland Hospital for Women and Children, Ja- her willingness to accept men as equals. Cer- cobi was convinced that she still did not tainly Jacobi did not share Blackwell’s am- have enough knowledge to practice medi- bivalence toward romantic attachments to cine, a concern of most women physicians men, and her private correspondence never of the time. The schools that were started reveals the suspicion of marriage character- just for women did not have access to the istic of many accomplished women of her kinds of medical laboratories or teaching generation” (Morantz-Sanchez 1985, 194). hospitals that would have allowed them to She married a well-known pediatrician better train their students. pioneer, Abraham Jacobi, in 1873. They had Jacobi sought admission to the Univer- three children, only one who survived to sity of Paris and was denied numerous adulthood. She also maintained a close rela- times. She studied on her own, was taught tionship with many of her siblings. by observing physicians working in hospi- Much of her medical writing focused on tals, and eventually obtained admission pathology and neurology. She did not set to the university. She graduated with hon- limits for herself as to what she would write ors in 1871. During this time she lived on about. “If Ann Preston and Hannah Long- her writing and on what her family could shore ventured into territories of language send her. closed to women, Mary Putnam Jacobi laid Following her final examinations, she still claim to vast tracts of forbidden ground: felt challenged. “I was prepared for a much menstruation, hysteria, nervous disease, the more difficult examination, and internally I interior of the uterus. Other nineteenth-cen- don’t consider the passing this one even tury women physicians were active scien- well (that other youth was accepted in spite tists or prolific popular writers; few com- of the most innumerable and awful blun- bined both genres, and none as productively ders, so you see the mere fact of passing as Mary Putnam Jacobi” (Wells 2000, 147). does not count for much), to be any great Before her death from a brain tumor, she shakes; still as it is almost the first school in published the article “Description of Early the world, and as the examination is really Symptoms of the Meningeal Tumor Com- much more minute and extensive than at pressing the Cerebellum. From Which the home, I suppose it counts for something” Writer Died. Written by Herself,” which was (Putnam 1925, 183). reprinted in Mary Putnam Jacobi, M.D.: A She began working at the Women’s Med- Pathfinder in Medicine (1925). She circulated ical College of the New York Infirmary, the report to her physician friends. She died which had been founded by Elizabeth on June 10, 1906. Blackwell. She taught pharmacology and therapeutics. She strived to strengthen the See also: Blackwell, Elizabeth; Medical Col- curriculum and in 1874 became head of pe- lege of Pennsylvania; Preston, Ann diatric outpatients at Mount Sinai Hospital. References: Gartner, C. B., “Fussell’s Folly: She served as a professor of children’s dis- Academic Standards and the Case of Mary eases at New York Postgraduate Medical Putnam Jacobi,” Academic Medicine 71, no. 5 School in 1882. (May 1996): 470–477; Gartner, Carol B., “Ja- Her views on some aspects of medicine cobi, Mary Corinna Putnam,” American Na- and medical education differed in some re- tional Biography, vol. 11, New York: Oxford spects from Elizabeth Blackwell’s. She felt University Press (1999); Morantz-Sanchez, women should not specialize in women’s Regina Markell, Sympathy and Science: and children’s diseases but instead should Women Physicians in American Medicine, be well rounded. She also did not oppose New York: Oxford University Press (1985); experimentation on animals (Blackwell was Putnam, Ruth, Life and Letters of Mary Put- an antivivisectionist). nam Jacobi, New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons She viewed a male physician as an equal. (1925); Wells, Susan, Out of the Dead House: “Perhaps Jacobi’s successes in the male pro- Nineteenth-Century Women Physicians and the

106 Jacobs, Aletta Henriette

Writing of Medicine, Madison: University of the conference, I received so many requests Wisconsin Press (2000). from Amsterdam families asking me to replace their regular doctor and I was approached by so many mothers wanting me Jacobs, Aletta Henriette to supervise the health of their children that 1854–1929 it seemed to me wiser not to return abroad” (Jacobs 1996, 35). Aletta Jacobs was the first Dutch female She set up a practice in Amsterdam and medical doctor in the Netherlands. She ob- offered free clinics to the poor, treating tained a license to practice medicine in women from many different backgrounds 1878. She led the way for more women en- for many years. Many of them had too tering universities in the Netherlands and many children and were relieved when Ja- was an activist for social reforms and cobs advocated birth control, a subject little women’s suffrage. discussed at the time. Born on February 9, 1854, Jacobs was the This approach led to much controversy, youngest of eight children of Abraham and with some accusing Jacobs of promoting Anna de Jongh Jacobs. She was born and abortion and some fearing that her views raised in Sappemeer, a small village in would lead to underpopulation. This oppo- Groningen. She had six brothers and four sition did not deter her either from promot- sisters. Her father was a country doctor ing birth control or from speaking out about who made rounds, and her mother kept venereal diseases. house. Jacobs received a good education, as She treated many prostitutes at her clin- her father and mother felt education was ics. “I have seen much misery caused by important. marriages involving young men who did She enjoyed the outdoors and was quite a not realize that they were still suffering tomboy. She was a good student, at times from a venereal disease when they wed the being assisted by her father and older broth- woman of their dreams. In addition, as the ers. She wanted to be a doctor like her father only woman doctor in the Netherlands, I and easily passed the exam to become a was consulted by prostitutes about diseases pharmacist’s assistant. The local boys’ high that I never even knew existed” (Jacobs school allowed her to sit in on classes, and 1996, 102). the University of Groningen permitted her Despite criticism, Jacobs continued to to attend classes for one year. She realized consult with young people who came to her later that “ultimately, the opening of the for advice. During the early days of her Dutch universities to women depended on practice, she had met another social re- my progress during this first year” (Jacobs former and activist, Carel Victor Gerritsen. 1996, 13). They worked together for many years and She did very well even though she was of- shared similar interests in public welfare. ten ill in her student days and received her They married in 1892, and in September medical credentials after defending her doc- 1893, Jacobs realized she was expecting toral thesis on March 10, 1879. She became their first child. The baby died following a the first female doctor in the Netherlands. mistake by the midwife. “I simply cannot She wanted to continue her studies and did describe how devastated we felt. It took me travel to London to visit the New Hospital years to recover from my grief. But looking for Women opened by Elizabeth Garrett An- back, despite all the sorrow I still count my- derson. Jacobs and Anderson were both in- self lucky that I know how it feels to be a terested in many social issues of the times, mother, that I have held my child in my and they got along well together. arms, even though it was for but one day” In September 1879, Jacobs went to Am- (Jacobs 1996, 120). sterdam to attend a medical conference and Gerritsen suffered much with poor was encouraged to get further training in health, although he was continually in- London. This was her intent, but “during volved in politics and spoke on social con-

107 Jalas, Rakel cerns, as did Jacobs. He died of liver and medical skills in space experiments. She has stomach cancer on July 5, 1905. Following contributed to medicine, engineering, and his death, Jacobs turned her attention to space science. women’s suffrage work until World War I. Born on October 17, 1956, in Decatur, Al- During the war she was a committed paci- abama, she grew up in Chicago with a fist, believing that women’s presence as brother and a sister. She is the daughter of nurses during the war seemed to condone Charles Jemison, a carpenter, and Dorothy violence if they did not actively protest Jemison, a schoolteacher. She had an early against it. “It was our duty to protest interest in space flight and was not deterred against the mindless destruction of art trea- by the fact that at the time, no blacks or sures, the breaking up of families, the bar- women were part of the space program. baric sacrificing of young lives” (Jacobs She attended Morgan Park High School 1996, 167). in Chicago, where she was interested in as- She traveled to North America and vis- tronomy as well as space flight and in dance ited many public health institutions and and art. Upon graduation she entered Stan- women’s rights groups, even gaining an au- ford University with an interest in biomed- dience with President Woodrow Wilson. ical engineering and graduated in 1977 with Once the war was over she worked hard for a degree in chemical engineering. various peace initiatives and women’s After graduation she applied to NASA’s rights. astronaut-training program and to the med- Jacobs died on August 10, 1929. ical school at Cornell, graduating in 1981. She worked for the Peace Corps and helped See also: Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett administer the medical programs in Sierra References: Jacobs, Aletta, Memories: My Leone and Liberia, where she learned to Life as an International Leader in Health, Suf- work with people of various backgrounds. frage, and Peace, New York: Feminist Press When she returned to the United States, she (1996); Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harney, worked for a health maintenance organiza- eds., Biographical Dictionary of Women in Sci- tion as a physician before finally being ac- ence, New York: Routledge (2000). cepted into the space program in 1987. She worked for NASA for the typical five years before being eligible to serve on a shuttle Jalas, Rakel mission. On September 12, 1992, she and six fl. 1930s others traveled into space on the Endeavor to conduct numerous experiments. She stud- Rakel Jalas was a leading psychiatrist in Fin- ied weightlessness, motion sickness, tissue land prior to 1948. She was a consultant to growth, and the loss of calcium in bones. the Ministry of Social Affairs and was Jemison’s background in both engineer- elected to the Finnish parliament in 1948. ing and medicine allows her to make unique contributions; she was recently in- References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women volved in coordinating a space-based com- Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan munications system to support health care (1957); Seppanen, Anni, “Medical Women in delivery in the developing world. She feels Finland,” Journal of the American Medical very strongly that people of all backgrounds Women’s Association 5 (1950): 291. and races have a right to have input on the direction of the space program. Jemison currently lives in Houston. Jemison, Mae Carol 1956– References: Bailey, Martha J., American Women in Science, 1950 to the Present: A Bio- Better known as the first female African graphical Dictionary, Santa Barbara, CA: American astronaut, Mae Jemison is first a ABC-CLIO (1998); “Jemison, Mae C.,” Cur- physician who has been able to apply her rent Biography Yearbook, New York: H. W.

108 Jex-Blake, Sophia Louisa

Wilson (1993); Welch, Rosanne, Women in Sophia completed her studies in 1861 and Aviation and Space, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC- then felt a need to go abroad. She visited CLIO (1998). various countries, teaching on occasion and learning as much as she could about different cultures. She visited the United States in Jex-Blake, Sophia Louisa 1865 and worked under Dr. Lucy Sewall at 1840–1912 the New England Hospital for Women and Children. In 1868 she began her own med- Sophia Jex-Blake was the leader of the ical study in New York under Elizabeth movement in Great Britain to open medical Blackwell. schools to women. Along with Elizabeth Returning to England upon the death of Garrett Anderson, she founded the London her father, Sophia looked to her own coun- School of Medicine for Women. Jex-Blake try for the remainder of her medical educa- was born in Sussex, Hastings, on January tion. The Medical Act of 1858 seemed to 21, 1840, to Thomas and Maria Emily Jex- have closed all roads to women seeking an Blake. Three years before Sophia was born, education in medicine, but she persevered her grandfather had the family name of and was finally accepted by the medical Blake officially changed to Jex-Blake in school at Edinburgh. honor of his grandmother, Elizabeth Jex. Thus began a long battle for her and the Sophia was the youngest of three children; four other women undertaking medical she had a brother, Thomas, and a sister, Car- studies at Edinburgh. Although at first the oline. Three other children had died in in- women were only occasionally subjected to fancy. Her father was the proctor of Doctors heckling and rude behavior, more and more Commons. male professors and students came to resent Sophia’s parents educated her at home their presence. In November 1870, a mob of until she was eight. The various boarding protestors, some drunk and not even stu- schools she attended after that found the en- dents, gathered at Surgeon’s Hall to prevent ergetic and bored Sophia hard to handle. As the women from attending class. Several a late teen, she began thinking about a vo- hecklers, mudslingers, and trash throwers cation; she did not want to marry, the goal showed up to perform. Supportive male of most girls her age. classmates helped them get through the en- She considered teaching but was very dis- trance and into the buildings. In the same appointed in the education she had received year, college officials denied the women en- in girls’ schools with teachers she felt should trance to the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, have been better educated. She persuaded where medical students were required to her parents to allow her to attend Queen’s obtain clinical training. The women chal- College for Women. She thrived at college, lenged this decision. hungry for knowledge and taking a full load In January 1871, Mr. Craig, the student of courses in many areas: math, philosophy, Jex-Blake had indicated as the instigator of English, French, religion, astronomy, and the riot at Surgeon’s Hall, filed a defamation history. Because of her proficiency in math, writ against her. Mr. Craig worked for Pro- she was asked to be a tutor. By her second fessor Christison, who was adamantly year she was teaching women for the Soci- against having females educated in medi- ety for Promoting the Employment of cine. Sophia defended herself in court four Women, founded in 1858 to help women months later. The jury found in favor of the learn simple skills so that they could acquire claimant but awarded him one farthing in- work as clerks and in shops. This work stead of the 1,000 pounds he wanted. Sophia brought her into contact with women who and her female colleagues, who had served had fallen on hard times, and she sent some as her witnesses, were seen as the victors. of these people to her parents for assistance. The women also had to fight to take the Active members of the Anglican Church, professional examinations; the faculty did they were quick to help the needy. not support giving them to women. The

109 Jex-Blake, Sophia Louisa university court had ruled the women women. She gathered some opponents of would have to accept certificates of profi- the bill, but eventually it was deferred and ciency instead of medical degrees, or leave. then dropped. However, it wasn’t until The women students sued the university 1885 that women could qualify to practice and won the right to stay in medical school surgery. in 1872, but that judgment was reversed in In 1894, Edinburgh University finally al- 1873. They were not allowed to take the de- lowed women to graduate from the medical gree examinations until the Russell Gurney program. Jex-Blake’s mother, who had suf- Enabling Act of 1876. fered from a long illness, died in 1881. Af- Helping the women’s cause during these terward, an assistant at the dispensary died years was public opinion. A wave of public suddenly, and Sophia blamed herself for not sympathy and support countered every noticing that the assistant had been working setback the women experienced. Why ad- too hard. Suffering from depression over mit the women and then prevent them these losses as well as exhaustion, she didn’t from completing their education? Jex- practice medicine for almost two years. Blake’s mother and brother were also very There are no letters or diaries from this encouraging. period. Margaret Todd, a friend of Sophia’s In 1874, Jex-Blake founded the London later in life, received all her personal papers, School of Medicine for Women. Clinical but many assume that she destroyed all the work had to wait until 1877, when the Royal documents prior to committing suicide. Free Hospital opened its doors to women. In 1883, Jex-Blake returned to her work. In the meantime, Sophia had obtained her Her practice thrived once again, and she M.D. in Berne. She returned to qualify in also was pleased to see the Edinburgh Hos- Great Britain by taking the license of mid- pital and Dispensary become Scotland’s wifery at the College of Surgeons. This plan first hospital staffed by women for the treat- was foiled when the examiners resigned en ment and care of women. masse. In response, Parliament passed the In 1887, Sophia and friends opened the Russell Gurney Enabling Act of 1876, which Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women. obligated all medical examining bodies to It wasn’t long, however, before the school examine women (except in the field of sur- was competing with the second women’s gery) and stipulated that women had the medical college, the Medical College for same rights as men to enter the medical pro- Women. It had been founded in part by fession. That same year Sophia Jex-Blake women younger than she who had left her gained license to practice medicine through school because they disagreed with her the Irish College of Physicians. She was fi- ideas and strict standards. nally able to start a private practice in Edin- The new college had a lower tuition and burgh and begin her career. obtained access to the Edinburgh Royal In- In her busy practice, she was especially firmary for clinical practice in 1892. Sophia’s popular with working-class women. Within Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women months of opening her practice, she estab- was forced to close in 1898, and Sophia re- lished an outpatient clinic where poor tired to Sussex the following year. women could receive care for a few pence. Once in Sussex, she continued to follow She saw patients at her dispensary, traveled the progress of women medical students. to their homes, or received them in her Her home was always a haven for students, home. During these years she was attentive friends, and colleagues. She continued to to political developments regarding med- suffer from heart problems off and on, hav- ical education for women. She was deeply ing had a heart attack before leaving Edin- concerned about a bill in 1878 that would burgh. In her later years, the problem wors- have required medical practitioners to ob- ened, and she died on January 7, 1912. tain qualifications in both internal medicine Margaret Todd, a very close friend and a and surgery. At the time, no examining writer who became a physician, wrote a bi- body that qualified surgeons examined ography of Sophia in 1918.

110 Johns Hopkins University

Johns Hopkins University (Library of Congress)

See also: Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett; Black- M. Carey Thomas, Miss Mary Elizabeth well, Elizabeth; Edinburgh School of Medi- Garrett, Miss Mary Gwynn, and Miss Eliza- cine; Medical Act of 1858; Russell Gurney beth King. They were daughters of the Enabling Act of 1876; Sewall, Lucy Ellen trustees of Johns Hopkins and proponents References: Jex-Blake, K., “Jex-Blake, Sophia of the women’s rights movement. Louisa,” Dictionary of National Biography When the women proposed raising the 1912–1921: Supplement 3, London: Oxford funds needed to open the medical school, University Press (1927); Roberts, Shirley, $500,000, they made sure the university Sophia Jex-Blake: A Woman Pioneer in Nine- would admit women and hold to very high teenth-Century Medical Reform, London: Rout- standards for all students. The requirements ledge (1993); Todd, Margaret G., The Life of for admittance included a bachelor’s de- Sophia Jex-Blake, London: Macmillan (1918). gree; language skills in Latin, German, and French; and a background in biology, chemistry, and physics. Most of the faculty were Johns Hopkins University taken aback at such high standards. As Dr. William Osler reportedly said to Dr. William Johns Hopkins University was among the Welch, it was lucky they got in as professors first major medical schools in the United because they could not have made it as stu- States to admit women. The university dents (Bernheim 1948, 31). would not have been able to open its med- The medical school opened with four ical school in 1893 had it not been for the renowned physicians as the founding med- fundraising abilities of four women: Miss ical educators: William H. Welch, William S.

111 Joliet-Curie, Irene

Halsted, William Osler, and Howard Kelly. ship linked Mme Curie and this young girl. The school was a huge attraction for women The Polish woman was solitary no longer. medical students, who wanted to attend the She was able to talk of her work or of her traditionally male schools because of their personal worries now with a collaborator better facilities and their hospital affilia- and friend” (Curie 1937, 301). Marie Curie tions. Here, women could gain practical ex- had complete confidence in Irene’s ability to perience as well as a good academic educa- help even though she was very young. tion. After the war Irene completed her doctoral degree in physics and began working References: Bernheim, Bertram Moses, for her mother at the Radium Institute of the The Story of Johns Hopkins: Four Great Doc- Sorbonne. There she met Frederic Joliot, tors and the Medical School They Created, who had been hired as a laboratory assis- New York: Whittlesey House (1948); tant. Since he had no experience working “Women (or the Female Factor),” http:// with radioactive materials, Marie Curie www.hopkinsmedicine.org/history. turned his training over to Irene. They even- html#women. tually found they had similar interests, and in 1926 they married. They began collaborating and studied Joliet-Curie, Irene polonium, which Irene’s parents had dis- 1897–1956 covered to be radioactive. They found that when polonium was placed next to alu- Irene Joliet-Curie was a Nobel Prize–win- minum, positrons and neutrons poured out ning chemist and physicist who, along with of the aluminum. When they announced her husband, Frederic, discovered artificial their finding at the Solvay Conference in radioactivity. Like her mother, she studied Belgium in 1933, many scientists were skep- the medical possibilities radioactivity of- tical, and they were discouraged. However, fered. She also contributed much toward the a few scientists, including Wolfgang Pauli, understanding of the neutron. encouraged them. Born to the famous couple Pierre and They returned to Paris to continue their Marie Curie on September 12, 1897, in Paris, experiments and soon saw that they had Irene was the older of two daughters. Her been correct; further experiments with alu- sister, Eve, was born in 1904. They were minum in close proximity to polonium pro- both educated at home. Her grandfather, duced radioactivity. This discovery of artifi- Eugene Curie, who came to live with the cial radiation would have a huge impact on family when she was very young, had a chemistry, biology, and medicine. They re- great influence on her. She was taught by a ceived the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1935. group of elite scientists who were friends of In 1937 Irene began working at the Ra- the Curies. For a time her mother taught her dium Institute as a professor and became in- physics, Paul Langevin taught her mathe- terested in the results of assailing uranium matics, and Jean Perrin taught her physics. with neutrons. She did much of the original Her mother sent her to the College Se- research that Otto Hahn was able to build on vigne, where she graduated before the out- in order to discover atomic fission. He would break of World War I. She also studied math win a Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1944. and physics at the Sorbonne. She eventually She and Frederic had two children, He- gained licenses in physics and math while lene in 1927 and Pierre in 1932. She enjoyed also working as a nurse during the war. She motherhood immensely and also thrived helped her mother set up the equipment for working in the laboratory even though she taking X rays of the wounded soldiers. suffered for many years with tuberculosis. It was during the war that Irene became As World War II approached, Frederic be- much closer to her mother. They shared a gan to work more on nuclear fission. He and similar mission in helping wounded sol- Irene did not think an atomic bomb could be diers. “An intimate and charming comrade- produced by the end of the war; moreover,

112 Jones, Mary Amanda Dixon they were more interested in nuclear energy help, had been successful in constructing because at the time France was very reliant Zoë, France’s first nuclear reactor, in 1948. on other countries for fuel. She also continued her research at the Ra- During the war the Joliots, particularly dium Institute and spoke out for women’s Frederic, had less time for their research and rights whenever she could. spent more time on politics. Frederic even- She knew that the exposure to radiation tually headed the most organized of the had taken a toll on her, and she became French Resistance groups. When the Ger- weaker as time went on. By 1950, many sci- mans occupied Paris and were a threat to entists realized the dangers of working with the lab where he and Irene did their re- radiation, and new precautions were in search, he worked on protecting it. He also place in labs around the world. “To the end, had to arrange for Irene and their children she maintained her faith in science. During to be smuggled out of the country to the last year of her life, she wrote, ‘Science is Switzerland in 1944. the foundation of all progress that improves Another important issue was protecting human life and diminishes suffering’” the uranium that France had, along with the (McGrayne 1998, 142). Like her mother, she “heavy water” (water enriched by deu- suffered from leukemia. She died on March terium) that was necessary for the atomic 17, 1956. Both her children became scientists. generator they wanted to construct. When the Nazis asked Frederic where the heavy References: Curie, Eve, Madame Curie: A Bi- water was, they were aware that Frederic ography, New York: Doubleday (1937); had put it on a ship bound for England. McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch, Nobel Prize However, they did not know which ship. Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Frederic gave them the name of one of the Momentous Discoveries, Secaucus, NJ: Carol ships he knew had sunk. He also managed (1998); McKown, Robin, She Lived for Sci- to keep the uranium safe. ence: Irene Joliot-Curie, New York: J. Messner Irene was very proud of Frederic. He had (1961); Perrin, Francis, “Joliot-Curie, Irene,” worked with the Resistance to get Jewish Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 7, New children out of Germany, giving them non- York: Scribner (1973); Shearer, Benjamin F., Jewish names and cards, and to shelter Jew- and Barbara S. Shearer, Notable Women in the ish families until the end of the war. He as- Physical Sciences: A Biographical Dictionary, sisted many who escaped from Germany. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (1997). Frederic joined the Communist Party and was against nuclear power for weapons. This position eventually hurt his career. Jones, Mary Amanda Dixon Irene was also a controversial political fig- 1828–1908 ure during and after the war. They both eventually lost favor with many people be- Mary Jones was a physician who excelled in cause of their Communist views. However, gynecological surgery when it was still a Irene continued to be more interested in re- new and controversial specialty. In the nine- search than in politics and went on with her teenth century, Jones was considered just as experiments even as she grew more ill from much an expert in the area as many male radiation exposure. surgeons. She is a controversial figure in the Eventually she went to look for natural history of women in medicine because she sources of uranium in France and its over- defied the norm for women physicians of seas territories. Unlike many physicists, she her day and proceeded on a course that was very knowledgeable about mineralogy alienated her from many of her female col- and geology, particularly about minerals leagues. The scandal surrounding her surgi- that produced natural radioactive sub- cal ability made the headlines in 1892. Pub- stances. This work she did in conjunction lic sentiment, professional opinion, and the with the French Atomic Energy Commis- social norms of the time all played a part in sion from 1946 to 1950. Frederic, with her the trials that followed.

113 Jones, Mary Amanda Dixon

Born February 17, 1828, in Dorchester many of the leading men she most ad- County, Maryland, she was one of several mired” (Morantz-Sanchez 1999, 79). children of Noah Dixon and Sarah Turner. Rather than quietly treat patients, Jones Her family was Methodist, middle-class, wrote extensively and engaged in self-pro- and in the shipbuilding business. She was motion in order to gain a good reputation. able to obtain a good education at Wesleyan Some other women physicians thought she Female College, graduating in 1845. was too forward. Many male physicians She worked upon graduation as an in- found her to be very competent and were structor of physiology and literature at Wes- impressed with her knowledge not only of leyan, then moved on to teach at the Balti- surgery but also of pathology. She also more Female College. She eventually took a worked on keeping a dialogue open be- position at a girls’ seminary as the principal. tween herself and the male professionals All along she studied medicine with some she admired, both in the United States and local physicians. abroad. After her marriage in 1854, she moved Beginning in 1889 the Brooklyn Eagle pub- west. She had three children and eventually lished a series of articles accusing her of var- the couple moved back to Baltimore so that ious unethical methods, from mismanage- her husband, John Quincy Adams Jones, ment of funds for her hospital to could practice law. She then left the family unnecessary surgeries. She was also ac- and went to New York City in 1862 and re- cused of not educating patients enough be- ceived a degree from the Hygeio-Therapeu- fore they had surgery. Hysterectomies were tic College. quite controversial at the time. Many had After the Civil War ended, she lived in the view that a woman’s reproductive sys- Brooklyn with her children while her hus- tem belonged to the nation and that it was band stayed in Baltimore. She lectured on every woman’s duty to have children; by health issues for a time and was involved in performing hysterectomies on young some of the women’s rights events of the women, a physician was hurting the coun- day. Her practice was quite successful, but try. The fact that Jones performed so many she decided in 1872 to pursue a traditional hysterectomies came up in some of the medical degree from the Women’s Medical newspaper articles and in a trial when she College of Pennsylvania, graduating after was accused of manslaughter. She was the required three years in 1875. found to be innocent, but she then sued the It is not known why she went on to get a Brooklyn Eagle to seek restitution. She lost traditional degree, but this course was not that battle, and her career was irreparably uncommon for women at that time. She damaged. also would certainly have been presented After losing the libel suit, she left Brook- with patients who had problems she did lyn and went to New York City with her not have the skill to handle. Upon grad- son, Charles, also a physician. She spent the uation she opened her private practice rest of her years publishing articles and died again and specialized in surgery and prob- in 1908. Her son continued to practice med- lems of women. She again sought further icine in Brooklyn and New York City. education in 1881 with Benjamin Franklin Dawson, the founder of the American Jour- References: Morantz-Sanchez, Regina, nal of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and “Jones, Mary Amanda Dixon,” American Na- Children. tional Biography, vol. 12, New York: Oxford Gynecology and surgical procedures in University Press (1999); Morantz-Sanchez, this area were still a relatively new field. Regina Markell, Conduct Unbecoming a “As a surgeon, she was bold, radical, and in- Woman: Medicine on Trial in Turn-of-the-Cen- novative, quick to criticize the temporizing tury Brooklyn, New York: Oxford University of more conservative colleagues and anx- Press (1999). ious to advertise her innovations in technique. In this she mirrored the behavior of

114 Jordan, Lynda

Jones, Mary Ellen References: Bailey, Martha J., American 1922–1996 Women in Science, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO (1994); Fountain, Henry, “Mary Ellen Jones, Mary Ellen Jones was a prominent re- 73, Crucial Researcher on DNA,” New York searcher who discovered carbamyl phos- Times (7 September 1996): 13; Traut, Thomas, phate, a compound requisite for the biosyn- “Biographical Memoirs: Mary Ellen Jones,” thesis of arginine and urea. She also led her http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books peers in DNA and cancer research and was /biomems/mjones.html. the first woman to be a department head in the School of Medicine at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Born in LaGrange Park, Illinois, on De- Jordan, Lynda cember 25, 1922, Jones was the daughter of 1956– Elmer and Laura Klein Jones. She attended the University of Chicago, majoring in bio- A top researcher in biochemistry, Lynda Jor- chemistry, and graduated in 1944. She dan has worked to uncover the secrets of worked for four years to save money for phospholipase A2 (or PLA2) and its role in graduate studies at Armour and Company. diabetes, arthritis, preterm labor, asthma, She worked as a bacteriologist in quality and other respiratory problems. Discover- control until 1948, when she went to Yale to ing the enzyme code may lead to new treat- study enzymology, completing her disserta- ments, which are desperately needed. tion in 1951. She became increasingly inter- Born in Roxbury, Massachusetts, on Sep- ested in enzymes as she studied and tember 20, 1956, Jordan had to undergo worked in Fritz Lipmann’s laboratory at harsh beginnings as a black woman in her Massachusetts General Hospital. He would quest to become a scientist. Her mother’s later win a Nobel Prize for his discovery of second husband, Charles Jordan, had coenzyme A and its importance to metabo- twelve children, and the children grew up lism. in a rough housing project. At Dorchester She wrote well and was able to obtain a High School, Jordan frequently got into position as an assistant professor at Bran- trouble and didn’t think too much about deis University in 1957, rising to associate higher education until a speech for the Up- professor in 1960. She built a well-respected ward Bound program given by Joseph War- laboratory in the Department of Biochem- ren inspired her. She began to apply herself istry. In 1966 she followed her husband, in math and science and excelled in her Paul Munson, to the University of North studies. She went on to college and gradu- Carolina, where he was chair of the phar- ated from North Carolina A&T in 1974 and macology department. She again worked in later received her master’s at Atlanta Uni- biochemistry, but after her divorce from versity and her Ph.D. at MIT in 1985. From Munson, she moved in 1971 to the Univer- 1985 to 1987 she did research at the Pasteur sity of Southern California’s medical school Institute in Paris. and remained until 1978. She then returned Despite the fact that some opposed her re- to the University of North Carolina and turn to North Carolina A&T to teach, she worked until she retired in 1995. wanted to return to the historical black col- Throughout her career, Jones studied pro- lege and give back to the university and its teins, enzymes and their actions, nu- students. She built a well-equipped labora- cleotides, metabolism, and biosynthesis. tory there for top-notch research and also She was a strong supporter of women and takes every opportunity to encourage those minorities in science and was very encour- from underrepresented groups to further aging to all her students. She had two chil- their education. dren, Ethan and Catherine. Jones died of Her work has focused on enzymes, par- cancer in Waltham, Massachusetts, on Au- ticularly A2. She recently served two years gust 23, 1996. as the MLK Visiting Professor at MIT and

115 Joteyko, Josephine currently is a professor at North Carolina to the University of Paris, obtaining her A&T. She is also a minister. M.D. in 1896. Her first position was at the Institute References: Coleman, Sandy, “At Home in Solvay in Brussels as an experimental phys- the Lab and Pulpit,” Boston Globe (18 April iologist. She became interested in psychol- 1999): 1ff.; Hawkins, B. Denise, “Sister, Sci- ogy, and in 1903 she headed research at the entist, Mentor: Lynda Jordan,” Black Issues Kasimir Laboratory of Psychology at the in Higher Education 11, no. 21 (15 December Université Libre of Brussels until 1921. She 1994): 14–17. wrote many articles and was the editor of Revue Psychologique for a time. She also lectured at several European universities. Her Joteyko, Josephine research focused on nutrition, physiology, 1866–1929 muscle fatigue, and pain. She received several European awards for her work. Josephine Joteyko was one of the first fe- During the last years of her life she re- male Polish physicians. She excelled at turned to Warsaw to teach science. She died medical studies and published numerous in 1929. articles that were well received by both male and female colleagues of her day. References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Born in Pocsujki on January 29, 1866, she Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan went to Warsaw with her family when she (1957); Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey, and Joy Har- was very young so that she would be able to vey, eds., Biographical Dictionary of Women in obtain a good education. She attended the Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to Varsovie secondary school and then studied the Mid-20th Century, New York: Routledge science at the University of Geneva. She (2000). went to Brussels to study medicine and later

116 K

Kagan, Helena less shelter for children in 1927 and some 1889–1978 nurseries for working mothers. She supervised and trained many of the workers in One of the earliest women physicians in Is- these nurseries. rael while it was still under Ottoman rule, She worked for a time at Bikur Cholim Helena Kagan gained acceptance as a physi- Hospital in Jerusalem and was also associ- cian even before women were given licenses ated with Hebrew University for many to practice medicine. She was the first years. She received an honorary doctorate woman to be awarded the Medal of the in 1967. She was one of the sole reasons for Freedom of Jerusalem in 1958. the expansion of health care in Israel, as she She was born September 25, 1889, in was really on her own for much of her early Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Her father was an en- work. She established the Israel Pediatric gineer. Hard times came when her father re- Association in 1927 and in 1975 received a fused to convert to Christianity and lost his special Israel Prize in recognition of all her job. Her parents were still able to pay for her work. She passed away in 1978. and her older brother to attend school. She graduated in 1905. References: Hellstedt, Leone McGregor, She went to Bern University in Switzer- Women Physicians of the World: Autobiogra- land to study medicine, graduating in 1910. phies of Medical Pioneers, Washington, DC: She continued to study there, particularly Hemisphere (1978); Kagan, Helenah, Reshit pediatrics, for four more years. She went to darki bi-Yerushalayim, Tel-Aviv: Vitso, His- Jerusalem in 1914 to practice medicine but tadrut ‘olamit le-nashim Tsiyoniyot; Tel-Yit- was not able to obtain a license. Instead she shak ha-midrashah ha-Liberalit ‘a. s. Dr. Y. assisted a physician at Jerusalem Municipal Forder (1980); Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Hospital and trained young Arab and Jew- Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan ish women as nurses for the typhus epi- (1957). demic. After the outbreak of World War I, the physician she worked for died, and she had to take over for him. Because of the Kaufman, Joyce Jacobson shortage of doctors, she found herself in 1929– charge of the typhus and cholera wards at the hospital as well as overseeing the prison Joyce Kaufman is a talented scientist whose hospital. ability to combine chemistry, physics, phar- She eventually received a work permit macology, computing, and biology has sig- and in 1916 founded a small children’s hos- nificantly aided in the understanding of how pital, which would eventually become part drugs affect the central nervous system. of the Hadassah Medical Organization. She Born in New York City on June 21, 1929, worked there as head of the pediatrics de- she attended Johns Hopkins University and partment until 1925. She founded a home- received a bachelor’s degree in chemistry in

117 Kelsey, Frances Oldham

1949, followed by a master’s degree in 1959 became a faculty member at the University and a D.E.S. (diplôme d’études supérieures) of Chicago. She married Dr. Fremont Ellis in theoretical physics from the Sorbonne in Kelsey in 1943, and they had two daughters. 1963. She worked at various jobs as a physician Kaufman has worked at various compa- and teacher before being hired by the U.S. nies doing research in many areas, includ- Food and Drug Administration in 1960. It ing physiochemical studies and the nervous was here that she did her important work system. She has worked at Johns Hopkins on studying thalidomide and its effects, University in both the chemistry depart- studying reports from Europe on its effects ment and the School of Medicine’s anesthe- on humans, and requiring the drug com- siology and surgery departments. She has pany that was marketing it to provide more an unusual gift for understanding many sci- information. ence disciplines and their interrelationships. Kelsey continues to work for the FDA. She married Stanley Kaufman in 1948 and has one daughter. References: Bren, Linda, “Frances Oldham Kelsey: FDA Medical Reviewer Leaves Her References: American Men and Women of Sci- Mark on History,” FDA Consumer 35, no. 2 ence, 20th ed., New York: Bowker (1998); (March–April 2001): 24–29; Grigg, William, Bailey, Martha J., American Women in Science: “The Thalidomide Tragedy—25 Years Ago,” 1950 to the Present, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC- FDA Consumer 21, no. 1 (February 1987): CLIO (1998). 14–17; Mintz, Morton, “‘Heroine’ of FDA Keeps Bad Drug off of Market,” Washington Post (15 July 1962): A1. Kelsey, Frances Oldham 1914– Kenny, Elizabeth Frances Kelsey fought to ban thalidomide in 1886–1952 the United States and determined to keep a drug company from distributing it in 1962, Elizabeth Kenny was an Australian nurse thus saving thousands of unborn babies who treated polio victims with methods from deformities. Her persistent skepticism that went against the medical practices of about the drug and its testing made her a the time but eventually gained acceptance heroine with the public and earned her the by the American Medical Association and President’s Award for Distinguished Fed- others interested in treating polio victims eral Civilian Service in 1962. She also helped before a vaccination was developed. A establish the groundwork for tougher drug nurse serving in the backcountry, she laws and brought greater awareness to the treated people with hot packs and stimula- public as to the dangers of new drugs that tion, using her instincts rather than pre- do not have proper and thorough testing. scribed, traditional methods. “Kenny clin- Born in Cobble Hill, British Columbia, she ics” were established around the country. developed an interest in science as she Born in Warialda, New South Wales, on “grew up in the country where she collected September 20, 1886, she had very little formal everything from bugs to bird eggs” (Bren training as a nurse. Her parents were 2001, 27). She went to McGill University in Michael and Mary Kenny, and she was one of Montreal and earned a bachelor’s degree in nine children. Her father was a veterinarian. 1934. She continued her studies during the She served in the Australian bush from depression and obtained her master’s in 1911 until World War I. It was during this pharmacology the next year. She then ac- early period of her career that she came cepted a scholarship from the University of across victims of poliomyelitis. The popular Chicago, where E.M.K. Geiling was estab- treatment of the day was to splint or cast the lishing a new pharmacology department. affected limbs right away. Having no idea of While working, she earned her Ph.D. and the accepted treatment in those early years,

118 Kenny, Elizabeth however, she developed her own technique She eventually straightened out the prob- of physical therapy. She treated her first case lem, and later when the other members of with warm, moist packs applied to the af- her unit came, “I guided them through the fected muscles. She then worked with the intricate process by which they were re- muscles to retrain them and make them stored to the land of the living, and we all more flexible. Using the same treatment went out to celebrate our resurrection” with several other patients was successful. (Kenny 1943, 43). When she reported her treatments to Dr. Ae- After a shrapnel wound to her leg and neas McDonnell, he was surprised and knee, she managed to survive the influenza shocked that the children had survived. He epidemic of 1918 while tending hundreds of informed her of the accepted method of the patients on a ship bound for Australia. Soon day. “Then he fetched from his library some thereafter she suffered a heart attack and impressive-looking tomes that dealt with was treated in Germany before returning this baffling disease. What I discovered in again to her home country. their pages left me speechless with aston- Kenny recovered and resumed her nurs- ishment. It simply could not be that I, in ing work when the war was over. She in- contraposition to wise authorities, had vented a stretcher on wheels, the Sylvia blundered upon a treatment that had met Stretcher, after seeing so many in battle and with success!” (Kenny 1943, 29). She told Dr. at home die on the way to medical care via McDonnell she had treated the symptoms a bumpy road. Traditional stretchers could she saw—spasms; this symptom was not put the patients in shock, and many did not even mentioned in the book. survive these trips. Her stretcher kept pa- She treated many other types of ailments tients off the ground, allowing the tires and and delivered numerous babies in less than not the patients to absorb the bumps and desirable surroundings. She traveled also allowing Kenny to treat the patient for mainly by horseback, spending many shock while in transit. Kenny named the nights under the sky. By 1913 she had a cot- stretcher after the little girl whose accident tage hospital in Clifton not far from her inspired it and patented it in 1927 so that it mother’s house. When World War I broke could be made available in more areas. out, she volunteered and served at the front In the years that followed, Kenny strug- in France. gled to gain acceptance for her methods of There were many dangers in serving as a treating infantile paralysis. She tried in Aus- nurse at the front as well as aboard the ships tralia and England but was disappointed going to and from. During one troublesome each time. Kenny felt part of the problem but ultimately successful trip, her ship was was that officials perceived her as claiming reported as lost off the coast of Africa. Upon a cure. “In the first place, I did not—and do going to headquarters the next morning, she not—claim a cure for infantile paralysis. I “presented my pay book to the pay officer. had written a personal letter to each mem- He looked at the book, took my name, and ber of the English committee emphasizing consulted his records. Then he informed me this fact. Infantile paralysis, like any other that I had been lost at sea and was dead. Un- disease, takes its toll in human suffering.... der the circumstances, he could not possibly Discovery of a cure would be enough to give me any money. The announcement electrify the world. In the meantime, if the gave me pause. It was difficult to believe toll can be reduced and the legacy made less that a ghost should feel so keenly the need severe, any treatment accomplishing such of replenishing her wardrobe. But the pay- results should be worthy of the most careful master was obdurate. He was very busy at consideration before it is dismissed as use- the time, and took no further notice of me. less” (Kenny 1943, 176–177). Even the fact that he was dealing with After failing to win support from the es- someone who had been dead for several tablished medical communities in Australia days failed to awaken the slightest interest and Great Britain, in 1940 she went to the in his official heart” (Kenny 1943, 42–43). United States and demonstrated her meth-

119 Kenyon, Josephine Hemenway ods of treatment on polio victims. In Min- went to Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania neapolis, she gained some listeners and to study biology before entering the School eventually supporters who helped spread of Medicine at Johns Hopkins University in the idea and founded Kenny clinics in nu- Baltimore. She had the great fortune to ob- merous places. tain training from some of the most promi- She died on November 20, 1952, after nent teaching physicians of the day: William having been given diplomatic status by the Henry Welch, Sir William Osler, William U.S. Congress, having lunched with Presi- Stewart Halsted, and Howard Kelly, still dent Roosevelt, and most important, having known as the Big Four at Johns Hopkins. seen her method of treatment accepted and Following graduation she worked at the able to help hundreds of polio victims suf- Johns Hopkins University Hospital for a fering from pain. year before moving to Babies Hospital in New York City in 1905. She studied child- References: Cohn, Victor, Sister Kenny: The hood diseases and worked with Luther Em- Woman Who Challenged the Doctors, Min- mett Holt and Martha Wollstein, pioneers in neapolis: University of Minnesota Press pediatrics. Following a six-year residency, (1975); Hiestand, Wanda C., “Think Differ- she opened her own practice and in 1911 ent: Inventions and Innovations by Nurses, married James Henry Kenyon, a neurosur- 1850 to 1950,” American Journal of Nursing geon on the staff of Babies Hospital. 100, no. 10 (October 2000): 72; Kaufman, Josephine had a great interest in educat- Martin, Stuart Galishoff, and Todd L. Savitt, ing the public on childcare and hygiene. She eds., Dictionary of American Medical Biogra- had done some lecturing on the topic before phy, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (1984); leaving Babies Hospital and was appointed Kendall, Florence P., “Sister Elizabeth Kenny as a lecturer at Columbia University’s Revisited,” Archives of Physical Medicine and Teachers College in 1913. It was in this area Rehabilitation 79, no. 4 (April 1998): 361–365; that she would gain national recognition. Kenny, Elizabeth, And They Shall Walk, New In the early 1920s she began writing ad- York: Dodd, Mead (1943); Snodgrass, Mary vice for mothers in Good Housekeeping and Ellen, Historical Encyclopedia of Nursing, contributed popular articles on child and Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1999). baby care to other lay publications of the day. She appealed to so many women because she was a mother herself (of two Kenyon, Josephine Hemenway daughters) and a physician. Her book 1880–1965 Healthy Babies Are Happy Babies was so popular that it went through five revised edi- Josephine Kenyon was a pediatrician par- tions and nineteen printings. tially responsible, following the lead of Kenyon stressed that a mother’s health Luther Emmett Holt, for fueling the boom was as important as the baby’s was. Ahead in “baby books” during the early twentieth of her day, she also talked about the child’s century. Her 1934 publication Healthy Babies emotional health while maturing. She Are Happy Babies: A Complete Handbook for stressed the importance of children taking Modern Mothers was remarkably successful. responsibility within the family: “We have She was born to Charles Carroll Hemen- heard much of the unquestioning obedience way and Ida Eliza Shackelford in Auburn, of the children of an older generation and the New York, on May 10, 1880. Her father was wonderful men and women who resulted a Presbyterian minister. In 1891 the family from that discipline. In my opinion, the moved to Glasgow, Missouri, after her fa- strong men and women developed, not be- ther took a job as president of Pritchett Col- cause of this implicit obedience or from fear lege. She attended college there and re- of the consequences of disobedience, but be- ceived her bachelor’s and a master’s in 1898 cause these people, when young, had to take and 1899, respectively. definite responsibilities as part of the work- She wanted a career in medicine and ing unit—the family” (Kenyon 1934, 276).

120 Klein, Melanie

Kenyon maintained affiliations with 1919, then went to Switzerland for a time. many hospitals and universities and was The marriage ended in divorce in 1923 after called to speak on childcare innumerable they had had three children, Melitta, Hans, times. She worked for various charitable and Eric. and religious organizations whose aim was It was in Budapest that Klein began read- to make babies, mothers, and children safer. ing Sigmund Freud’s work and became She also worked in educating women on very interested in psychoanalysis. She was proper conduct in the military while around encouraged by Sandor Ferenczi and later by soldiers and worked with various social Karl Abraham, who recognized her gift at leaders of the day. She closed her private analyzing children. She presented a paper practice in 1950 and moved to Colorado to in 1921 on the development of children and be near family. Kenyon died on January 10, received full membership in the Hungarian 1965, in Boulder, Colorado. Psycho-Analytical Society. She continued her studies in Berlin. There References: Kenyon, Josephine Hemenway, had been no work on the analysis of chil- Healthy Babies Are Happy Babies: A Complete dren under the age of five or six, and she de- Handbook for Modern Mothers, Boston: Little, veloped a method for understanding very Brown (1934); “Kenyon, Josephine Hemen- young children who could not yet talk by way,” [obit] JAMA 192, no. 1 (5 April 1965): analyzing the way they played with toys. 75; Opitz, Donald L., “Kenyon, Josephine She felt she could interpret much about a Hemenway,” American National Biography, child by the associations observed during vol. 12, New York: Oxford University Press free play. (1999). She was asked to speak in England a number of times and moved there permanently in 1926. Her methods and results Klein, Melanie caused conflict in the field of psychoanaly- 1882–1960 sis. She had traced Freud’s views further back to the infant child, and many Freudian Melanie Klein was one of the most influen- thinkers believed she did not have sufficient tial psychoanalysts in Great Britain. Her proof of the capability she attributed to in- work has had a lasting impact on psychoan- fants. Many colleagues, however, embraced alysts and physicians. She built on the ideas her methods. There was not a distinct divi- of Freud and extended them. Her innova- sion in the British Psychoanalytical Society tive method of analyzing child’s play between the Klein and Freud theories until helped her later with adult psychoanalysis. a series of controversial discussions took Today many child clinics still employ her place. Then it was clear there were two methods. schools of thought (each of which has sur- Born in Vienna, Austria, on March 30, vived). 1882, she had three siblings. Her father, She contributed a great deal to psychoan- Moritz Reizes, was a physician and Jewish alytic theory by studying infants and chil- scholar, and her mother was Libusa Deutsch dren the first ten years she was in London. from Hungary, who for a time ran a store After her oldest son was killed in 1933 in a selling exotic plants. Her childhood was mountaineering accident, she began to look marred by the early deaths of her sister, at depression, sorrow, and emotion. She Sidonie, and her brother, Emmanuel. Her fa- used her own dreams in writing about sor- ther died when she was eighteen. row and mourning. She received a good education and had a Her research involved studying many desire to become a physician like her father. children with problems and analyzing their However, her financial situation and early behavior. One of the more controversial as- marriage to a second cousin, Arthur pects of Klein’s work is that she analyzed Stephan Klein, changed her course. They her own children. Many analysts today find moved to Budapest and were there until that disturbing. She had a very troubled re-

121 Krajewska, Teodora lationship with her psychoanalyst daughter, Urzedowa W Dol. Tuzle I Sarajewie,” Archi- Melitta Schmideberg, who openly argued wum Historii i Filozofii Medycyny (Poland) 50, with and lashed out at her mother in pro- no. 1 (1987): 75–98. fessional meetings. Klein’s pioneering work in child psychoanalysis has endured and helped numerous Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth children and adults around the world. She 1926– passed away on September 22, 1960. Elisabeth Kubler-Ross revolutionized the See also: Freud, Anna way physicians, psychiatrists, and other References: Grosskurth, Phyllis, Melanie health care providers view death and gave Klein: Her World and Her Work, New York: them a tremendous amount of information Knopf (1986); MacGibbon, Jean, “Klein, in order to better understand the stages of Melanie,” Dictionary of National Biography, death, the acceptance of death as a part of 1951–1960, London: Oxford University life, and most important, the tools needed to Press (1971); Segal, Hanna, Melanie Klein, counsel the terminally ill and their families. New York: Viking Press (1980); Sheehy, Medical and counseling centers around the Noel, Antony J. Chapman, and Wendy A. world continue to use her ideas and findings. Conroy, Biographical Dictionary of Psychology, Born in Zurich, Switzerland, on July 8, London: Routledge (1997). 1926, Kubler-Ross was one of triplet girls. Her parents, Emmy Villiger Kubler and Ernst Kubler, were strict at home but spent a lot of recreational time with their three Krajewska, Teodora daughters and an older son. She enjoyed her 1854–1935 family but had a hard time finding her own identity, as so many persons of multiple Teodora Krajewska was a Polish physician births do. She had the same kinds of clothes who was one of the first female physicians and toys as the other girls and in her early to serve in Bosnia and Herzegovina. She days wanted to be different from them. faced cultural barriers but succeeded in When Kubler-Ross was very young she helping Muslim women as a social worker, had a serious bout with pneumonia and de- healer, and educator. veloped a bond with her roommate in the She was born in Warsaw in 1854. Her fa- hospital. ther, Ignacego Kosmowskiego, was a teacher. She had several sisters and was ed- That evening she stirred more than ucated in Warsaw. She obtained her medical normal. As I tried to get her attention, degree around 1892. she kept looking past me, or through She traveled to Bosnia along with Anna me. ‘It’s important that you keep fight- Bayerova of Czechoslovakia to help women ing,’ she explained. ‘You’re going to in the Muslim faith receive proper health make it. You’re going to return home care, many for the first time. She helped with your family.’ I was so happy, but with the establishment of better local health then my mood changed abruptly. services and lived and worked in Dolnja ‘What about you?’ I asked. She said Tuzla and Sarajevo for almost thirty years, that her real family was ‘on the other from 1893 to 1922. side’ and assured me that there was no Krajewska died in 1935. need to worry. We traded smiles before drifting back to sleep. I had no See also: Bayerova, Anna fear of the journey my new friend was References: Krajewska, Teodora Kos- embarking on. Nor did she. It seemed mowska, Pamietnik, Krakow: Krajowa as natural as the sun going down Agencja Wydawnicza (1989); Necas, Ctibor, every night and the moon taking its “Dr. Med. Teodora Krajewska, Lekarka place” (Kubler-Ross 1997, 29).

122 Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth

Her friend died peacefully that night. From was interested in mental as well as physical this experience, she learned that dying can health. be a relief from pain and thus a positive In 1951 she began medical school at the event. University of Zurich, intending to follow She did well in school, especially in sci- the Swiss model of a physician—a country ence. In 1942 she set her sights on medical doctor who served the community. She school, but her parents didn’t see that she passed her Matura, excelling in all sections needed higher education. After a maid posi- except Latin. tion away from home did not work out, she Numerous times while at the University found a job as a lab assistant, thinking the of Zurich she saw C. G. Jung but avoided experience would help her get into medical meeting him. She didn’t want to become a school. In her work in the lab, she took psychiatrist, just a physician. blood from people with late-stage venereal She met her future husband, Emmanuel disease. She felt she was “called” to help Robert Ross (Manny), in medical school, but those who were ill. “In those days, before at the time she was not impressed with any penicillin, VD sufferers were treated like of the American medical students: “My first AIDS patients would be in the 1980s—they impression of them as a group, based on how were feared, abandoned, shunned, locked they handled the corpse, was not a good one. away” (Kubler-Ross 1997, 55). She found They made jokes about the dead man’s body, she could help them physically and emo- jumped rope with his intestines and teased tionally by just listening to them and reme about the size of his testicles. It wasn’t sponding sympathetically. funny. I thought they were disrespectful, in- The hospital where she worked was sensitive cowboys” (Kubler-Ross 1997, 94). overwhelmed with refugees from all over Despite that, she and Manny dated Europe after the Normandy invasion in through medical school, and they married 1944. She later became a member of the In- in 1958, a year after graduating. They went ternational Voluntary Service for Peace and to the United States and both worked as in- traveled about helping all she could, finally terns at Glen Cove Community Hospital on reaching Poland in 1948. She had promised Long Island, New York. She then took a res- a doctor at the hospital where she worked ident position in psychiatry at Manhattan in Switzerland that she would help the Pol- State Hospital because she needed a job. ish people recover from the aftermath of The situation at Manhattan State Hospital the war. was appalling to her. Mentally ill patients The devastation was overwhelming. She were used for experiments with psychotic helped to rebuild schools and nurse the ill in drugs, beaten and punished, or totally ig- a small farming town called Lucima. A trip nored. She began listening to the patients to one of Hitler’s death camps, Maidanek, and responding to their needs, and in turn forever etched the horror of hatred in her they responded with better behavior. Men- mind as she visited those who had lost their tal patients had to learn to do chores like entire families. She also experienced dis- making their beds and they would be re- crimination when people who thought she warded with such incentives as going out- was Polish refused to help her when she beside for a walk. She had another job offer af- came seriously ill on the trip home. She ter her first year at the hospital but decided would see such discrimination again in the to stay. She obtained releases for many func- treatment of AIDS patients. tional patients and helped others finds jobs Returning home, she was still determined outside the hospital. to become a physician and went back to lab She started an open-house program, find- work at the hospital. She talked with pa- ing families in the neighborhood who tients, taking an interest in their problems would visit the patients and develop rela- and fears, and was able to handle more re- tionships with them. Patients began to look sponsibility. She had seen that healing in- forward to these visits, and a large percent- volved more than physical care, and she age of them got well and were released.

123 Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth

Such numbers of recoveries were unprece- her On Death and Dying in a little over three dented at the hospital. months. In the book, Kubler-Ross describes After two miscarriages in as many years, the five stages of dying: denial, anger, bar- Kubler-Ross gave birth, in 1960, to her first gaining, depression, and acceptance. Mac- child, Kenneth Lawrence. She had only one millan published the book that same year. It more year of residency, and it was too late to continues to be popular today and is re- change her acquired psychiatry specialty. quired reading for numerous college and Montefiore Hospital accepted her, and not university courses. It is also useful for ther- content to be only a wife and mother, she apists, clergy, social workers, and families went back to work. At Montefiore, she dealing with death issues. worked with many terminally ill patients, Soon after the publication of On Death and talking frankly to them about death. Dying, Life magazine highlighted one of her Kubler-Ross lost her own father during seminars. The Life article featured a young this time. He was very ill in Switzerland, and girl named Eva who was dying of leukemia. the doctors would not grant his request to In response to the piece, hundreds of people die at home. Kubler-Ross arrived and signed and organizations asked Kubler-Ross to papers releasing the hospital from responsi- give lectures. She was suddenly famous, the bility. She and her mother then took her fa- world’s expert on death and dying. ther home, where he died peacefully in 1960. Over the next few years, Kubler-Ross had After she finished her residency in 1962, some paranormal experiences that alienated she and her husband obtained jobs in Denver some of her followers. “She had been com- at the Colorado School of Medicine. It was missioned, she felt, to use her renown to de- here that she gave her first lecture on death. clare to anyone who would listen that man In 1963 she had a second, premature, child, indeed possessed a spirit and that his spirit Barbara Lee. After the birth, Manny took a survived death—which she now refers to as job in Chicago and she underwent psycho- the ‘transition’” (Gill 1980, 313). She contin- analysis for three years as a requirement of ued to write about death and life after her training at the Psychoanalytic Institute. death. In 1983 she was asked to help with She worked at Billings Hospital, which is af- AIDS, an endeavor that totally absorbed filiated with the University of Chicago, as a her. Again, she felt that caring and uncondi- physician and assistant professor of psychia- tional love would be more helpful than sci- try from 1965 to 1970. She disagreed with the ence. She conducted thousands of AIDS traditional practices of the psychiatrists in workshops all over the world. her department at Billings, whose treatments Kubler-Ross currently lives in Arizona. relied mainly on drugs. She felt that psychia- Some critics argue she has no scientific trists should focus more on the individual proof or clinical trials to support her claims patient’s personality and family life. of success with psychotic patients and the She began regular lecturing on death in terminally ill. As a result of her work, how- 1967; at each lecture, she was accompanied ever, there is more awareness today of the by a terminally ill patient who was willing right of the dying to determine their own to talk to the audience about his or her feel- destiny and a hospice movement to support ings. Priests, nurses, rabbis, counselors, so- this right. Many physicians now also sup- cial workers, and students crowded in to port patients’ rights to not avail themselves find out about a subject no one else wanted of life-sustaining medical equipment. to deal with. Physicians did not often attend because as a group, they looked upon death References: Gill, Derek L. T., Quest: The Life as failure to cure the patient. In 1969, a copy of Elisabeth Kubler-Ross, New York: Harper & of an article she had written for the Chicago Row (1980); Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth, On Theological Seminary on the purpose of her Death and Dying, New York: Macmillan death-and-dying seminars found its way to (1969); Kubler-Ross, Elisabeth, The Wheel of an editor at Macmillan in New York. In re- Life: A Memoir of Living and Dying, New sponse to a call from Macmillan, she wrote York: Scribner (1997).

124 L

Lachapelle, Marie-Louise Women’s Biography, New York: Continuum; Duges Macmillan (1982). 1769–1821

Marie-Louise Lachapelle became the chief LaFlesche Picotte, Susan midwife at the Hotel Dieu in Paris. She was 1865–1915 instrumental in training many midwives. Born in Paris on January 1, 1769, she was Susan LaFlesche Picotte was the first Na- the daughter of Louis Duges and Marie tive American woman to earn a medical de- Jonet Duges. Her mother was a midwife and gree. She returned to her reservation to her father, a health officer. Lachapelle began serve the needs of the Indians she identified assisting her mother, who was the head with, as well as others who were in need of midwife at the Hotel Dieu, at an early age. medical attention. Speaking both her native She married in 1792 and had a daughter; tongue and English, she was able to bridge her husband died a few years later. She be- some of the cultural differences between gan working with her mother at the Hotel her people and those in surrounding com- Dieu to support herself, becoming head of munities. Born on June 17, 1865, on the the maternity department after her mother Omaha Reservation in Nebraska, she was died in 1795. the youngest of five children of Chief She developed excellent techniques in de- Joseph LaFlesche and his wife, Mary. She livering babies even in difficult circum- received much encouragement from her stances, techniques that she later recorded family to advance her education as a repre- in a published work. Some of her training sentative of the Omahas. Chief LaFlesche came from Franz Carl Naegele at the Uni- had already learned that to progress, the In- versity of Heidelberg in Germany. He was a dians had to adapt to a changing world that famous obstetrician of his day and re- was more and more populated by whites. spected her talent a great deal. He realized that education was the key and Lachapelle did much to raise the stan- would enable Indians to contribute to the dards and proficiencies of midwives in the changing society. nineteenth century. She died on October 4, Susan did well in school. Her oldest sister, 1821. Susette, was a teacher, and she made all her sisters speak English when they were to- References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women gether. She attended both the Elizabeth In- Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan stitute for Young Ladies (New Jersey) and (1957); Shearer, Benjamin F., and Barbara S. the Hampton Institute in Virginia, where Shearer, Notable Women in the Life Sciences, she graduated with honors in 1886. With fi- Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (1996); nancial assistance from the Women’s Na- Uglow, Jennifer S., International Dictionary of tional Indian Association, she entered the

125 Lancefield, Rebecca Craighill

Medical College of Pennsylvania and grad- Pierre, who both were able to attend col- uated in 1889. lege. After her husband’s death in 1905, she She served an internship at the Women’s settled in Walthill in the year of its found- Hospital in Philadelphia, affiliated with the ing, 1906, and continued to speak for the Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania, betterment of Indians everywhere. She treating outpatients, observing surgery, and helped organize the County Medical Soci- preparing medications. She also went on ety, served on the local health board, and rounds with the resident physician to some stood firm on eradicating alcohol on reser- very poor neighborhoods. This was valu- vations and instilling good sanitation and able experience, since she had had little clin- nutrition practices. ical training while in medical school. Her final efforts were toward getting a lo- In order to serve the Indians of her tribe, cal hospital. She helped raise funds, a long she applied for a physician position with and hard task. “A few years before her the Omaha Agency Indian School. The com- death, Susan asserted that she believed ‘in missioner of Indian Affairs believed in Indi- prevention of diseases and hygienic care’ ans becoming educated and serving their more than she did ‘in giving or prescribing people, and she got the job. She quickly re- medicine.’ She said her ‘constant aim’ was turned to the Omahas, becoming a medical ‘to teach these two things, particularly to leader and organizer. She served members young mothers,’ and her ‘greatest desire in of the Omaha tribe for over four years re- having the hospital built was to save the lit- gardless of the problems with getting sup- tle children” (Tong 1999, 177). plies, low pay, difficult physical conditions, This goal may well have arisen because and the obstacles of travel. she had seen many infants and children die “Making home visits was no easy task. from disease while she was waiting for Omahas were scattered over an undevel- medical supplies. oped, undulating terrain that was thirty In 1913 she attended the opening of the miles long by fifteen miles wide. Most of the hospital at Walthill, which remained a vital so-called roads were little more than poor part of health care in the area until 1947. On dirt tracks, which were so bad that a single September 18, 1915, La Flesche succumbed horse could not pull a wagon on them” to a long bout with a cancerous bone infec- (Tong 1999, 94). During this time, she spoke tion. In that year, hospital officials gave the whenever she could to groups off the reser- hospital her name. She was buried in the vation about the Omahas and her work with nearby Bancroft cemetery next to her hus- them. She was a good speaker who did not band, Henry. alienate whites, and she knew she had to work with them in order to improve condi- References: Tong, Benson, Susan LaFlesche tions for Native Americans. Picotte, M.D.: Omaha Indian Leader and Re- In the 1890s, La Flesche worked unceas- former, Norman: University of Oklahoma ingly to end drinking among the Indians. It Press (1999). had led to illness and death and was de- structive to family and community relationships. Her efforts were fruitless, and she be- Lancefield, Rebecca Craighill came quite frustrated. She blamed the 1895–1981 whites for making alcohol available, and although some religious groups supported Rebecca Lancefield was a bacteriologist her efforts to enforce the law against pro- and researcher. She was a pioneer in classi- viding alcohol to Indians, cooperation from fying and identifying the various strains of law enforcement was not forthcoming. She streptococci. continued to fight against drinking, as her Born in Ft. Wadsworth, New York, on Jan- father before her had done. uary 5, 1895, she was the daughter of She married Henry Picotte, half Sioux and Colonel William E. Craighill and Mary half French, and had two sons, Caryl and Wortley Byram Craighill and had five sis-

126 Lazarus, Hilda ters. She attended Wellesley College, gradu- was one of twelve children, nine of which ating in 1916 with a degree in zoology. After survived to adulthood. Her grandfather her father died, she taught for a year to help was one of the earliest Brahmins to convert support her sisters. Seemingly headed for a to Christianity. Her parents were well edu- teaching career at Teachers College in New cated, and her father served as principal of York, she persuaded the administrators to the London Mission High School, Visakha- let her pursue a master’s in bacteriology. patnam. Despite frequent illnesses as a She excelled and took a part-time position child, Lazarus was a good student who with the Rockefeller Institute, working with studied physiology at a local college in or- Oswald Theodore Avery and Alphonse Ray- der to prepare for medical school. She had mond Dochez, who were studying strepto- decided early on that she wanted to be a coccal bronchopneumonia for the surgeon physician and obtained her M.D. from the general of the United States. She left to fin- University of Madras in 1917. ish her master’s and married Donald Lance- She began her career with the Women’s field. Her husband finished his Ph.D. in Medical Service and served briefly at the 1921, and they both went to Oregon for a Lady Hardinge Medical College Hospital in few years to work. Later they returned to New Delhi. After a few months she was New York, and Lancefield went back to transferred to the Dufferin Hospital in Cal- work for the Rockefeller Institute, where cutta and had to deal with multiple lan- she would stay for the rest of her career. guages in treating patients as well as a While she was there, her laboratory grew tremendous workload. in reputation, becoming the world leader in identifying different strains of strep. She de- There I had to attend to all emergen- veloped a unique classification system that cies, all special paying patients, outpa- is still used today. tients, and a ward of twenty beds, as Lancefield had one daughter, Jane. She well as being responsible for all statis- died on March 3, 1981. tics. The only languages I was acquainted with were English, Telugu, References: Elliott, S. D., “Obituary: Re- and Tamil, but here I was obliged to becca Craighill Lancefield, 1895–1981,” Jour- lecture to midwives in Hindi, to deal nal of General Microbiology 126, pt. 1 (Sep- with Bengalis, and to study Urdu. It tember 1981): 1–4; McCarty, Maclyn, was compulsory for every officer of “Rebecca Craighill Lancefield,” Biographical the Women’s Medical Service to pass Memoirs, vol. 57, Washington, DC: National in Urdu before confirmation of service. Academy of Sciences (1987); Shearer, Ben- I managed this with credit in two and jamin, and Barbara S. Shearer, Notable a half months and then began to study Women in the Life Sciences: A Biographical Dic- Bengali, in order to understand the pa- tionary, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press tients and help them to understand (1996). me. (cited in Hellstedt 1978, 39)

She moved on to work in Surat and later Lazarus, Hilda in Visakhapatnam. She kept learning the re- 1890–198? quired languages of the areas in order to serve patients better as well as to train mid- Hilda Lazarus was an Indian physician who wives and nurses who worked at the local served for many years as the director of the hospitals and clinics. For a few years she Vellore Christian Medical College when it also worked at the Lady Willingdon Med- became coeducational in 1947 and set a new ical School in Madras, and then returned to precedent for Indian medical education. She Visakhapatnam in 1922 when she was hired was instrumental in making the transition to help the hospital there overcome finan- to coeducation acceptable. cial difficulties. She had good organiza- Born January 23, 1890, in India, Lazarus tional and administrative skills and was

127 L’Esperance, Elise Depew Strang well qualified to assume in 1940 the position more clinical research was needed on many of principal of the Lady Hardinge Medical of the child illnesses she saw and treated. College in New Delhi. She held this position She left private practice after several years for three years and later became chief of the to join the Tuberculosis Research Commis- Women’s Medical Service for India. She re- sion in New York. mained in this post until 1947 and then be- Her interest in pathology developed when came the superintendent of Vellore Medical she later worked with James Ewing at Cor- College as it entered a transitional phase of nell University Medical School. She studied coeducation. tumors and cancerous cells and realized can- She remained active in the administration cer could be detected in its early stages. In of hospitals after she retired from Vellore in 1917, she moved on to the New York Infir- 1950. She also served for a time as professor mary for Women and Children. She worked at the Andrha Medical College in Visakha- there for over thirty years while also work- patnam and worked to better the facilities. ing as an instructor at various hospitals and as an assistant professor at Cornell. References: Hellstedt, Leone McGregor, When her mother died in 1930, she Women Physicians of the World: Autobiogra- opened the Kate Depew Strang Tumor phies of Medical Pioneers, Washington, DC: Clinic with the help of her sister, May Hemisphere (1978); Lazarus, Hilda, “Mes- Strang, at the New York Infirmary. The sage from India,” Journal of the American clinic focused on cancer detection in women Medical Women’s Association 3, no. 6 (June and children as opposed to treatment of the 1948): 250; Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women illness. L’Esperance felt strongly that malig- Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan nant cancers could many times be pre- (1957); Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, vented if physicians knew what to look for. eds., The Biographical Dictionary of Women in Her clinic later expanded to include male Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to patients and became so successful that she the Mid-20th Century, New York: Routledge opened another one in 1940. (2000). She became an expert on cervical cancer, and research at her clinic led to the Pap smear for detecting cervical cancer and the proctoscope for detecting colon and rectal L’Esperance, Elise cancer. She encouraged women physicians Depew Strang to stay in the field and was a leader in edu- 1878–1959 cating women about their health, the importance of routine examinations, and cancer Elise L’Esperance opened the first clinic in prevention. She passed away in Pelham the United States for cancer detection. Manor, New York, on January 21, 1959. Born in Yorktown, New York, in 1878, she was the third daughter of Albert Strang and References: Perry, Marilyn Elizabeth, “L’Es- Kate Depew. Her father wanted a physician perance, Elise Strang,” American National Bi- in the family and, not having a son to follow ography, vol. 13, New York: Oxford Univer- in his footsteps, encouraged his third sity Press (1999); Shearer, Benjamin F. and daughter to pursue medical studies. Barbara S. Shearer, Notable Women in the Life Elise attended school in Albany, New Sciences, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press York, at St. Agnes Episcopal School before (1996). attending the Women’s Medical College of the New York Infirmary for Women and Children. She graduated in 1900 with her Levi-Montalcini, Rita medical degree and married David A. L’Es- 1909– perance. L’Esperance served as a pediatrician in Rita Levi-Montalcini was the 1986 Nobel both New York and Detroit but decided Prize recipient, along with Stanley Cohen,

128 Levi-Montalcini, Rita for discovering the nerve growth factor (NGF), which is vital for the growth and stimulation of nerve cells. Born in Turin, Italy, on April 22, 1909, to Adele Levi and Adamo Levi, an electrical engineer, Rita, who had a twin sister and two other siblings, decided early on that she wanted to study medicine. She was disappointed in her early education because it lacked what she would need in the way of science studies. She took it upon herself to study under tutors in Greek, Latin, and math for several months before she took her medical school entrance exams. She passed and, along with a cousin, attended the University of Turin, receiving her M.D. in 1936. She stayed and worked as an assistant to Giuseppe Levi, at the time a well-known professor of histology. Levi “inspired Rita’s expert skill in the study of tissue structure. Under his direction at the Institute of Anatomy, she mas- tered a new technique that involved staining chick neurons with chrome silver to highlight the nerve cells in infinitesimal de- Rita Levi-Montalcini (Herb Weitman/U.S. National tail” (Van der Does and Simon 1999, 142). Library of Medicine) She continued studying chick embryos and their nervous systems by dissecting them and examining motor neurons. Neither Levi nor Levi-Montalcini could hold an official position at the university be- to the decision I later took not to practice the cause the Fascist regime in Italy was quite profession. I lacked, in fact, the detachment strong at the time and they were Jews. Her that allows a doctor to face the suffering of family went south when the Nazis invaded. a patient without creating an emotional in- As the war closed in on her family, they volvement damaging to both parties” (Levi- had to flee again, this time going to Florence Montalcini 1988, 108). She later devoted her with false identification. energies to research on the nervous system. Once the war was over, Levi-Montalcini She went to the United States in 1947 to vowed to work with the survivors as a doc- work with Viktor Hamburger at Washing- tor. She worked with the Allied health ser- ton University in St. Louis. She served as an vice, persevering during a typhoid epi- associate professor in zoology and in 1958 demic. “The risk of contagion, to which I as a professor of neurobiology. It was dur- was at every moment exposed, diminished ing this time that she worked on identifying my never entirely alleviated sense of guilt the nerve growth factor (NGF). She and for not having taken a more active part in Hamburger published some papers to- the partisan resistance” (Levi-Montalcini gether, but she wasn’t able to isolate and 1988, 108). identify NGF until Stanley Cohen came to While treating a young girl, Levi-Montal- St. Louis and worked with her. Together cini became attached to her and her parents. they would discover NGF. The girl’s death caused Levi-Montalcini to They began by studying mouse tumors doubt her competence as a physician: “My and later snake venom. Both produced sense of impotence in this case contributed many nerve fibers. It wasn’t until Cohen de-

129 Longshore, Hannah Myers duced that the saliva gland produced nerve Simon, Renaissance Women in Science, Lan- growth factor that they were able to purify ham, MD: University Press of America it. Levi-Montalcini continued to work on (1999). NGF after Cohen left Washington Univer- sity in 1959. She felt strongly that the scientific community did not realize the impor- Longshore, Hannah Myers tance of the discovery. She left in 1961 to return to Rome and es- 1819–1901 tablished the Laboratory of Cellular Biol- ogy. She continued her work there, and as Hannah Longshore was the first female fac- time passed, her discovery attracted more ulty member in a medical college of the attention. By the mid-1980s, many neurobi- United States and the first to practice in ologists were aware of the importance of Philadelphia. Longshore was an early pio- growth factors. It became clear “that the neer in women’s medical education in the nerve growth factor keeps cells from dying United States. in their early embryonic stages. Without She was born on May 30, 1819, in Sandy nerve growth factors, half of some kinds of Spring, Maryland, to Samuel Myers and cells would die; with NGF, they survive. Paulina Oden Myers. She married Thomas NGF affects particular kinds of cells, E. Longshore in 1841 and had two children. whether they are in the central nervous, the Her brother-in-law, Joseph Longshore, tu- peripheral nervous system, or the brain. It tored Hannah privately to prepare her for also appears to link the immune and the entrance to the Female Medical College of nervous systems of the body” (McGrayne Pennsylvania (renamed the Women’s Med- 1998, 220). ical College of Pennsylvania in 1867). In 1986, she and Cohen received the No- Joseph Longshore was a physician and, bel Prize in physiology or medicine for their with some other male doctors, had played a discovery. Some scientists were surprised vital role in the establishment of the college. that Viktor Hamburger was excluded. Levi- Hannah graduated in 1851 and became a Montalcini’s defense of the Nobel commit- demonstrator of anatomy there, the first tee’s decision to give the award to her and woman in the United States to hold a fac- Cohen strained her relationship with Ham- ulty position in a medical school. burger, who received the national Medal of Hannah also taught for a year at the New Science in 1989. England Female Medical College in Boston. She had served in Rome as the director of After Joseph Longshore was ostracized by the Institute of Cell Biology from 1969 to the faculty at the Female Medical College of 1979. After winning the Nobel Prize, she be- Pennsylvania for wanting to teach water came a national celebrity and continued to cures and other eclectic therapies, he work as much as she could on NGF, later founded the Pennsylvania Medical Univer- taking an interest in degenerative diseases. sity. Hannah taught anatomy there from She served as president of the Italian Multi- 1853 to 1857. ple Sclerosis Association for many years. Her private practice thrived to the point that she eventually gave up teaching and References: Levi-Montalcini, Rita, In Praise lecturing to spend all her time with the 300 of Imperfections: My Life and Work, New York: families under her care. She died on October Basic Books (1988); McGrayne, Sharon 18, 1901, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Bertsch, Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries, See also: Medical College of Pennsylvania Secaucus, NJ: Carol (1998); Shearer, Ben- References: Kaufman, M., “Longshore, jamin F., and Barbara S. Shearer, Notable Hannah E. Myers,” Dictionary of American Women in the Life Sciences: A Biographical Dic- Medical Biography, Westport, CT: Green- tionary, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press wood Press (1984); Ogilvie, Marilyn, and (1996); Van der Does, Louise Q., and Rita J. Joy Harvey, eds., The Biographical Dictionary

130 Lovejoy, Esther Clayson Pohl of Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from An- murdered. Some of the local people sus- cient Times to the Mid-20th Century, New pected her brother of murdering them for a York: Routledge (2000). dog sledge. Speculation mounted, and a few months after the snow had melted, her brother’s body was also found—shot like Lopez, Rita Lobato Velho the others. The mystery was partly solved, 1866–19? but Esther could no longer bear to stay in Alaska. She moved and set up a private Rita Lopez was the first woman doctor who practice in Portland, Oregon, and commuted graduated from a medical school in Brazil. to Skagway in order to visit her husband. She received her degree in 1887 from the When their son was born in 1901, Emil University of Bahia. moved to Portland as well and set up a practice. Lovejoy became involved with the References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Portland Board of Health in 1905, becoming Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan the first woman to head such a department (1957). in 1907. She witnessed numerous child illnesses due to unhealthy school conditions and contaminated milk. Frederick, her only Lovejoy, Esther Clayson Pohl child, died in 1908 from what she believed 1870–1967 to be the result of contaminated milk. She fought and won the battle for advanced san- Esther Lovejoy was the first woman to head itation standards, and a milk ordinance was a city health department. She raised the is- eventually passed. Her husband died three sue of public health in the schools and es- years after she lost her son. In 1913, she mar- tablished school health inspections, became ried George Lovejoy; they divorced in 1920. a leader of women in medicine by establish- Much of her later career focused on orga- ing the Medical Women’s International As- nizational activities in order to promote sociation, and was instrumental in docu- women as able physicians and to provide menting numerous medical women’s channels for women to lend aid to those in events and accomplishments. need. This work led to the establishment of She was born November 16, 1870, in the American Women’s Hospital Service Seabeck, Washington. Her parents, Edward (AWH) in 1917, which she helped direct. and Annie Quinton Clayson, moved around With her organizational skills, fundraising to make a living. Esther first lived in a log- ability, and tireless effort, the AWH was able ging camp where her father worked, then in to work in numerous countries in coopera- a hotel her parents managed, and later on a tion with the Red Cross. She also helped farm. Her early education was in Seabeck; found the Medical Women’s International later she had a professor as a tutor. She Association to help women physicians and worked to earn money for medical school. also soldiers and victims of war, famine, She attended the University of Oregon and epidemics around the world. She wrote Medical School and became the second a great deal about women in the medical woman graduate in 1894. She married Emil field and their contributions. Pohl, a surgeon, later that year, and did Lovejoy died in New York on August 17, postgraduate work at the West Side Post 1967. Graduate School in Chicago, where she studied obstetrics and gynecology. In 1898, References: Bass, Elizabeth, “Esther Pohl they went to Alaska, where her brothers Lovejoy, MD,” Journal of the American Med- lived, to set up practice, and they were in- ical Women’s Association 6, no. 9 (September strumental in setting up Union Hospital. 1951): 354–355; Burt, Olive Woolley, Physi- Her brother Fred Clayson mysteriously cian to the World: Esther Pohl Lovejoy, New disappeared while she lived there, and two York: J. Messner (1973); Dodds, G. B., men he had been traveling with were found “Lovejoy, Esther Pohl,” Dictionary of Ameri-

131 Luisi, Paulina can Medical Biography, Westport, CT: Green- wood Press (1984); Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan (1957); Perry, Marilyn Elizabeth, “Lovejoy, Esther Pohl,” American National Biography, vol. 14, New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press (1999).

Luisi, Paulina 1875–1950

Paulina Luisi was the first female physician of Uruguay. She devoted most of her life to ridding Uruguay of the slave trade in women and children. Born in 1875, Luisi graduated from the University of Uruguay Medical School in 1908 and became both a teacher and a surgeon. Early on she became involved in the fight against the trade in women and children. She represented her country at the League of Nations, wrote on the importance of hygiene, and was active in the women’s rights movement in her country. She died in Mary Frances Lyon (Godfrey Argent Studio) Montevideo in 1950.

References: “Outstanding Uruguayan Wo- and Clifford James Lyon. She grew up in men,” http://www.correo.com.uy/ filatelia/ various locations in England and graduated frames/MujeresDestacadas_ingles.htm; from Cambridge with a degree in zoology in Sapriza, Graciela, “Clivajes de la Memoria: 1946. Para una Biografía de Paulina Luisi,” in Lyon was fascinated by the emerging Uruguayos Notables, Montevideo: Fundación field of embryology, an interest that led to BankBoston (1999). her work in genetics. She studied under R. A. Fisher and Conrad H. Waddington in England, receiving both her M.A. and her Lyon, Mary Frances Ph.D. in 1950. Upon completion of her 1925– Ph.D., Waddington offered her a position at the Medical Research Council in the United Mary Lyon is a geneticist who proposed the Kingdom, where she has carried out most of well-known Lyon hypothesis, which states her work and where she formed her Lyon that females have two X chromosomes, one hypothesis. inactivated early in an embryo’s life. This hypothesis has led to a better understand- References: Grinstein, Louise S., Carol A. ing of sex-linked diseases and opened the Biermann, and Rose K. Rose, eds., Women in door to research on numerous genetic issues the Biological Sciences: A Biobibliographic and hereditary traits. Sourcebook, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press She was born in Norwich, England, on (1997); Parry, Melanie, Chambers Biographical May 15, 1925, to Louise Frances Kirby Lyon Dictionary, Edinburgh: Chambers (1997).

132 M

Mabie, Catharine Louise Roe ily I had concentrated on them, both in 1872–1963 dissecting them and in Gray’s Anatomy, so I got off with a good grade. (Mabie 1952, 21) Catharine Mabie was an early medical missionary to the Congo. She battled tuberculo- Upon her graduation, the Woman’s Bap- sis, infections, sleeping sickness, and super- tist Foreign Missionary Society (WBFMS) stition to become a trusted physician among appointed her to serve in the Democratic various tribes. Republic of the Congo (formerly known as Born in Rock Island, Illinois, she was de- the Belgian Congo and later as Zaire) in termined early on to become a missionary. 1898. She did much of her work at the Banza She frequented Methodist revivals and was Manteke Hospital. Mabie was deeply in- baptized in a Baptist church. When she was volved in trying to change local attitudes only ten she ventured out to neighborhoods toward illness and healing: in Chicago in an effort to reach troubled youth with religion. The Congo knows very little about She received her medical training and de- anatomy, and has no sane notions gree at Rush Medical College, where, she whatever concerning physiology, hy- felt, most of her professors were not biased giene, pathology, or therapeutics. With about women in class. his animistic notions he attributes all his physical and mental ailments to Saturday mornings from 8 to 1:30 all spirit interference through an interme- classes were in surgical clinic. At the diary or to direct interposition. In opening session several men who dreams his own spirit wanders apart could not take it were carried out but from the body, and if too rudely awak- never one of the girls. We girls were a ened may fail to return. To dream of very small minority and not welcomed the dead gives rise to great anxiety, by the men students. For the most part and much importance is attached to our professors were neutral. Our interpretation of dreams. Whenever se- anatomy professor, however, definitely rious illness occurs, the person be- did not like having us in his class and witching the patient is sought, and be- dissecting room. He made a point of fore the white man interfered trial of trying to make us jittery, asking us to witches was frequent and usually fa- demonstrate difficult complex combi- tal. Delirium is greatly feared; another nations of muscular action and reac- spirit than the sufferers is in posses- tion. One by one he called us into his sion and speaking strange things. office for oral examinations. One of Epileptic seizures, insanity, and all mine on the twelve pairs of cranial mental aberrations are diagnosed as nerves lasted well over an hour. Luck- due to direct spirit possession. Witch-

133 Macklin, Madge Thurlow

doctors and fetishes were their chief bryology. Her early publications, some with reliance in sickness. (Mabie 1917, 23) her husband, concerned anatomy, but by 1926 she had become very interested in Mabie died in 1963. medical genetics. She studied heredity in relation to mental retardation and to cancer References: Anderson, Gerald H., Biograph- and other diseases. ical Dictionary of Christian Missions, New She utilized data from a Canadian mental York: Macmillan Reference USA (1998); hospital to validate her belief in eugenics Franklin, James Henry, Ministers of Mercy, and the consequences of persons with men- New York: Missionary Education Move- tal illness procreating. She wrote several pa- ment of the United States and Canada pers on the topic and later became the di- (1919); Hume, Edward Hicks, Doctors Coura- rector of the Eugenics Society of Canada. At geous, New York: Harper (1950); Mabie, the same time, she began advocating med- Catharine Louise Roe, Congo Cameos, ical genetics as a valid part of the curricu- Philadelphia: Judson Press (1952); Mabie, lum in all medical schools. Catharine L., Our Work on the Congo: A Book Her views were not well received by for Mission Study Classes and for General In- some, particularly late in the 1930s and the formation, Philadelphia: American Baptist 1940s, as the public became aware of Publication Society (1917), as reproduced in Hitler’s attempts to exterminate the men- the History of Women Collection, no. 7541.1, tally ill and create an elite race. Because of New Haven, CT: Research Publications her views, she lost her position at the Uni- (1976). versity of Western Ontario in 1945. In 1946 she obtained a position as a cancer researcher at Ohio State University, the first Macklin, Madge Thurlow medical school to have a medical genetics 1893–1962 course. Her research there focused on heredity and breast cancer. Her husband re- Madge Macklin was a leading genetics remained at the University of Western On- searcher of the early twentieth century. She tario, and she commuted back and forth for advocated tirelessly for the inclusion of a many years. They had three daughters. curriculum that included medical genetics at Macklin died in Toronto on March 14, all medical schools. She also wrote vocifer- 1962. ously on eugenics and the repercussions of a decline in the offspring of the intellectually References: Rechnitzer, Peter A., “Macklin, fit. She was a controversial spokesperson for Madge Thurlow,” American National Biogra- sterilization of the mentally ill. phy, vol. 14, New York: Oxford University Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on Press (1999); Shearer, Benjamin S., and Bar- February 6, 1893, to Margaret De Grofft and bara S. Shearer, Notable Women in the Life Sci- William Harrison Thurlow, she attended ences, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press Goucher College in Baltimore and received (1996). an A.B. degree in 1914. She was briefly an outspoken suffragist before going to Johns Hopkins Medical School and receiving her Macnamara, Dame Annie Jean medical degree in 1919. While in medical 1899–1968 school she met Charles Macklin, a Canadian anatomist. They married in 1918. Jean Macnamara was an Australian scientist Both Macklin and her husband went to who did research on polio, helping to dis- the University of Western Ontario in Lon- cover that there was more than one strain of don, Canada, in 1921 when Charles was of- the polio virus. In an unrelated interest, she fered a position as head of the Department was also instrumental in lobbying for use of of History and Embryology. Madge worked the controversial virus myxomatosis to con- for low pay teaching both histology and em- trol Australia’s rabbit population.

134 Mahoney, Mary Eliza

Born in Beechworth, Victoria, on April 1, organizing black nurses and pursuing equal 1899, she gained a medical education from opportunities for black women interested in Melbourne University, graduating in 1922 nursing as a profession. She was central to and becoming one of the first female resi- the success of the National Association of dents at Melbourne Hospital. Several Mel- Colored Graduate Nurses (NACGN). bourne hospitals had for years refused to Born in Dorchester, Massachusetts, on take on women, blaming their lack of toilets; May 7, 1845, she was the daughter of Melbourne Hospital installed toilets. Charles Mahoney and Mary Jane Stewart Jean encountered many polio victims and Mahoney. She had one brother, Frank, and worked to alleviate the crippling effects of two sisters, Ellen and Louise. Louise died at infantile paralysis with traditional methods an early age. that sometimes were at odds with the ex- For a time she attended the Phillips Street perimental treatments of Elizabeth Kenny. School in Boston. She worked for several In the poliomyelitis epidemic of 1925 she in- families as a private nurse before she en- troduced a serum with limited success. She tered the School of Nursing at the New En- then traveled to the United States and gland Hospital for Women and Children. Canada to do further research. Back in Aus- She did well and received her diploma on tralia she worked with Sir Macfarlane Bur- August 1, 1879. Linda Richards had re- net, and together they discovered there was ceived her diploma in 1873, becoming the more than one strain of the polio virus. This first professional nurse in the United States. discovery would eventually help in the de- Like most black nurses of her era, Ma- velopment of the Salk vaccine. She also is re- honey entered private-duty nursing be- sponsible for introducing the first artificial cause most hospitals would not hire black respirator in Australia. nurses. She realized early on that black She married Ivan Connor, a dermatolo- nurses must organize in order to have a gist, in 1934, and they had two daughters, voice in nursing affairs. She was able to be- Joan and Merran. She traveled throughout come a member of the Nurses Associated Europe, the United States, Australia, New Alumnae (later the American Nurses Asso- Zealand, and Canada to speak about myxo- ciation); however, she realized many other matosis to control rabbits and also about po- blacks could not become members because lio treatments. She passed away on October a requirement for joining that organization 13, 1968. was membership in their state nursing associations, which were often closed to blacks. See also: Kenny, Elizabeth She was a gifted speaker, welcoming all to References: Crystal, David, The Cambridge the first convention of the NACGN in 1908, Biographical Encyclopedia, Cambridge: Cam- and a good organizer. She remained active bridge University Press (1998); Muir, Hazel, in the NACGN all her life. In 1911 she be- Larousse Dictionary of Scientists, Edinburgh: came the supervisor at the Howard Orphan Larousse (1994); Sherratt, Tim, “No Stand- Asylum for Black Children, located on Long ing Back: Dame Jean Macnamara,” Aus- Island in Kings Park. She worked until 1922, tralasian Science 13, no. 4 (Summer 1993): 64; when she retired. Zwar, Desmond, The Dame: The Life and Mahoney never married. She died of pro- Times of Dame Jean Macnamara, Medical Pio- gressive breast cancer on January 4, 1926. neer, South Melbourne: Macmillan (1984). She was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery in Everett, Massachusetts. Her grave was uncovered and restored during a ceremony on Mahoney, Mary Eliza August 15, 1973, and a monument was 1845–1926 placed at the gravesite. She was inducted into the Nursing Hall of Fame in 1976, and Mary Mahoney was the first black profes- an award is still given in her name to honor sional nurse in the United States. She was a nurses who have made significant contribu- leader in nursing and was instrumental in tions to the field.

135 Malahlele, Mary Susan

See also: Richards, Linda with his encouragement, enrolled at the References: Davis, Althea T., Early Black Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. There, American Leaders in Nursing: Architects for In- she earned a master’s in science and in tegration and Equality, Boston: Jones and 1949 became the first woman to earn a doc- Bartlett (1999); Hine, Darlene Clark, Black torate at that institution. Women in America: An Historical Encyclope- She published with Neuberg on research dia, Brooklyn, NY: Carlson (1993); Miller, with fructose and sugar derivatives and Helen S., Mary Eliza Mahoney, 1845–1926: continued to stay in touch with him after America’s First Black Professional Nurse, At- she went to work at Columbia University. lanta: Wright (1986). She joined Delafield Hospital as director of the obstetrics and gynecology labs and began focusing on human tissue and the en- Malahlele, Mary Susan zymes involved in its breakdown, as well as the enzymes that are present in tumors Mary Malahlele of the Bapedi Nation was found in the reproductive system. the first female native South African physi- She later studied the effects of tobacco on cian. She received her degree at the Univer- the lungs and found that smoke damaged sity of the Witwatersrand in 1947 with an in- elastin and thus led to the deterioration of terest in African children’s diseases and lung tissue. She was known worldwide as a worked for McCord Hospital in Durban. pioneer in applying chemistry to many biomedical problems. She received the Garvan References: Hume, Edward Hicks, Doctors Medal in 1982. Courageous, New York: Harper (1950); Love- joy, Esther Pohl, Women Doctors of the World, References: Shearer, Benjamin F., and Bar- New York: Macmillan (1957). bara S. Shearer, Notable Women in the Physi- cal Sciences, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (1997). Mandl, Ines 1917– Manley, Audrey Forbes Ines Mandl was an early biochemist. Her 1934– understanding of chemistry and its applica- tion to biomedical problems helped ad- A physician and college president, Audrey vance knowledge in the areas of enzymes Manley has been a leading black medical and pulmonary emphysema. administrator. She served as the acting sur- Born on April 19, 1917, in Vienna, Austria, geon general in 1995. she was the daughter of Ernst Mandl and Born on March 25, 1934, in Jackson, Mis- Ida Bassan Hochmuth. She attended both sissippi, she obtained her bachelor’s degree state-supported schools and a private from Spelman College in Atlanta in 1955 school and then, as was customary, married. and continued on toward her medical de- In 1938 she and her family moved to En- gree at Meharry Medical College. She com- gland because the National Socialists were pleted her residency at Cook County Chil- on the rise in Austria. When World War II dren’s Hospital in Chicago. She became the broke out, they moved to Ireland. Ines first African American woman to become went to the National University of Ireland chief resident of that hospital. in Cork and graduated with a degree in Manley also sought neonatology training chemistry, specializing in biochemistry. She at the University of Illinois Abraham Lin- then followed her parents to the United coln School of Medicine. She also earned a States and later met a fellow Jew, Carl Neu- degree in public health from Johns Hopkins berg, who was doing research in the new University. She has been a professor at sev- field of biochemistry. She joined him at eral medical schools, but her chief contribu- New York University doing research and, tions have been in the field of public health.

136 McClintock, Barbara

She rose to become the deputy assistant sec- away in the Army Medical Corps, and her retary for health within the U.S. Department mother refused. When her father returned, of Health and Human Services. he allowed her to enroll in Cornell’s College Manley has encouraged women and mi- of Agriculture. She graduated in 1923 after norities to go into education and careers in having already done graduate work and the sciences. She is currently the president stayed on at Cornell to earn an M.S. in 1925 of Spelman College. and a Ph.D. in 1927. She majored in cytology and minored in genetics and zoology. References: Manley, Albert E., A Legacy Con- Barbara’s mother was worried she would tinues: The Manley Years at Spelman College, never marry and become a professor in- 1953–1976, Lanham, MD: University Press stead. McClintock felt marriage would be a of America (1995); “Manley, Audrey mistake because she was such a dominant Forbes,” Who’s Who of American Women, 22d person, and she never wed. ed., New Providence, NJ: Marquis Who’s McClintock worked long hours while at Who (2000). Cornell and later at the University of Mis- souri. Before she obtained her Ph.D., she “developed a method of studying individual McClintock, Barbara chromosomes of Indian corn (maize) under a 1902–1992 microscope. This discovery allowed concur- rent study of the chromosomes and the phys- Barbara McClintock received the 1983 Nobel ical traits of maize” (Shampo and Kyle 1995, Prize in physiology or medicine for discov- 448). McClintock published on the genetics ering that genes could move from one place of corn in the late 1920s and early 1930s. to another on plants, thus changing future While at the University of Missouri she generations. Although researchers had long discovered that after X rays break chromo- believed the “jumping genes” theory, there somes, the chromosomes repair themselves, was no hard evidence of the phenomenon sometimes fusing together in rings. This until McClintock proved it to be true. discovery came well before the study of Born in Hartford, Connecticut, on June DNA in the 1950s, at which time some sci- 16, 1902, McClintock was the third of three entists were observing the damage-and- daughters of Sara Handy and Dr. Thomas repair process and others still believed that Henry McClintock. She always had a dis- chromosomes were stable. McClintock re- tant relationship with her mother, who had ceived a Guggenheim Fellowship and used wanted a boy when Barbara was born and, it to visit Germany in 1933. She was so dis- with the son born after Barbara, had four tressed to find the scientific community in small children to raise. When Barbara was disarray as a result of Hitler’s ridding the young, her mother sent her to spend a lot of universities of the Jews that she immedi- time with an aunt and uncle in rural Massa- ately returned to Cornell. With the depres- chusetts, where she enjoyed collecting in- sion on, she was able to secure two years at sects and studying them, fixing machinery, Cornell only with the help of the Rockefeller and going about with her uncle, who sold Foundation. fish. Her father raised his daughters no dif- Unable to obtain a full-time faculty posi- ferently than he did his son. Both parents tion at Cornell because of her gender, she supported Barbara’s activities even when took a faculty position, her first, at the Uni- they differed from the norm. She was an in- versity of Missouri in 1936. She was uncon- dependent child who spent a lot of time out- ventional (she did not wear dresses, did not doors and alone. work well in organized settings, and did not Barbara did well in school and loved sci- like to teach as well as she liked doing re- ence and math at Erasmus Hall High School search), and did not last long there. In 1942, in Brooklyn, New York. When she was she obtained a position with the Carnegie ready for college, she told her mother she Foundation working at Cold Spring Harbor, wanted to go to Cornell. Her father was an environment that suited her tempera-

137 McGee, Anita Newcomb ment and her work ethic. She stayed there over forty years. It was at Cold Spring Harbor that she made the discovery of “jumping genes,” or transposable elements. She announced her finding in 1951 and later published her research, but the scientific community was skeptical and she got little notice. She continued working on other projects, and in 1983, she won the Nobel Prize for her work thirty years prior. Part of the reason for the delayed recognition was that the Nobel Prize was not given for botany research until it was clear the work had significance for human well- being. “The discovery of transposable genetic systems and genetic regulation anticipated the findings of bacterial geneticists by 15 years and explained how the resistance to antibiotic drugs can be passed from one type of bacteria to another through ‘jumping genes’” (Shampo and Kyle 1995, 148). Her “ideas, like her discoveries, truly span the century of genetics. Some were timely and quickly recognized. Others were well ahead of their time, but eventually caught on. Some still pull us into the future” Anita Newcomb McGee (U.S. National Library of (Fedoroff 1992, 3). Barbara McClintock died Medicine) on September 2, 1992.

References: Comfort, Nathaniel C., The Tan- gled Field: Barbara McClintock’s Search for the McGee, Anita Newcomb Patterns of Genetic Control, Cambridge, MA: 1864–1940 Harvard University Press (2001); Fedoroff, Nina, and David Botstein, eds., The Dynamic Anita McGee was the founder of the U.S. Genome: Barbara McClintock’s Ideas in the Army Nurse Corps. She heightened public Century of Genetics, Cold Spring Harbor, NY: awareness of the importance of an orga- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press nized nursing unit for the military. (1992); Keller, Evelyn Fox, A Feeling for the Born in Washington, D.C., on November Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara Mc- 4, 1864, McGee was the daughter of Caro- Clintock, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman line Hassler and Simon Newcomb. Her fa- (1983); McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch, Nobel ther served as an astronomer at the Naval Prize Women in Science, Secaucus, NJ: Carol Observatory. She received her early educa- (1998); Shampo, Marc A., and Robert A. tion, along with two sisters, at private Kyle, “Barbara McClintock—Nobel Laure- schools and with tutors. She spent some ate Geneticist,” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 70, time in Europe with her mother and studied no. 5 (1995): 448; Van der Does, Louise Q., various subjects, including languages and and Rita J. Simon, Renaissance Women in Sci- art. She took some classes at the University ence, Lanham, MD: University Press of of Geneva and also Cambridge University. America (1999). She did a great deal of research on her forebears and became one of the early members of the Daughters of the American Rev-

138 Medical College of Pennsylvania olution (DAR). She also wrote articles for an References: McGee, Anita Newcomb, The encyclopedia, was active in politics, and Nurse Corps of the Army, Carlisle, PA: Associ- had an interest in science. In 1888 she mar- ation of Military Surgeons (1902), reprinted ried William John McGee; they had three in History of Women Collection, no. 10001, New children. She decided to attend medical Haven, CT: Research Publications (1977); school the year after her marriage and en- Reeves, Connie L., “McGee, Anita New- rolled at Columbian College (now called comb,” American National Biography, vol. 15, George Washington University). New York: Oxford University Press (1999). During her last year, the college decided to refuse admittance to future female applicants. She fought this decision but to no McKinnon, Emily H. S. avail; women were not admitted after she 1873–1968 graduated. She went on to intern at the Washington, D.C., Women’s Clinic and later Emily McKinnon was the first female to be- opened a private practice. Following the come a physician in New Zealand. She death of her son in 1895, she joined the staff graduated from the University of Otago in of the Women’s Dispensary. 1896. More information on her life is at the War with Spain seemed inevitable in Alexander Turnbull Library in Wellington. 1898, and McGee used her influence to persuade the army to allow the DAR to assist in References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women placing trained nurses in the military and Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan setting criteria for nurses’ qualifications. (1957). However, her work with organizing nurses put her in a negative light with the Red Cross, which felt slighted when it was not Medical Act of 1858 selected to be in charge of military nurses. McGee was instrumental following the The British Parliament passed the Medical war in drafting legislation to form the Act of 1858 to restrict the medical profession Nurse Corps as a part of the Army Medical to those who were perceived to be qualified. Corps. She was determined to see nurses as The law excluded women from British med- part of both the Army Medical Corps and ical schools. The act was overturned by the the reserves. “In addition to this permanent Russell Gurney Enabling Act of 1876, which force, definite provision should be made for gave women the same rights as men to enter war reserves. The Army and National medical schools and earn their M.D. degrees. Guard will supply corps men for the arduous field service, but they cannot maintain a See also: Jex-Blake, Sophia Louisa; Russell large enough corps to fill the needs of war Gurney Enabling Act of 1876 emergency, with its large Army and large References: Waddington, Ivan, The Medical percentage of sick, and neither can they turn Profession in the Industrial Revolution, Dublin: recruits into competent nurses in a few Gill and Macmillan (1984). weeks” (McGee 1977, 6). She was active in the Russo-Japanese War, training nurses and inspecting hospitals overseas. She believed that nurses deserved Medical College a higher professional status and that the of Pennsylvania military deserved nurses as well qualified 1850– as those who served civilians. Her husband died in 1912, and she spent The Medical College of Pennsylvania was time with her children and lecturing on var- originally founded by Quakers in Philadel- ious health topics. She died on October 5, phia in 1850 as the Female Medical College 1940, and was buried with honors at Arling- of Pennsylvania. In 1867, it became known ton National Cemetery. as the Women’s Medical College of Pennsyl-

139 Medical Women’s International Association

Medical College of Pennsylvania (Lucius Crowell/U.S. National Library of Medicine)

vania. In 1969, it became coeducational. Medical Women’s Association and their for- During the 1920s and 1930s it was the only eign guests in October 1919, was the first or- medical college for women that survived. ganization to unify women physicians Struggling financially at times, it stayed a worldwide. The Medical Women’s Federa- course that would ensure a permanent place tion of Great Britain was the only other in Philadelphia history and in the history of large association in existence at the time; it women in medicine around the world. was organized in 1917. The association grew out of a recognized References: Peitzman, Steven J., A New and need for international cooperation on health Untried Course: Women’s Medical College and care and medical education for women. Medical College of Pennsylvania, 1850–1998, Women health care workers had been over- New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University whelmed during World War I by the condi- Press (2000). tions in some countries, especially regarding the health of women and children and general nutrition. The war opened the Medical Women’s world’s eyes to the needs of the underde- veloped countries. International Association Today the MWIA has over 20,000 mem- (MWIA) bers in seventy countries. The majority of 1919– members are from affiliated national associations; a small number of members are indi- The Medical Women’s International Associ- vidual women who come from countries ation, created by members of the American that do not have a national association.

140 Mendenhall, Dorothy Reed

They continue to strive for equal opportuni- ances satisfied her need to be challenged ties in medical education for women, to dis- mentally that went all the way back to the seminate information on various health is- days when she had been tutored by Anna sues, and to attempt to overcome gender Gunning. It incorporated her love of biol- discrimination in the medical field. ogy that she had discovered at Smith and al- The MWIA has maintained an affiliation lowed her to escape from the social pres- with the World Health Organization (WHO) sures placed on her while she was at home” since 1954 and has recently collaborated (Halamay 2000, 54). with WHO on women’s health, AIDS, and Her mother had not managed the fi- immunization. It has also worked with nances of the family well enough to support UNESCO and other national and interna- her well in college, and she became more in- tional agencies in providing information on terested in a career. After her sojourn at various health care issues. MWIA’s home Johns Hopkins, where she discovered the office is in Dortmund, Germany. Reed-Sternberg cells, she worked for four years at Babies Hospital in New York under References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Dr. Emmett Holt. Physicians and Surgeons: National and Interna- She married Charles Elwood Mendenhall tional Organizations, Livingston, NY: Liv- in 1906, and they had four children. The first ingston Press (1939), http://www.who.int/ died in childbirth, and this tragedy affected ina-ngo/ngo/ngo143.htm. Mendenhall for the rest of her life. She blamed the death on poor obstetrical care and afterward worked on exploring the Mendenhall, Dorothy Reed problems of infant mortality and the impor- 1874–1964 tance of nutrition. She became an active public health physician, working for the Dorothy Mendenhall was a physician who U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Chil- helped discover the cells important for the dren’s Bureau, and the Wisconsin State diagnosis of Hodgkin’s disease. Both she, an Board of Health. American, and Carl Sternberg, from Aus- Mendenhall was a rarity in her time. For tria, gave the most thorough descriptions of the most part, a woman either had a career the cells (Sternberg in 1898 and Mendenhall or had a husband and children. “Dorothy in 1902), now called Reed-Sternberg cells. Reed Mendenhall represented a third type Mendenhall was born on September 22, that is not present in the usual depiction of 1874, in Columbus, Ohio. Her parents were early twentieth century women. She was a William Pratt Reed and Grace Kimball. The professional woman who married and had family had a certain amount of financial se- children, and who managed to pursue a ca- curity even though her father, a shoe manu- reer after her marriage. A study of her life al- facturer, passed away when she was a child. lows us to see that some women did exist She was able to obtain a good education during the late nineteenth and early twenti- at home. eth centuries who, even in the face of vehe- She went to Smith College in Northamp- ment opposition, used innovation and inge- ton, Massachusetts, in 1891. She became in- nuity to carve out new lives and, in so doing, terested in biology and discovered that a found fulfillment” (Halamay 2000, 137). medical career was possible through Johns Mendenhall published several reports Hopkins. She obtained her degree from about children’s health and childbirth is- Smith and then went to the Massachusetts sues and remained active until her retire- Institute of Technology to better her under- ment. She died in Chester, Connecticut, on standing of chemistry. She also began a cor- July 31, 1964. respondence with Dr. William Welch of Johns Hopkins and later enrolled. One of References: Halamay, Kate Elizabeth, “‘I her classmates was Florence Sabin. “The Like Everything about Medicine, Ex- study of medicine itself and its many nu- cept . . .’: Dorothy Reed Mendenhall and the

141 Mendoza-Gauzon, Marie Paz

Issues Confronting Women Physicians in compete with men for a position at the Cook the Early Twentieth Century,” Ph.D. disser- County Insane Asylum. She did well, but the tation, Smith College (2000); Mauch, Peter hospital board prevented her from taking the M., et al., Hodgkin’s Disease, Philadelphia: position. She then chose to do postgraduate Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins (1999); work in Zurich, Switzerland. Morantz-Sanchez, Regina, “Mendenhall, She later became an assistant in Chicago Dorothy Reed,” American National Biogra- to William H. Byford, a gynecologist. The phy, vol. 15, New York: Oxford University following year she gained a position at the Press (1999). Women’s Medical College and gradually rose to become its dean. She also worked at Cook County Hospital, the Women’s Hospi- Mendoza-Gauzon, Marie Paz tal of Chicago, Wesley Hospital, and the 18?–19? Chicago Hospital for Women and Children. Mergler died in Los Angeles, California, on Marie Mendoza-Gauzon was the first fe- May 17, 1901. male physician of the Philippines. She graduated from the College of Medicine at the References: Fine, Eva, “Mergler, Marie University of the Philippines in 1912 and Josepha,” American National Biography, vol. married Dr. P. Gauzon, who was head of 15, New York: Oxford University Press Philippine General Hospital’s Department (1999); Southgate, M. Therese, “Women in of Surgery. She served as a professor of Medicine II,” in John Walton, Paul B. Bee- pathology at the university. son, and Ronald Bodley Scott, eds., The Ox- ford Companion to Medicine, Oxford: Oxford References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women University Press (1986). Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan (1957). Miller, Jean Baker 1927– Mergler, Marie Josepha 1851–1901 A pioneering psychiatrist, Jean Miller broke new ground in understanding women and Marie Mergler was an early gynecological their psychological needs with the publica- surgeon who became dean of the Women’s tion in 1976 of Toward a New Psychology of Medical College of Chicago in 1899. Her ex- Women. She continues her work today at the ample and teaching influenced a number of Jean Baker Miller Institute at Wellesley Col- women pursuing medical careers in the late lege in Wellesley, Massachusetts. nineteenth century. She was well-known She was born in New York City on Sep- and respected among the male physicians of tember 29, 1927. She graduated from Sarah her day. She was born in Mainstockheim, Lawrence College in Bronxville, New York, Bavaria. Her family moved to Illinois when in 1948 with a B.A. and then went to Co- she was a child. Her mother was Henrietta lumbia University, where she obtained her von Ritterhausen and her father, a physi- M.D. in 1952. She was an intern and later a cian, was Francis R. Mergler. resident at Montefiore Hospital and then She gained an education from her father studied and was a resident in psychiatry at during her childhood and eventually helped Bellevue Medical Center. Miller expressed him in his medical work. She trained for a some of the feelings that prompted her to teaching career, however, because of the nu- write her first book: merous obstacles facing women who wanted a medical career. She taught high school for a Well, for years I was practicing psy- time before deciding to enter the Women’s chotherapy, and also teaching psychia- Medical College of Chicago in 1877. She try, and it seemed to me that some- graduated with honors and was allowed to thing was fundamentally wrong with

142 Minoka-Hill, Lillie Rosa

the formulations about women, which References: Antler, Joyce, “Book Review: To- were based upon traditional psychoan- ward a New Psychology of Women,” Social Pol- alytic theories. I thought that they icy 18, no. 3 (Winter 1988): 63–64; Bowman, were wrong, but I didn’t have a frame- John S., The Cambridge Dictionary of American work for an alternate way of thinking. Biography, Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Uni- Also, in addition to thinking that these versity Press (1995); Kester-Shelton, Pamela, formulations were wrong, I always felt ed., Feminist Writers, Detroit: St. James Press that the women whom I was seeing in (1996); Miller, Jean Baker, Toward a New Psy- my practice had a lot of strengths. chology of Women, Boston: Beacon Press These capabilities, such as making re- (1976); Miller, Jean Baker, and Irene Pierce lationships and knowing how to do Stiver, The Healing Connection: How Women that, or helping the whole family sur- Form Relationships in Therapy and in Life, vive and flourish a little, were extraor- Boston: Beacon Press (1997); Welch, Amy S., dinarily valuable. However, in our cul- “Learning from Women,” Women and Therapy ture, the women themselves could 17, nos. 3–4 (1995): 335–346. never really perceive them as being strengths, and so these strengths did not help them anywhere near as much Minoka-Hill, Lillie Rosa as they should. (Welch 1995, 336–337) 1876–1952

Toward a New Psychology of Women reexam- Lillie Minoka-Hill was the second Native ined women’s roles as workers, mothers, and American woman to become a physician. wives, as well as women’s strengths. She She served the Oneida community in Wis- says that these strengths derive in part from consin for many years. women’s subservient roles throughout his- She was born August 30, 1876, on the St. tory and that they can be used toward be- Regis Reservation in New York. Her mother coming proactive participants rather than was a Mohawk and her father was Joshua passive victims. Her book “has had a pro- Allen, a physician. She received an educa- found impact on the development of psycho- tion at Grahame Institute in Philadelphia logical theory and practice concerning gen- before attending the Women’s Medical Col- der roles. The book has helped to deconstruct lege of Pennsylvania, obtaining her medical and reconstruct the questions and methods degree in 1899. She interned at the Women’s of psychological research and has played a Hospital in Philadelphia and then had a pri- major role in the development of new psy- vate practice. chology, not only of women but of human She married Charles Abram Hill in 1905 behavior generally” (Antler 1988, 63). and had six children. They moved to Miller has been a professor or lecturer at Oneida, Wisconsin, where Minoka-Hill many institutions with long stays at the Up- maintained an informal practice for many state Medical Center at the State University decades. After the death of her husband in of New York, Albert Einstein College of Med- 1916, she had to work harder as a physician, icine, Harvard Medical School, Wellesley attending to friends, relatives, and neigh- College, and Boston University School of bors and taking whatever they could afford Medicine. Miller currently is the director of to pay. In 1934 she took the state medical the Jean Baker Miller Training Institute in exam and passed it, allowing her to receive Wellesley, Massachusetts, and clinical profes- government reimbursement for some of her sor of psychiatry at Boston University School desperately needed services. of Medicine. She is married and has two chil- Minoka-Hill had a great deal of respect dren. She has continued her writing and has for traditional Indian medicinal cures but emphasized that “studying women’s lives of- also used Western medications and health fers us a crucial key to thinking about socie- care practices to further the welfare of the tal transformation—and that this transforma- people she served. She passed away on tion is essential” (Miller and Stiver 1997, 62). March 18, 1952, in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin.

143 Mission Work

References: Apple, R. D., “Minoka-Hill, Lil- Mission work had gone on for centuries lie Rosa,” Dictionary of American Medical Biog- in large part due to the Catholic Church. At raphy, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (1984); the close of the eighteenth century, however, Perry, Marilyn Elizabeth, “Minoka-Hill, Lillie Catholic missions were somewhat at a Rosa,” American National Biography, vol. 15, standstill for various reasons. In the six- New York: Oxford University Press (1999); teenth through the eighteenth centuries, Thomas, David Hurst, Betty Ballantine, and there was some movement on the part of Ian Ballantine, The Native Americans: An Illus- Protestants as well. “Zealous Protestant trated History, Atlanta: Turner (1993). missionaries, fueled by the Pietist movement of continental Europe and the evangelical awakenings in England and North Mission Work America, had established pockets of believ- ers in the coastlands of Asia, India, Africa, Church missions provided women in the and the Middle East. These areas already medical field with another professional op- were occupied by significant communities portunity. As the twentieth century ap- of Roman and Orthodox Catholics” (Terry, proached, there were still few professions Smith, and Anderson 1998, 199). open to women. Nursing and teaching were In Canton, China, Protestant medical mis- the most common, with physician work a sionary work was well under way before possibility for a small number of women 1850. The Canton Hospital, which opened who had the tenacity to gain admission to a in 1835, was China’s first Western medical medical school and the endurance to gradu- establishment. By 1879 local Cantonese ate and become licensed. The women’s women were taking classes at the nearby movement fueled the fight late in the nine- Canton Medical Missionary Hospital. The teenth century, and the various religions goals of the missions were varied, but in proved a good ally because they were begin- Canton the church was open to educating ning to see the need for female medical mis- the local females in medical care as well as sionaries about the same time. Thus there having able female physicians treat native was finally another route for women to take females. if they had a medical degree but could not When a rift between two of the head find employment. This opportunity also physicians split loyalties there in 1899, the convinced some schools that educating women were left out. This prompted Mary women in the medical field had real merit. Fulton to work to establish an educational Church leaders had early on perceived setting for the local women. In 1902 it took the need to spread Christianity to foreign the name Hackett Medical College due to lands. By the 1800s, the push was coming a donation from Mr. E.A.K. Hackett of from Europe and the United States. In the Indiana. 1880s the American Medical Missionary So- In Persia the Church Missionary Society ciety (AMMS) published a pamphlet, A of the Church of England realized early on Great Field for Women, in which the society that offering medical treatment was the best urged women to become medical mission- means of establishing a relationship with aries. Realizing that some cultures forbade Iranian women. “During the period be- women to seek out male physicians for ad- tween 1891 and 1934 many women worked vice, they turned to women for help. “These as missionary nurses and doctors in Iran” millions of women cannot be reached by (Ward and Stanley 2000, 97). The fact that male missionaries. The doors are shut and Iranian women could not consult males for locked against such. Nor can Christian medical treatment gave early impetus to women, ordinarily, gain entrance to them. promoting medical education for women. But the female Medical Missionary is able to “Female workers were necessary in order to do it, for her professional acquisition is a gain easier access to Iranian women who key. She can unlock the doors and secure for lived largely in seclusion. As the number of herself a welcome” (AMMS 1977). women missionaries began to increase, the

144 Mission Work tasks they carried out were divided into the nineteenth century unfolded. At the be- three distinct categories: education, medi- ginning of the twentieth century, the mis- cine, and evangelism” (Ward and Stanley sionary movement was well aware of the 2000, 96). Physician Emmeline Stuart ar- growing need for women with physician rived in 1897 and very effectively oversaw credentials. Many women left their own the female medical staff in Persia, where the countries to serve as medical missionaries; society opened hospitals and set some stan- others stayed home to serve the under- dards for the future. served populations in the countries where Ida Scudder made enormous headway in they lived. India when she opened a school for nursing in 1909 in Vellore in southern India; the Vel- See also: Fulton, Mary Hannah; Guang- lore Medical College followed in 1918. Both zhou, China; Scudder, Ida Sophia; Whately, were extremely successful at training Indian Mary Louisa women to become nurses and physicians. References: American Medical Missionary Missionaries like Scudder who found them- Society (AMMS), AGreat Field for Women, selves in rural areas and had to work with Chicago: American Medical Missionary So- local governments to get things done had to ciety (1880?), reprinted in History of Women, be accomplished in diplomacy as well as reel 939, no. 8277, Woodbridge, CT: Re- health care. In 1950 the Vellore Medical Col- search Publications (1977); Drake, Fred W., lege began accepting male students and be- Ruth V. Hemenway, MD: A Memoir of Revolu- came affiliated with Madras University. tionary China, 1924–1941, Amherst: Univer- In Egypt, Mary Louisa Whately estab- sity of Massachusetts Press (1977); Fleming, lished a medical mission after establishing Leslie A., Women’s Work for Women: Mission- two schools for Muslim children. In Africa, aries and Social Change in Asia, Boulder, CO: David Livingstone’s explorations of the Westview Press (1989); Jeffrey, Mary continent and medical missionary work Pauline, Dr. Ida: India; The Life Story of Ida S. greatly aided all missionaries. The large Scudder, New York: Fleming H. Revell growth in African missions was due in large (1938); Jordan, Louis Garnett, Up the Ladder part to the desire of African Americans re- in Foreign Missions, Nashville, TN: National cently freed during the American Civil War Baptist Publishing Board (1903); Laurie, to reach out to their ancestors in Africa. An- Rev. Thomas, Women and the Gospel in Per- other factor that helped within the mission sia, New York: Fleming H. Revell (1887); community as a whole was the formation of Rubinstein, Murray A., The Origins of the several women’s missionary groups. Before Anglo-American Missionary Enterprise in they became active, most church donations China, 1807–1840, Lanham, MD: Scarecrow for evangelical work in foreign fields were Press (1996); Terry, John Mark, Ebbie Smith, designated for preaching. Pastors’ wives and Justice Anderson, Missiology: An Intro- worked in health care, but few single duction to the Foundations, History, and women had substantial support. “Before the Strategies of World Missions, Nashville, TN: formation of these women’s organizations, Broadman and Holman (1998); Tucker, Sara mission funds had been collected by minis- W., “Opportunities for Women: The Devel- ters and other church leaders, most of opment of Professional Women’s Medicine whom emphasized parish work or home at Canton, China, 1879–1901,” Women’s missions to the Indians or freedmen. What Studies International Forum 13, no. 4 (1990): money was spent on foreign missions was 357–368; Ward, Kevin, and Brian Stanley, under the control of exclusively male for- The Church Mission Society and World Chris- eign mission boards that were uniformly tianity, 1799–1999, Grand Rapids, MI: uneasy about the radical new idea of send- William B. Eerdmans (2000); Whately, Eliz- ing independent, unmarried women out abeth Jane, The Life and Work of Mary Louisa into the mission field” (Tucker 1990, 363). Whately, London: Religious Tract Society Hospitals grew in number in India, (1890). China, Africa, Japan, and the Middle East as

145 Montoya, Matilde

Montoya, Matilde plastic surgery—against tremendous odds. ‘What I wanted to be doing was the surgery Matilde Montoya was the first female physi- of repair, not the surgery of despair’” (“Pro- cian of Mexico. She graduated from the Uni- file” 1983, 137). Morani died on January 27, versity of Mexico in 1887. 2001.

References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women References: Morani, A. D., “Reflections,” Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan Clinics in Plastic Surgery 10, no. 4 (October (1957). 1983): 669–670; “Profile: Alma Dea Morani, MD,” Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 38, no. 5 (September– Morani, Alma Dea October 1983): 137; Who’s Who in America, 1907–2001 1990–1991, 46th ed., Wilmette, IL: Marquis Who’s Who (1990). Alma Morani was the first female plastic surgeon in the United States. She had to fight to go to medical school and to be able Murray, Flora to practice surgery. She began early in her career to speak up for women in medicine. Flora Murray was a British physician and Born in New York City, she attended New surgeon charged with the first British mili- York University and later the Women’s tary unit of medical women during World Medical College of Pennsylvania, earning War I. She established, with the help of Dr. her M.D. in 1931. She interned in Newark, Louisa Garrett Anderson, daughter of Dr. New Jersey, at St. James Hospital, followed Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, the Women’s by a residency in surgery at Women’s Med- Hospital Corps in Paris to prepare for the ical Hospital in Philadelphia. She served at wounded of World War I. Roxborough Memorial Hospital in Philadel- Born in England, she worked at the hos- phia for over forty years and was a profes- pital on Endell Street in Paris, where she sor at the Medical College of Pennsylvania and the other women physicians carried a for fifty years. heavy workload: “The surgeons spent all Morani had a desire early on “to take up their mornings in the wards, and most of their afternoons in the operating theatre, where it was not unusual to have a list of twenty or thirty cases on each operating day” (Murray 1920, 162). She and the other women treated soldiers from many countries. “Racial characteristics were very evident. The English were slow and phlegmatic, satisfied with theaters, bil- liards and the football news. The Scots were friends with the librarian and always push- ing to get well enough to see London. The Irish brought grace and charm into the ward” (Murray 1920, 149).

See also: Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett References: Murray, Flora, Women as Army Surgeons: Being the History of the Women’s Hospital Corps in Paris, Wimereux and Endell Street, September 1914–October 1919, London: Alma Dea Morani (U.S. National Library of Hodder and Stoughton (1920). Medicine)

146 N

Neufeld, Elizabeth Fondal In 1994 Neufeld received the National 1928– Medal of Science. Currently she is chair of the Biological Chemistry Department at An authority on genetic diseases, Elizabeth UCLA’s School of Medicine. She married in Neufeld became the first female to head a 1951 and has two children. Her research on department at UCLA’s School of Medicine. rare diseases has prompted others in the Her major contributions have been in re- medical community to find cures for MPS search on inherited disorders such as Hurler disorders. She continues to teach and do and Sanfilippo syndromes. research. She was born in Paris, France, on Septem- References: American Men and Women of Sci- ber 27, 1928, to Jacques and Elvira Fondal, ence, 20th ed., vol. 5, New York: Bowker Russian refugees. The family moved to New (1998); Grinstein, Louise S., Carol A. Bier- York while she was still a child, and she at- mann, and Rose K. Rose, Women in the Bio- tended a New York high school before go- logical Sciences: A Biobibliographic Sourcebook, ing on to Queens College and obtaining a Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (1997); B.S. degree in 1948. She later worked in Bar Shearer, Benjamin F., and Barbara S. Shearer, Harbor, Maine, at the Jackson Memorial Notable Women in the Life Sciences, Westport, Laboratory and decided on graduate study CT: Greenwood Press (1996). at the University of Rochester. She later moved to Baltimore and briefly worked at the McCollum-Pratt Institute of Johns Hopkins University before entering New England Female the University of California, Berkeley, to Medical College study for her Ph.D. in 1952. She received her 1848–1874 doctorate in comparative biochemistry in 1956. The New England Female Medical College She worked as a biochemist for the Na- was founded in Boston in 1848 by Samuel tional Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Gregory, who initiated the effort to provide Diseases in Bethesda, Maryland, from 1963 this educational institute for women because to 1973. It is associated with the National In- he believed that male midwives and physi- stitutes of Health (NIH). She worked in var- cians were offensive to women in labor. ious other positions at NIH, focusing on re- Because Gregory had limited funds, he search in genetic diseases. Her work began by organizing a class with two male involved the study of arthritis, metabolism, physicians teaching twelve women. Most diabetes, and kidney diseases as well as rare of these women were preparing to become disorders such as Hurler syndrome, Sanfil- midwives. Because of initial difficulties ippo syndrome, and other mucopolysaccha- regarding the new institution’s charter, for ride (MPS) disorders. a time the college collaborated with fac-

147 New England Hospital ulty from the Female Medical College of Pennsylvania. By 1852 the college offered women a full course of studies and a medical degree and was officially recognized as the New En- gland Female Medical College. The first female professor was Hannah Longshore. In 1859, Marie Zakrzewska came from New York to plan and run a hospital and serve as professor of obstetrics and diseases of women and children. The first hospital operated only a few years. On July 1, 1862, with a permanent location found for the hospital, Zakrzewska became the attending physician at the New England Hospital for Women and Children. The hospital was an extremely beneficial adjunct to the college because it provided the students with clinical training. Nurses also trained there. Numerous financial woes, administrative struggles between the board and faculty, a New England Hospital (Library of Congress) troubling relationship between Zakrzewska and Gregory, and arguments over some of the educational requirements were all typical of nineteenth-century medical educa- clinical training facilities, and Marie Zakr- tion. The college continued despite lean zewska, the hospital’s founder, gave women years during and immediately following the physicians the opportunity to gain clinical Civil War but merged officially with Boston experience. She also wanted to provide University in 1874. Today it is Dimock Com- women and children with a place to be munity Health Center, one of Beth Israel treated by women physicians. Deaconess Medical Center’s community As more men’s medical colleges began to health centers. open their doors to women, some ques- tioned the need for the hospital’s continued See also: Longshore, Hannah Myers; Zakr- existence. Elizabeth Blackwell, whom Zakr- zewska, Marie Elizabeth zewska had trained with at the New York References: Waite, Frederick Clayton, His- Infirmary for Women and Children, had tory of the New England Female Medical Col- seen no further need for her medical school lege, Boston: Boston University School of once Cornell opened its doors in 1899. She Medicine (1950). closed the Women’s Medical College of the New York Infirmary and saw this step as a positive one. Many women agreed. The tra- New England Hospital ditional schools were bigger and had better 1862–1969 facilities. Women who had fought for integration saw victory at hand. Founded initially as the New England Hos- Some held to the idea of a women’s hospi- pital for Women and Children in Boston in tal for women. Zakrzewska was a proponent 1862, the New England Hospital, which until her death in 1902, and her hospital con- changed its name in 1949, was one of the tinued to appeal to women through the try- first hospitals for women and children ing years following the Flexner Report, which staffed by female physicians. Few of the caused many of the all-female medical col- women’s medical colleges at the time had leges to close because of a lack of credentials.

148 Nightingale, Florence

Though more and more women ques- Nielsen, Nielsine Mathilde tioned the need for separatism, and many 1850–1916 would have preferred the hospital to hire men as well as women, the hospital re- The first woman physician in Denmark, mained as its founder had intended for over Nielsine Nielsen read about women practic- 100 years. It will always be remembered by ing medicine in the United States and ap- those interested in the history of women in plied to the University of Copenhagen, medicine. “Indeed, the general shift from graduating in 1885. She continued her med- sexual separatism to integration, the emer- ical education in London, Bern, and Paris. gence of a modern medical profession, and She returned to Denmark and developed a the erosion of Victorian moralism by the rise large gynecology practice. of a science of society in America were en- acted in the lives of the women doctors at References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women the New England Hospital. These impor- Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan tant social changes constantly presented the (1957). women doctors with new problems and challenged them to find novel solutions. As the story of the women doctors at the New England Hospital so vividly shows, a Nightingale, Florence woman’s struggle to become a doctor was 1820–1910 but the first step in her more enduring struggle to be a doctor” (Drachman 1984, Undoubtedly the most famous nurse in 15). The hospital closed in 1969. world history, Florence Nightingale set a precedent of nursing excellence, efficiency, See also: Blackwell, Elizabeth; Flexner Re- duty, honor, and love of humanity. She port; Zakrzewska, Marie Elizabeth wrote extensively, founded hospitals world- References: Drachman, Virginia G., Hospital wide, inspired millions of young women, with a Heart: Women Doctors and the Paradox and cared for thousands of people around of Separatism at the New England Hospital, the world who were victims of pestilence, 1862–1969, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University war, malnutrition, and abuse. The field of Press (1984). military nursing was officially born after her undaunted performance during the Crimean War. New Hospital for She was born in Florence, Italy, on May 12, 1820. Her parents, William Edward Nightin- Women and Children gale and Frances Smith Nightingale, were 1872– wealthy landowners. As a child, Florence was frequently ill. She grew up in the family Founded by Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, homes in Derbyshire, Hampshire, and Lon- this hospital grew out of a dispensary she don. She had one sister, Frances Parthenope, started in 1866 in London. The hospital con- who was a year older than Florence. tinued to grow over the years, serving as a Nightingale’s father was a well-educated place where women physicians could gain man who felt women’s minds could hold an experience. It is still in existence today, education as well as a man’s. He tutored known as the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Florence at home in many subjects includ- Hospital. ing science, mathematics, history, and philosophy. He and her mother had also en- See also: Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett couraged Florence’s love of animals, and References: Manton, Jo, Elizabeth Garrett she had a gift for nursing them when they Anderson, New York: Dutton (1965). were injured. When she was a young woman, in 1837, she received what she felt was a call from

149 Nightingale, Florence

God to serve humanity and the working classes. Initially her parents were not supportive of her turning her attention away from the more traditional aspirations of finding a suitable husband and raising a family. They also were concerned about the dangers to her health of working among the sick. She enrolled in the Deaconess Institution at Kaiserswerth on the Rhine in Germany in 1851. This Protestant institution reflected all her beliefs. She had already learned much by visiting the sick near her family’s homes and hospitals in other countries. She worked among the poor with Pastor Flied- ner, often accompanying him on his rounds. In the few years following her Kaisers- werth days, Nightingale worked in France and England, first traveling to Paris and working with the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul. She also observed surgeries in the hospitals. Back in England she became the superintendent at the Establishment for Gen- tlewomen during Illness, reorganizing the Florence Nightingale (U.S. National Library of Medicine) home to provide better care. “The Home had been languishing through mismanage- ment and lack of funds, and its new superintendent set to work with characteristic to the regulations laid down, and signed a method. She got donations from her friends, paper agreeing that the sisters of mercy join- inspired old subscribers with a new confi- ing the expedition should give entire obedi- dence, and managed to get the institution ence to Miss Nightingale, and that they on its feet again, but not without a serious should not enter into religious discussion strain of overwork” (Tooley 1914, 85). except with the soldiers of their own faith. When the Crimean War broke out in 1854, Mutual arrangement was made that the Ro- William Howard Russell, who wrote for the man Catholic sisters should attend on the London Times, called for more nurses to soldiers of their own faith, and the Protes- tend to British soldiers. French women were tant sisters on those of their faith” (Tooley already in the field helping French soldiers, 1914, 118). but the British had no organization and no The expedition set out for Turkey on Octo- trained staff. Nightingale offered her ser- ber 21, 1854, from London en route to Scutari. vices to the British secretary of war, Sydney Upon arrival at the hospital, Nightingale Herbert, who at the same time was writing a letter to her seeking her services. She ac- made her first round of the wards at cepted a position as the superintendent of Scutari. The beds were reeking with nurses and had a group ready by the end of infection and the ‘sheets,’ she relates, the week. ‘were of canvas, and so coarse that the Nightingale’s thirty-eight nurses were wounded men begged to be left in from both Catholic and Protestant back- their blankets. It was indeed impossi- grounds; their home churches were in ble to put men in such a state of ema- agreement that all would have to obey ciation into those sheets. There was no Nightingale as their superior in the field. bedroom furniture of any kind, and “The Roman Catholic bishop at once agreed only empty beer or wine bottles for

150 Nightingale, Florence

candlesticks.’ In addition to the mis- She had set up a kitchen and laundry and eries entailed by overcrowding, the sanitation guidelines. She would later teach men lying on the floors of the corri- that organization and management have a dors were tormented by vermin and huge role in nursing care: “All the results of their limbs attacked by rats as they lay good nursing, as detailed in these notes, helpless in their pain. (Tooley 1914, may be spoiled or utterly negatived by one 126–127) defect, viz.: in petty management, or in other words, by not knowing how to man- The medical men already there felt the age that what you do when you are there, women would be more of a hindrance than shall be done when you are not there” a help. Less than a day later the wounded (Nightingale 1975, 35). soldiers from the Battle of Inkerman began On May 2, 1855, Nightingale left Scutari, arriving, overwhelming a staff that had not Turkey, and set sail for the Crimea and Bala- had the time to clean and organize. In the clava. It was her duty as superintendent to crowded conditions, the wounded were inspect all hospitals, and she was anxious to placed in the mud outside the hospital. see how the wounded in other hospitals Nightingale set about tending the were faring. She was by now a household wounded and assigning tasks to everyone word in England, and in the Crimea, sol- who could help, including untrained, diers had heard about her work at Scutari. wounded soldiers. Some got drunk on the She inspected some hospitals but then sud- brandy that was for the patients. Many of denly became ill. Word spread quickly that the men were dragged to the “dead house” she was dying; even the press in England re- while they were still alive. ported this. However, she recovered enough Nightingale saw, however, that it was not to decide to stay on in her war duties. so much the incompetence of those tending On September 9, 1855, Sebastopol fell, the sick that led to the state of general de- and the Russians retreated. With the end of spair but the lack of organization. She began the war, Nightingale remained with the reorganizing the staff, securing medical sup- maining wounded who needed treatment. plies, and instituting a regimen to ensure Nightingale’s detailed notes and letters on sanitary conditions. Later in her famous conditions in the field led to many reforms Notes on Nursing, she would again stress or- as time went on and benefited many future ganization and cleanliness. If a nurse “al- soldiers in Britain and around the world. low[s] her sick to remain unwashed, or their clothing to remain on them after being satu- Florence Nightingale knew how to get rated with perspiration or other excretion, results. Against the backdrop of the she is interfering injuriously with the natural Victorian era, when most women of processes of health just as effectually as if she high birth were relegated to the draw- were to give the patient a dose of slow poi- ing room, she changed the face of son by the mouth” (Nightingale 1975, 93). health care forever. She championed The doctors chose their surgical patients sanitary practices, such as hand wash- based on their chances of survival, separating and improving sanitation in health ing those patients they felt would die. Many care institutions. She launched social of the latter survived under Nightingale’s and health care reforms in England care. She made her rounds at night carrying and abroad. She performed statisti- a little lamp, and many later referred to her cally based research and used innova- as the Lady with the Lamp. tive pie chart diagrams to illustrate her By 1855, the hospital at Scutari was func- data. (“Tracing Nightingale’s Steps” tioning well. Nightingale’s parents had 2001, 44) given some financial help, Nightingale had used her own monies, and the British gov- Upon returning to England, Nightingale ernment was forthcoming with supplies was “haunted by the memories of the thou- once she had explained the hospital’s needs. sands of soldiers who had died because of

151 Novello, Antonia Coello the glaring deficiencies and unpreparedness Shipman, A Lost Commander: Florence Night- of the army’s Medical Department. Of the ingale, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran 97,800 soldiers who had fought in the (1929); Baly, Monica E., Florence Nightingale Crimean War, 4,500 had died of battle- and the Nursing Legacy, London: Croom related causes, but nearly four times as Helm (1986); Cook, Sir Edward, The Life of many—17,600—had died of disease and ex- Florence Nightingale, London: Macmillan posure” (Dossey 2000, 186). (1925); Dossey, Barbara Montgomery, Flo- Following the Crimea, she turned her at- rence Nightingale: Mystic, Visionary, Healer, tention to India. After the Sepoy Rebellion, Springhouse, PA: Springhouse (2000); there were many reports of unsanitary con- Nightingale, Florence, Notes on Nursing: ditions in India, and British soldiers were What It Is, and What It Is Not, New York: D. again subject to poor medical care in the Appleton (1860), reprinted in History of field. From her home, Nightingale gathered Women, reel 343, no. 2366, New Haven, CT: statistics for reports to the government. In a Research Publications (1975); Snodgrass, short time, her reports led to a reduction in Ellen, Historical Dictionary of Nursing, Santa the mortality rate of the wounded. Eventu- Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1999); Tooley, ally her efforts aided in the establishment of Sarah A., The Life of Florence Nightingale, a sanitary department with great authority London: Cassell (1914); “Tracing Nightin- in India. gale’s Steps,” Nursing 31, no. 1 (January In 1860 the Nightingale Home and Train- 2001): 44; Woodham-Smith, Cecil, Florence ing School opened as part of St. Thomas’s Nightingale, 1820–1910, London: Constable Hospital. It had been one of Nightingale’s (1950). goals from the beginning to provide better training for nurses that included setting fractures, preparing medications, and basic Novello, Antonia Coello chemistry as well as instilling a profession- 1944– alism that had been lacking in the field of nursing. Her training facility did not grow Antonia Novello was the first woman to be- quickly, but her methods rapidly caught on come the surgeon general of the United in Australia, Canada, and the United States, States. She was also the first Hispanic to and over the years nursing schools were serve in that capacity. Her focus on AIDS built around her teachings. awareness, injury prevention in children, Often ill, some believe from a fever she and health care for minorities contributed to had contracted in the Crimea, Nightingale public awareness of the challenges to come. continued to plan and write from her home. Born in Fajardo, Puerto Rico, on August She proposed many changes that eventually 23, 1944, she was the eldest of the three chil- became a reality, for example separate facil- dren of Antonio Coello and Ana Delia ities for the insane, children, and those with Coello. She was born with an abnormally infectious diseases. Many of her initiatives large colon that malfunctioned until she are now protocols in hospitals, nursing was eighteen and had surgery to correct it. schools, and nursing homes. She continued Before and after the operation, her ailment her advocacy for better health care for all led to numerous hospital stays. and a sound education for nurses. In 1907 Novello’s mother and her aunt, who was she received the Order of Merit from King a nurse, encouraged her in her ambition to Edward VII; she was the first female so become a pediatrician, a goal she had honored. She also received the Norwegian formed in part to keep other children from Red Cross, the Cross of Merit from Ger- suffering so long with a similar ailment. Her many, and the gold medal of Secours aux pediatrician and her gastroenterologist, Glessés from France, among other honors. who, she felt, were good examples of caring She passed away on August 13, 1910. physicians, also influenced her. Novello attended the University of References: Andrews, Mary Raymond Puerto Rico in Rio Piedras and graduated in

152 Nusslein-Volhard, Christiane

1965 with a B.S. She earned her medical de- Nusslein-Volhard, Christiane gree in 1970 from the University of Puerto 1942– Rico’s Medical School in San Juan. She married a navy flight surgeon, Joseph Novello, Christiane Nusslein-Volhard received the and they both went to the University of Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in Michigan in Ann Arbor to continue their 1995 along with Edward B. Lewis and Eric F. medical studies. She concentrated on pedi- Wieschaus for discovering how genes con- atrics and nephrology. trol early embryo development. Novello also earned a master’s degree in Born October 20, 1942, during World War public health from Johns Hopkins Univer- II, she is the daughter of an architect, Rolf sity in 1982. In 1976 she had opened a pri- Volhard, and Brigitte Haas Volhard of vate practice in Springfield, Virginia, but Frankfurt, Germany. She is the second of she empathized with her patients and their five children. parents to the degree that she felt she had to She loved nature and knew she wanted to move on and closed the practice after two be a biologist by the time she was twelve. years. In 1978 she joined the National Insti- She didn’t do well in some subjects in tutes of Health and quickly rose in the ranks school but excelled at science while attend- to become the deputy director of the Na- ing Frankfurt’s Schiller School. She had an tional Institute of Child Health and Human interest in evolution and genetics. School in Development. post–World War II Germany involved dis- During the 1980s she was very active in cussion of Hitler, anti-Semitism, and guilt. tackling some issues of major concern to mi- Many children like Nusslein-Volhard were norities, children, and women. She fought shocked and horrified by what had taken for better warning labels on tobacco prod- place. ucts, better education on AIDS prevention, Her father died just before she entered and health care for the Hispanic commu- the Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-University in nity. She also played a major role in the re- Frankfurt. She stayed there two years before alization of the National Organ Transplant moving to the University of Tübingen, Act of 1984, which would lead to better or- which had just started a biochemistry pro- ganization and a network for acquiring or- gram. She received her diploma in 1968 in gans needed for transplantation. biochemistry and continued her studies She became the fourteenth surgeon gen- there in order to earn a Ph.D. in biology eral of the United States and thus the “doctor with a concentration in genetics in 1973. for all Americans” on March 9, 1990, after be- While studying for her Ph.D., she worked ing nominated by President George Bush in as a research associate at the Max Planck In- 1989. She broadened her focus to many other stitute, where she wanted to study cells and public health concerns, including domestic the role genetics plays in embryo develop- abuse and underage drinking. She brought a ment. She spent hours in the lab studying clever, intelligent, well-informed persona to the mutation of fruit flies, their eggs, and the mission of the surgeon general. other characteristics, believing these studies Novello served until Joycelyn Elders was would be key to dealing with more difficult appointed in 1993 after being nominated by questions. President Bill Clinton. She is currently the In 1978 she moved to Heidelberg to head New York state health commissioner and the European Molecular Biology Laboratory has recently been involved with state efforts (EMBL). She and Eric Wieschaus studied to keep the West Nile virus under control. random gene mutations in the drosophila, or fruit fly, and were able to identify fifteen References: Associated Press, “NY Battle genes that control early embryo develop- Plan: Less Spraying; Plan’s Emphasis on ment. “The genes identified by Nusslein- Prevention,” Newsday (New York) (25 April Volhard and Wieschaus also influence for- 2001): A17; “Novello, Antonia,” Current Bi- mation of the body axis and specialization ography 53, no. 5 (May 1992): 45–49. of individual segments of the development

153 Nutting, Mary Adelaide of the human embryo. About 40 percent of Mary was born in Frost Village, Quebec, idiopathic congenital malformations may be on November 1, 1858. The family soon due to mutations in genes discovered by moved to Waterloo, where she grew up. She Nusslein-Volhard and Wieschaus” (Raju was the daughter of a seamstress, Harriet 2000, 81). Sophia Peasley Nutting, and a county clerk, Nusslein-Volhard moved on to zebra Vespasian Nutting. She had three older fish, thinking they might be able to solve brothers, Charles, Arthur, and Jim, and one more of the puzzle of cell development. younger sister, Harriette Armine. They were poor but received an educa- When Leonard Zon, associate professor tion at the local schools. The oldest, Charles, of pediatrics at Children’s Hospital in eventually graduated from law school at Boston studied dozens of Nusslein-Vol- McGill University. The girls attended the hard’s mutants that failed to form red Shefford Academy. Mary Adelaide also at- blood cells in the usual fashion, he tended Bute House, a private school in found that some of the mutants had Montreal, and developed some proficiency the fish equivalent of various human in music. Later the girls’ mother moved blood disorders, including thalassemia with them to Ottawa, where her son Jim and a type of congenital anemia. “We was already settled and working and she owe Janni a tremendous debt,” Zon felt they would have more opportunities. says; “Her zebra fish mutants have Vespasian chose to stay behind. provided not only a fantastic system They enjoyed Ottawa, but their financial for studying the whole process of situation was still grim. Mary Adelaide blood formation, they’re also providing taught music and did seamstress work as critical insights into human disease. We she could find it. She nursed her mother could never have gotten to this level during a brief illness that took her life in without her.” (Ackerman 1997, 42) 1884. Increasingly lonely and in search of a job, Mary Adelaide remembered reading Nusslein-Volhard is divorced and has no about Florence Nightingale and discovered children. She is currently the director of the there was a training school for nurses at Max Planck Institute for Developmental Bi- Johns Hopkins. She applied and was ac- ology’s Genetics Division in Tübingen. cepted in 1889. She excelled in nursing and graduated in 1891 at the top of her class. References: Ackerman, Jennifer, “Journey Once the medical school opened in 1893, to the Center of the Egg,” New York Times, there was a great need for expanded hospi- sec. 6 (12 October 1997): 42; McGrayne, tal activity, and upon Isabel Hampton’s res- Sharon Bertsch, Nobel Prize Women in Sci- ignation, Nutting became the assistant su- ence, Secaucus, NJ: Carol (1998); Nusslein- perintendent of nurses. Volhard, Christiane, and Jorn Kratzschmar, In 1894 she became full superintendent eds., Of Fish, Fly, Worm, and Man: Lessons and worked to change students’ nursing re- from Developmental Biology for Human Gene sponsibilities. As in many schools and as Function and Disease, Berlin: Springer (2000); had been the case in Nutting’s student days, Raju, T. N., “The Nobel Chronicles,” Lancet student nurses were many times over- 356, no. 9223 (1 July 2000): 81. worked as nurses in associated hospitals instead of being given the needed time for study. Nutting, Mary Adelaide In a speech in 1896 to the American Soci- 1858–1948 ety of Superintendents of Training Schools for Nurses, she stressed that it was time for Mary Nutting contributed to a higher standard of nursing practice in the United “people [to realize] that training States. She was the first nurse to become a schools were educational institutions.” university professor. She pointed out the dangers of reduc-

154 Nutting, Mary Adelaide

ing students to servitude. Fearlessly was requisite but not without the funda- she asserted that in many instances it mentals of instruction. was not for the purpose of giving She served on many committees and more and better training that they boards concerned with nursing education were kept on duty so long, but rather and helped draft the first nursing-practice that the amount of service to the hos- law in Maryland in 1904. She became a pro- pital might be increased and the work- fessor of nursing in 1907 at Teachers Col- ing force of the institutions be kept at lege in New York, which needed an au- a minimum. As a rule the number of thority to teach courses to graduate nurses. student nurses was less than propor- She remained at Teachers College until her tionate to the number of patients. Such retirement. attempts at economy were detrimental One of her greatest and timeliest achieve- to student nurses and patients alike. ments was completing and publishing the (Marshall 1972, 73) Standard Curriculum for Schools of Nursing in 1917 for the National League of Nursing Ed- She advocated eight to nine work hours ucation (NLNE) just as the United States per day as a maximum. She used statistical was getting involved in World War I. It data from national surveys to show that helped nursing to move forward in obtain- many student nurses were working fifteen ing professional status. Nursing schools in and seventeen hours in some cases and then many parts of the United States scrutinized were expected to study and go to class. As and implemented her methods. Nutting she became more efficient in administrative passed away on October 3, 1948, in White and organizational matters, she worked to Plains, New York. obtain an endowment for the training school, thus separating its budget from the See also: Robb, Isabel Hampton hospital’s. She also enlarged the curriculum References: Drachman, V., “Nutting, to three years instead of two because nurses M[ary] Adelaide,” in Martin Kaufman, Stu- needed to be familiar with an ever-increas- art Galishoff, and Todd L. Savitt, eds., Dic- ing number of medical specialties. tionary of American Medical Biography, West- Nutting was instrumental in changing the port, CT: Greenwood Press (1984); Marshall, public’s and the physician’s view of nurs- Helen E., Mary Adelaide Nutting: Pioneer of ing. She provided leadership in establishing Modern Nursing, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hop- it as a profession with many requirements, kins University Press (1972); Snodgrass, thus giving more weight to a nursing de- Mary Ellen, Historical Encyclopedia of Nurs- gree. She realized that practical experience ing, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1999).

155

Ockett, Molly versity, and also from a private medical 1750?–1816 school, Kojuin. The latter was an all-male school, and she had difficulty gaining en- An early Abenaki healer in Maine, Molly trance. After she graduated, the govern- Ockett was the only medical help available ment resisted allowing her to take the ex- for most people. She used herbs and en- aminations that were a prerequisite to couraged mineral waters for ailing whites legally practicing medicine. After three and Indians alike. years, in 1885, she was allowed to take the Not much is known about her life, but examinations and passed. She worked at the numerous stories abound about her, many Meiji Girls’ School and later went to fictitious. A noted criminal of the day, Hokkaido to practice. Henry Tufts, included her good deeds in his She contracted a venereal disease from autobiography, which historians believe to her first husband that left her unable to bear be an accurate description of life in the re- children. She divorced him on these gion and of the people, both whites and In- grounds and later married Shikata Shizen. dians. Ockett treated Tufts for a knife She returned to Tokyo after his death and wound around 1772, for which he was for- died in 1913. ever grateful. She died in 1816 and is buried in Andover, Maine. References: Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Har- vey, eds., The Biographical Dictionary of References: Lecompte, Nancy, “The Last of Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from An- the Androscoggins: Molly Ockett, Abenaki cient Times to the Mid-20th Century, New Healing Woman” (August 1997), http:// York: Routledge (2000); “Ogino Ginko,” Ko- www.avcnet.org/ne-do-ba/bio_moly.html; dansha Encyclopedia of Japan, vol. 6, Tokyo: Tufts, Henry, The Autobiography of a Criminal, Kodansha (1983). New York: Duffield (1930). Osborn, June Elaine Ogino, Ginko 1937– 1851–1913 June Osborn is an epidemiologist, pediatri- Ginko Ogino was the first woman licensed cian, and professor. She has continued to to practice Western medicine in Japan. She lead and advise in the AIDS awareness and persevered against continual rejections of prevention movement and assists in public her efforts to gain a medical education. policy development regarding AIDS treat- Born in Saitama Prefecture, she gradu- ment both nationally and internationally. ated from the Women’s Normal School, Born on May 28, 1937, in Endicott, New now known as Ochanomizu Women’s Uni- York, she attended Oberlin College in Ohio,

157 Osborn, June Elaine receiving a B.A. in 1957. She continued on to come involved at all in the care of people medical school at Case Western Reserve with HIV. ‘Risk’ is cited as an excuse, but the University and earned her medical degree risk is far lower from HIV than from many in 1961. She has worked in several capaci- other hazards in the health care workplace. ties at various medical schools and hospitals Ignorance is offered as another excuse—but around the United States, concentrating in the proper response to ignorance on the part pediatrics and epidemiology as well as be- of a professional is to learn, not to walk ing deeply involved in all issues surround- away” (Osborn 1992, 64). Osborn is curing HIV and AIDS. rently president of the Josiah Macy, Jr. She has published numerous scientific Foundation in New York. and public policy papers. Her early work focuses on many research areas, particularly References: American Men and Women of Sci- those concerned with vaccines and im- ence, 20th ed., New York: Bowker (1998); Os- munology. In the past couple of decades she born, June Elaine, “AIDS and the Politics of has concentrated more on AIDS as a social Compassion,” Hospitals 66, no. 18 (20 Sep- as well as a medical problem. tember 1992): 64; Osborn, June Elaine, “In- Osborn has urged education about HIV. fections,” Journal of Urban Health 75, no. 2 “We’ve seen a shocking disinclination to be- (June 1998): 251–257.

158 P

Paget, Mary Rosalind socioeconomic status. Paget fought hard to 1855–1948 ensure equal care for women and children regardless of the mother’s socioeconomic, Mary Rosalind Paget was an English nurse professional, or marital status. “When sev- and midwife who in 1881 founded the Mid- eral Queen’s nurses expressed confusion wives Institute, later known as the Royal about whether or not they should attend College of Midwives. The health of England only respectable married women, Rosalind lay in increasing the birth rate, and midwives Paget was clear that the health and safety of did not have proper training. The Royal Col- the mother and child were paramount and lege of Midwives continues to operate. Paget that the mother’s marital status was irrele- was born on January 4, 1855, in Greenbank, vant” (Hannam 1997, 91). Liverpool, to Elizabeth Rathbone Paget and She founded and was the editor of Nurs- John Paget, a police magistrate. Early on she ing Notes (later Midwives’ Chronicles) for seemed to be pulled toward public service, many years. She played a large part in ad- and she went to Westminster Hospital to vancing women’s midwifery skills, fighting train as a nurse. In 1882 she went to the Lon- for better pay, and ensuring better prenatal don Hospital and later to the British Lying-In care. Paget never married. She passed away Hospital. It was during this initial training on August 19, 1948, in Bolney, Sussex. that she became very concerned with infants and the inadequate training opportunities References: Hannam, June, “Rosalind for those practicing as midwives. Paget: The Midwife, the Women’s Move- She and a small group of women founded ment and Reform before 1914,” in Hilary the Midwives Institute in 1881, and she Marland and Anne Marie Rafferty, eds., worked hard to get the House of Commons Midwives, Society, and Childbirth: Debates and to pass a bill requiring the registration and Controversies in the Modern Period, London: certification of midwives. This effort met Routledge (1997); Pye, E. M., “Paget, Dame with resistance for several years from those (Mary) Rosalind,” Dictionary of National Bi- who believed the legislation would prevent ography, 1941–1950, London: Oxford Uni- birthing mothers from getting help from versity Press (1959); Snodgrass, Mary Jane, neighbors. The bill finally passed as the Historical Encyclopedia of Nursing, Santa Bar- Midwives Act of 1902. The Central Mid- bara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1999). wives Board was established, which Paget served on for years. She was also the first queen’s nurse, appointed by Queen Victoria Pak, Esther Kim in 1891. 1877–1910 Many in the decades before World War I concerned themselves with the moral char- Esther Pak was the first woman physician to acter of unwed mothers and mothers of low practice Western medicine in Korea. She

159 Parrish, Rebecca graduated from the Women’s Medical Col- eds., The Biographical Dictionary of Women in lege of Baltimore in 1900, afterward return- Science, New York: Routledge (2000); Par- ing to Korea to work with women and chil- rish, Rebecca, Orient Seas and Lands Afar, dren. She has served as an inspiration for New York: Fleming H. Revell (1936). other young women who wanted to become physicians. Pearce, Louise References: “Doctor Esther Kim Pak,” 1885–1959 http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/ ~youngran/WomenScientists/esther.htm; Louise Pearce was a physician and patholo- Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Doctors of the gist who helped develop the drug try- World, New York: Macmillan (1957); Pak, parsamide in order to treat trypanosomiasis Rhoda Kim, “Medical Women in Korea,” (sleeping sickness). She tested it on humans Journal of the American Medical Women’s As- in the Belgian Congo in 1920 and 1921 and sociation 5, no. 3 (March 1950): 116–117. obtained great success that was recognized with the Order of the Crown of Belgium award. Parrish, Rebecca She was born in Winchester, Massachu- 1869–1952 setts, on March 5, 1885, to Charles Ellis Pearce and Susan Elizabeth Hoyt Pearce. Rebecca Parish was the first female physi- She received her education at the Girls’ Col- cian to practice in the Philippines. After re- legiate School in Los Angeles and then went ceiving a medical education at the Medical to Stanford University and earned a bache- College of Indiana, she traveled to the lor’s in physiology and histology in 1907. Philippines in order to work as a Methodist She went to Boston University’s School of medical missionary. She served there from Medicine and taught before she was admit- 1905 to 1933. In 1906, she established a dis- ted to the Johns Hopkins University School pensary in Manila, where leprosy was of Medicine in 1909. She received her med- prevalent because of the tropical climate. ical degree in 1912 and proceeded to the “Health is always a problem in the tropics; Rockefeller Institute, where she remained water is not safe, unless artesian wells are most of her career. drilled. In the old days, with decaying fruits She and two other researchers, Walter A. and vegetables, insects, especially mosqui- Jacobs and Wade Hampton Brown, worked toes, insufficient fresh milk for the babies, together to find a treatment for sleeping and the prevalence of cholera, smallpox, sickness. They found that tryparsamide was malaria, leprosy, dysentery, and tropical ul- effective in treating rabbits with the disease. cers and eruptions, there was a serious She then traveled to the Belgian Congo and health question” (Parrish 1936, 26). After a treated humans with tryparsamide, and it time she received money from an American was effective in overcoming the Trypanosoma philanthropist and established the Mary parasite in the bloodstream. She treated pa- Johnston Hospital for women and children. tients with mild to severe cases in a clinic in It became an important medical facility over Leopoldville and was given access to a gov- the next several decades and was restored ernment laboratory. Pearce’s treatment was after damage restricted its operation during an important milestone in battling the ill- World War II. Parrish died in Indianapolis, ness, which is carried by the tsetse fly and is Indiana, on August 22, 1952. still an enormous problem today. It can be deadly if untreated. The Rockefeller Institute References: “Dr. Rebecca Parrish: Medical eventually patented the tryparsamide com- Missionary,” New York Times (24 August pound and worked on improving it. 1952): 89; Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Doc- Pearce also studied syphilis, cancer, and tors of the World, New York: Macmillan hereditary diseases while at the Rockefeller (1957); Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, Institute and later as she continued her re-

160 Petermann, Mary Locke search while serving as the president of the References: Heureaux, Mercedes A., “Old- Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania est University in America,” Journal of the from 1946 to 1951. She lived with the novel- American Medical Woman’s Association 10, no. ist Ida White in Skillman, New Jersey, when 7 (July 1955): 249; Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, she retired. She died in New York City in Women Doctors of the World, New York: 1959. Macmillan (1957).

References: Bailey, Martha J., American Women in Science: A Biographical Dictionary, Petermann, Mary Locke Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1994); Love- 1908–1975 joy, Esther Pohl, Women Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan (1957); Ogilvie, Mari- Mary Petermann was instrumental in isolat- lyn, and Joy Harvey, eds., The Biographical ing ribosomes. Her work helped researchers Dictionary of Women in Science, New York: to better understand protein synthesis and Routledge (2000); Rose, Kenneth W., A Survey RNA. Born in Laurium, Michigan, on Feb- of Source at the Rockefeller Archive Center for the ruary 26, 1908, Petermann attended Smith Study of Twentieth Century Africa, North Tarry- College and majored in chemistry, then pur- town, NY: Rockefeller Archive Center (1996). sued graduate study at the University of Wisconsin. She obtained her Ph.D. in 1939 in physiological chemistry. She was an early Perez, Ernestina pioneer in the study of the relationship of chemistry and physiology in animals and Along with Eloiza Diaz, Ernestina Perez at- humans. tended the University of Chile. She was Most of her career was spent in New York among the first women to obtain medical City at the Sloan-Kettering Institute for Can- degrees in Latin America. Perez graduated cer Research. She also served as a professor in 1887 and practiced in Chile working very at nearby Cornell University’s Medical Col- hard during the cholera epidemic following lege for many years. Her research focused graduation. She continued her interest in on ribosomes, which “catalyze protein syn- the advances of medicine by traveling thesis in all of the organisms in our bio- abroad in order to keep up with current sphere; indeed, they are at one and the same medical practices. time universal, essential, and complicated. The ribosomal proteins and the ribosomal See also: Diaz Inzunza, Eloiza nucleic acids provide the specific binding References: De Vargas, Tegualda Ponce, sites (for messenger RNA, transfer RNA, “Women Doctors of Chile,” Journal of the and initiation and elongation factors) and American Medical Women’s Association 7, no. the catalytic activities required for the syn- 10 (October 1952): 389; Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, thesis of a protein” (Wool 1997, 623). Women Doctors of the World, New York: Petermann was able to isolate animal ri- Macmillan (1957). bosomes and better characterize them. She also studied the physical and chemical properties of proteins. In 1963 she received the Sloan Award in cancer research, and Perozo, Evangelina Rodriguez three years later the American Chemical So- 1898?–19? ciety honored her with the Garvan Medal. She died December 13, 1975. Evangelina Perozo was the first woman to graduate from the oldest university in References: American Men and Women of Sci- North America, the University of Santo ence, 12th ed., New York: Bowker (1972); Domingo. She graduated in 1919 and be- Bailey, Martha J., American Women in Sci- came the first woman physician of the Do- ence: A Biographical Dictionary, Santa Bar- minican Republic. bara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1994); “Petermann,

161 Pickett, Lucy Weston

Mary PhD.” [obit], New York Times (16 De- References: “Expert on Cell Surfaces to De- cember 1975): 42, col. 3; Wool, Ira G., “Ribo- liver Lucy W. Pickett Lecture November somes,” Encyclopedia of Human Biology, 2d 20,” College Street Journal (Mount Holyoke ed., vol. 7, San Diego: Academic Press College) (17 November 2000), http:// (1997). 138.110.28.9/offices/comm/csj/111700/ pickett.shtml; Shearer, Benjamin F., and Bar- bara S. Shearer, Notable Women in the Physi- cal Sciences, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press Pickett, Lucy Weston (1997). 1904–1997

Lucy Pickett was an award-winning Pittman, Margaret chemist. She did research on X-ray crystal- 1901–1995 lography and studied organic molecules using spectroscopy. Margaret Pittman helped standardize vac- Born on January 19, 1904, in Beverly, Mas- cines for typhoid, cholera, and whooping sachusetts, she was the daughter of Lucy cough. She contributed as well to the under- Weston and George Ernst Pickett. She at- standing of the bacteria that cause meningi- tended school in Beverly and went on to tis. Mount Holyoke College in South Hadley, Pittman was born in Prairie Grove, Massachusetts, graduating in 1925 with Arkansas, in 1901. She attended Hendrix honors and a degree in both math and College in Conway, Arkansas, and received chemistry. She continued her chemistry an A.B. degree in 1923. She did graduate studies and in 1927 obtained a master’s work at the University of Chicago and re- from Mount Holyoke. ceived her master’s in 1926, followed by a Pickett taught for a year at Goucher Col- Ph.D. in 1929. Her primary interest was lege in Maryland before entering the Ph.D. bacteriology. program at the University of Illinois, which She worked for the Public Health Service she completed in 1930. Her early work in- and the National Institutes of Health, study- cluded the effects of X rays on chemical re- ing influenza types and helping to develop actions and the use of X rays in determining vaccines. “In her work with Haemophilus in- molecular structure. She was invited to be- fluenzae type b, Dr. Pittman was the first to come a member of the faculty at Mount identify capsular type b as one of the six Holyoke upon completion of her doctorate types of H. influenzae responsible for most and remained there her entire career. childhood meningitis. As a result of Dr. She went to Europe briefly and studied Pittman’s work in H. aegyptius, with NIAID X-ray crystallography with Sir William director Dorland Davis, the cause of epi- Bragg. When she returned to Mount demic conjunctivitis was identified. Work- Holyoke, she joined an active research team ing with Salmonella typhi, she made key that included Mary Sherrill and Emma observations that led to the development of Perry Carr and began exploring molecular a Vi-based vaccine. Dr. Pittman is believed structures using spectroscopy. She was able to have been the first woman laboratory to work with some very gifted scientists chief at the NIH” (“NIH Lectures” 2002). during her day, including Robert S. Mul- Pittman was recognized internationally liken and Linus Pauling. as an expert in bacteriology. She was a fre- For recognition for her work in spec- quent consultant for government agencies troscopy she received the Garvan Medal and international organizations. She died in from the American Chemical Society in 1995. 1957. She also established a fund upon her retirement to bring noted speakers to cam- References: Bailey, Martha J., American pus. She passed away on November 23, Women in Science: A Biographical Dictionary, 1997, in Bradenton, Florida. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1994); Kroll,

162 Preston, Ann

J. Simon, and Robert Booy, “Haemophilus in- Thrombosis and Haemostasis 35, no. 2 (30 fluenzae: Capsule Vaccine and Capsulation April 1976): 269–271. Genetics,” Molecular Medicine Today 2, no. 4 (April 1996): 160–165; “NIH Lectures,” http://www1.od.nih.gov/oir/sourcebook/ Possanner-Ehrenthal, ir-communictns/lecture-info. htm#Pitt(2002); Garbrielle Proffitt, Pamela, Notable Women Scientists, De- troit: Gale Group (1999). Garbrielle Possanner-Ehrenthal was the first woman physician in Austria. She graduated from the University of Zurich in 1893 and Pool, Judith Graham was an assistant to Professor Friedrich 1919–1975 Schauta, who held graduate clinics in obstetrics and gynecology in Vienna that were Judith Pool was a major figure in the treat- attended by medical students the world ment of hemophilia and in establishing a over. Much of her work was with poor standard procedure for isolating the antihe- women and children. mophilic factor in blood. Her method for blood transfusions greatly advanced ther- References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women apy for hemophiliacs and was adopted Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan widely as a standard around the world. (1957). Born in 1919 in New York City, she obtained her Ph.D. in physiology at the Uni- versity of Chicago. Her early studies focused on muscle physiology. In later Preston, Ann decades she studied blood coagulation and 1813–1872 looked for better ways to transfuse blood for those suffering with hemophilia. Ann Preston became the first female to hold She worked on many scientific commit- the position of dean of a medical school. She tees and was graduated from the Female Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1851 and successfully lob- a member of several working groups bied for equal medical education for women, dealing with the translation of re- particularly clinical experience, which was search findings to practical applica- being denied to so many. She helped establish tion, including preparation of factor a hospital connected to the college in 1861. VIII concentrates, assay procedures Born on December 1, 1813, in West Grove, and standards for factor VIII, and Pennsylvania, she was the daughter of analysis of inhibitors. Her analytical Amos and Margaret Smith Preston. She mind combined with good judgment helped her mother, who was in poor health, made her a valued member of all raise the seven siblings that had survived groups with whom she worked. Her infancy: Joseph, Simpson, Smith, Levi, ability to sort out complex findings Charles, Rebecca, and Howard. Joseph was and to come out with clear statements the oldest and Ann was only two years with questions for future investigation younger, so many of the early chores fell to was an attribute much admired. her. Her father had a large agriculture and (Brinkhous 1976, 269) dairy trade that kept the family busy. Strong Quakers, the family was well re- Pool died on July 13, 1975. spected in the area. Her father was influential in the community and concerned about References: Bailey, Martha J., American the social issues of the day. The family was Women in Science, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO active in the abolition and temperance (1994); Brinkhous, K. M., “Judith Graham movements of the day, and their home was Pool, Ph.D. (1919–1975): An Appreciation,” many times used to hide runaway slaves.

163 Preston, Ann

The Female Medical College had tem- porarily closed due to financial woes created by the Civil War outbreak. About the same time, Preston suffered greatly from a bout of rheumatic fever and exhaustion, ailments that would plague her all her life. She was confined for three months at the insane asylum of Pennsylvania Hospital in order to rest and recuperate. She recovered fully and returned to work. Shortly thereafter, there was a rift in the college over Edwin Fussell’s refusal to award a student, Mary Putnam Jacobi, a medical degree. Preston disagreed with his decision, as did most of the faculty, since Ja- cobi had the necessary qualifications. Fol- lowing this incident, Fussell resigned, and in 1865 Preston was named dean of the college. She continued to speak out for equal education for women and also encouraged women of all races to work at receiving an education. Without her support, Rebecca Ann Preston (U.S. National Library of Medicine) Cole, the first black woman to graduate from the college, may never have become a physician. In 1867 the Pennsylvania legislature was When it was time for her to consider her asked to change the name “Female” to education, Preston became interested in “Women’s.” The latter seemed more accept- health and hygiene for young ladies and able at the time, and Preston supported the gave lectures in her community. With some change. She continued to speak out for encouragement, she decided to apply for women despite opposition from males such medical school. No one would accept her as those belonging to the Medical Society of until she applied at the new Female Medical Philadelphia. In a letter published in the College of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Medical and Surgical Reporter in 1867 she de- which Quakers had founded. She gradu- fused all their previous arguments, which ated and became a professor there. were typical of the period, and asserted that Preston realized early on that her educa- women would insist on their entry into the tion was not adequate. The lack of a training medical field “in the sacred name of our hospital in which to observe and practice common humanity, against the injustice was a hindrance to many women physi- which places difficulties in our way, not be- cians. She “had long recognized that clinical cause we are ignorant, or pretentious, or in- observations and instruction were neces- competent, or unmindful of the code of sary adjuncts to didactic lectures and theo- medical or Christian ethics, but because we retical treatises” (Foster 1984, 316). This is are women” (Preston 1867, 394). why she so diligently worked for a Preston died on April 18, 1872, after hav- women’s hospital when it was apparent ing one of the strongest and most positive most hospitals in the United States were not influences on nineteenth-century women going to allow women to work as physi- physicians and medical education. “A cians. She accomplished her task, and the woman of patience and determination, Ann Women’s Hospital of Philadelphia opened Preston repeatedly withstood the hostilities on December 16, 1861, with Emeline Cleve- vented upon her gender by the medical es- land as the resident physician. tablishment and worked tirelessly to pro-

164 Public Health and Women vide better opportunities and better training knowledge that disease had wiped out en- for the women who would follow her into tire populations in the past and that the new the medical field” (Ford 1995, 1487). medicines would not be effective unless they were distributed equitably and efficiently. See also: Cleveland, Emeline Horton; Cole, During the Civil War, women volun- Rebecca; Jacobi, Mary Putnam; Medical Col- teered to help with the wounded. Once lege of Pennsylvania home, many put their energies into their lo- References: Ford, Bonnie L., “Ann Preston,” cal communities. “Institutions for the deaf, in Frank N. Magill, ed., Great Lives from His- blind, insane, and orphaned had been built tory: American Women Series, vol. 4, Pasa- or expanded during the 1850s, giving dena, CA: Salem Press (1995); Foster, women many opportunities to become in- Pauline Poole, Ann Preston, M.D. (1813– volved in social welfare efforts and net- 1872): A Biography; The Struggle to Obtain works of voluntary associations” (Sivulka Training and Acceptance for Women Physicians 1999, 2). Their gender still restricted them, in Mid-Nineteenth Century America, Pitts- however, to unpaid volunteer work. burgh: University of Pennsylvania Press In 1850, Lemuel Shattuck laid out some (1984); Ohles, Frederik, Shirley M. Ohles, public health concerns in his Report of the and John G. Ramsay, Biographical Dictionary Sanitary Commission of Massachusetts, more of Modern American Educators, Westport, CT: commonly known as the Shattuck Report. Greenwood Press (1997); Preston, Ann, He made many recommendations concern- “The Status of Women-Physicians,” Medical ing the containment of diseases, accurate and Surgical Reporter 16, no. 18 (4 May 1867): records on causes of death, physicians who 391–394, reprinted in American Periodical Se- were better trained in sanitation and hy- ries II 1800–1850, new series, reel 1200; giene, and societal organization. Yet “there Wells, Susan, Out of the Dead House: Nine- was very little effective public health work teenth-Century Women Physicians and the going on in America in 1879” (Smillie 1955, Writing of Medicine, Madison: University of 443). “The whole trend of the century was to Wisconsin Press (2000). limit the teaching of medical students to the intensely practical fields, of diagnosis and treatment” (Smillie 1955, 444). Because Public Health and Women women physicians were finding little public What is a health which merely makes acceptance, they turned to the emerging people ripe to be damaged, abused, and field of public health, just as they had shot at again? turned in the past to nursing as a way to en- —Ernst Bloch ter the medical profession. Male physicians of the time took little interest in the field, Early in the twentieth century, few women preferring the more lucrative private prac- with a medical education had the option of tice, and thus women were welcome. working in private practice or in hospitals Following World War I, many women or clinics. The emerging field of public found that their competence in times of cri- health offered opportunities for many. sis was not rewarded with compensated Pasteur’s late-nineteenth-century discov- employment. The frustration of women eries on contagious diseases and their causes who worked during the war with the Scot- were the beginning of serious public health tish Women’s Hospitals, now disbanded, re- initiatives. In 1946 the World Health Organi- flected the feelings of many: “For many of zation was established in Geneva, Switzer- the women there was no option but to re- land, and the Communicable Disease Center turn to the constrained middle-class exis- (now known as the Centers for Disease Con- tence they had known before the war. Rose trol and Prevention) was born in the United West, who fearlessly drove over Macedo- States. The Pan American Health Organiza- nian mountain tracks as head of Motor tion evolved through various names from Transport for the America unit, was not al- 1902 on. They all emerged from the growing lowed to have her own car when she got

165 Public Health and Women home” (Leneman 1994, 213). Thus women and statistics, of physiology and again turned their attention to social issues pathology and epidemiology, and in and their energies to charitable work. some measure of sociology, and it Sara Josephine Baker, a physician who builds upon these basic sciences a tried private practice but could not make a comprehensive program of commu- living at it, contributed much as a public nity service.... Preventive medicine health administrator to the welfare of the must come, as a reality and not a pious poor in early-twentieth-century New York phase, through a fundamental change City. Baker realized that legislation recog- in the attitude of the physician and nizing the right of every individual to through a fundamental change in the health care was as important as the need for attitude of the medical school where physicians. he is trained. (Winslow 1923, 1, 64) Even after legislation was passed, however, numerous problems with organization Eventually there were graduate degrees of- remained. Dr. Leslie Haden-Guest, a British fered in public health. In 1917, Baker be- physician and social reformer, wrote in 1912 came the first female to hold such a doctor- that there were no “standards of cleanliness ate degree. and decency with regard to premises and In spite of increasing evidence, much of it methods of serving the meals. I have myself gathered firsthand by Florence Nightingale, seen school dinner centres in London, at that sanitation and hygiene played a crucial which the food was served out of a bucket, role in health and growing recognition of the and hundreds of plates and bowls ‘washed importance of the public health field, private up’ between batches of children in one practice or surgery continued to command small tub of filthy water!” (Haden-Guest, greater respect. Public health was a “mar- 1912, 3–4). Many public health educators ginal” area of medicine (Glaser 1987, 98). agree that five women were giants in the Although physicians today are increas- field in the twentieth century: Alice Hamil- ingly aware of phrases such as “population- ton, Sara Josephine Baker, Lillian Wald, based health care,” which refers to better Clara Barton, and Dorothea Dix. Ellen Swal- cost management in order to adequately low Richards had done much work in the serve their communities, they need to be late nineteenth century on sanitary issues better informed in prevention and public and food safety as well (Smillie 1955, 479). health issues. Another huge issue of the early twentieth century was the modern birth control Unfortunately, the medical and public movement, initiated by Margaret Sanger. health communities have worked sepa- Prior to her efforts, it was against the law for rately from each other since the turn of physicians and others to provide informa- the century. Medicine has taken a bio- tion on contraception. A public health medical or bioengineering approach to nurse, Sanger was aware of the detrimental medical care, stressing the achievement effects of frequent childbirth on both chil- of health through disease reduction. dren and mothers. The public health profession strongly These women were all pioneers in the draws from a social model of health field when public health education was not care that emphasizes health promotion taken very seriously in medical schools. and disease prevention and under- Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, the father stands health determinates as economic of the public health movement in the early and cultural, as well as molecular and twentieth-century United States, wrote, biochemical. Many clinicians have little understanding of basic public health Public Health is not a concrete intellec- tools, and many public health practi- tual discipline, but a field of social ac- tioners have little experience in making tivity. It includes applications of chem- their knowledge relevant to the clinical istry and bacteriology, of engineering domain. (Ambrose 1997, 1722)

166 Public Health and Women

As the AIDS epidemic continues to over- fessions, 1890–1940, New Brunswick, NJ: whelm some countries and as bioterrorism Rutgers University Press (1987); Haden- continues to be a serious threat to popula- Guest, Leslie, Votes for Women and the Public tions, those persons who go into the field Health, London: Women’s Freedom League will feel a higher obligation than ever, and (1912); Leneman, Leah, In the Service of Life: the women who broke new ground with The Story of Elsie Inglis and the Scottish discoveries, data gathering, and administra- Women’s Hospitals, Edinburgh: Mercat Press tive skills will possibly be more appreciated. (1994); Sivulka, Juliann, “From Domestic to Municipal Housekeeper: The Influence of See also: Baker, Sara Josephine; Barton, the Sanitary Reform Movement on Chang- Clara; Dix, Dorothea Lynde; Hamilton, Al- ing Women’s Roles in America, 1860–1920,” ice; Nightingale, Florence; Richards, Ellen Journal of American Culture 22, no. 4 (Winter Henrietta Swallow; Sanger, Margaret; Wald, 1999): 1–7; Smillie, Wilson George, Public Lillian D. Health: Its Promise for the Future; A Chronicle References: Ambrose, Paul, “Uniting Public of the Development of Public Health in the Health and Medicine,” JAMA 278, no. 21 (3 United States, 1607–1914, New York: December 1997): 1722; Bloch, Ernst, The Macmillan (1955); Tobey, James Alner, Riders Principle of Hope, vol. 2, Cambridge, MA: of the Plagues: The Story of the Conquest of Dis- MIT Press (1986); Delmege, James Anthony, ease, New York: C. Scribner’s Sons (1930); Towards National Health; or, Health and Hy- Williams, Ralph Chester, The United States giene in England from Roman to Victorian Public Health Service 1798–1950, Washington, Times, New York: Macmillan (1932); “From DC: Commissioned Officers Association, the Centers for Disease Control and Preven- U.S. Public Health Service (1951); Winslow, tion. Achievements in Public Health, 1900– Charles-Edward Amory, The Evolution and 1999: Family Planning,” JAMA 283, no. 3 (19 Significance of the Modern Public Health Cam- January 2000): 326–327, 331; Glazer, Penina paign, New Haven, CT: Yale University Migdal, and Miriam Slater, Unequal Col- Press (1923). leagues: The Entrance of Women into the Pro-

167

Quimby, Edith Hinkley 1891–1982

Edith Quimby was a radiation physicist who was a pioneer in the use of radioiso- topes for medical purposes as well as for addressing safety issues in the handling of radioactive materials. She helped bring about the age of radiotherapy and nuclear medicine and enabled later generations to better utilize these methods in cancer treatments and disease diagnosis. Born on July 10, 1891, in Rockford, Illi- nois, she was the daughter of Harriet Hink- ley and Arthur S. Hinkley. As a child she lived in Illinois, Alabama, and Idaho. She studied mathematics and physics at Whit- man College in Walla Walla, Washington. Quimby taught for a couple of years before pursuing graduate studies in physics at the University of California at Berkeley. She graduated in 1916 and continued to teach. She met and married her husband in 1915, Edith Hinkley Quimby (U.S. National Library of and they both moved to New York City Medicine) when he accepted a position at Columbia. She became a researcher at the New York City Memorial Hospital for Cancer and Al- lied Diseases and started studying X rays, In 1941, Quimby began teaching radiol- correct dosages for the treatment of tumors, ogy at Cornell University Medical College, and radium, about which not much was and by 1943 she had moved to Columbia known. From 1920 to 1940 she studied radi- University and was looking into using ra- ation and its effects on humans and pub- dium as a tool to conduct research on the lished her findings. She measured the circulatory system, thyroid problems, and amount of radiation to which people were cancer. She used her knowledge in the de- being exposed during medical treatment, velopment of the atomic bomb during and the best dosages for treating illness World War II when she worked on the Man- while preventing unnecessary harm to the hattan Project. patient. Following the war she became more in-

169 Quimby, Edith Hinkley volved in the safety issues surrounding the Women in Science: A Biographical Dictionary, handling of radioactive materials. Even af- Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (1994); ter she retired, she continued to be a con- Carey, Charles W., Jr., “Quimby, Edith Hink- sultant and to write. She died in New York ley,” American National Biography, vol. 18, City on October 11, 1982. New York: Oxford University Press (1999).

References: Bailey, Martha J., American

170 R

Ramsey, Mimi filled with misinformation, and remain 1953– blindly dedicated to continuing this torturous tradition. (Burstyn 1995, 30) Mimi Ramsey is a nurse and an activist. She was instrumental in influencing the U.S. Ramsey has been of great help in counsel- government to recognize the practice of fe- ing many who have been through the expe- male genital mutilation (FGM) as child rience. The U.S. government banned the abuse and outlaw its use. practice in 1998. It is also banned in many Ramsey was born in Ethiopia. Like many other countries but is still practiced widely other young girls in the region, she suffered around the world. from the emotional trauma and physical pain of FGM. After coming to the United See also: Female Genital Mutilation States and after a time of dealing with her References: Burstyn, Linda, “Female Cir- personal distress over the experience, she cumcision Comes to America,” Atlantic became a vocal advocate of outlawing the Monthly 276, no. 4 (October 1995): 28–35; practice, which was ongoing in the United Jensen, Rita Henley, “Mimi Ramsey,” Ms. 6, States among African immigrants. no. 4 (January 1996): 50–52.

Many of the immigrant mothers who are making these decisions about their Remond, Sarah Parker daughters know little or nothing about 1826–1894 their own anatomy. They are told that if the clitoris is left alone, it will grow An active abolitionist in the nineteenth cen- and drag on the ground; that if their tury, Sarah Remond became a physician late daughters are left uncircumcised, they in life. She went to Europe, where there was will be wild, and will crave men; that more acceptance of professional black no man from their home country will women, to pursue her studies. By leaving marry them uncircumcised (although the United States, she likely accomplished many African men say that they prefer more as a physician and for women’s and uncircumcised women for sex and blacks’ rights than if she had stayed in her marriage); that circumcision aids in home country. menstruation and childbirth (although She was born in Salem, Massachusetts, on the opposite is true in both cases); and June 6, 1826. Both her parents, John Remond that it is a religious—usually Islamic— and Nancy Lenox, were activists in the requirement (although none of the ma- movement to abolish slavery and influ- jor Islamic texts calls directly for enced her early on to become involved as FGM). And so these women and their well. She attended local schools until blacks husbands come to the United States were forced out in 1835. Her family moved

171 Richards, Ellen Henrietta Swallow to Newport, Rhode Island, for a time after emergence of ecology and home economics that, returning to Salem in 1841. as serious disciplines. In the 1840s and 1850s, she lectured in the Born on December 3, 1842, in Dunstable, United States and Europe on women’s Massachusetts, she was the daughter of Pe- rights and antislavery. Because of her Amer- ter Swallow and Fanny Gould Taylor Swal- ican background, audiences composed of low. She went to school at Westford Acad- both men and women were allowed to at- emy and entered Vassar College, which had tend her lectures in England. She had great been founded in 1861 for women. She grad- popularity with both the social elite and the uated in 1870 and decided to go to the Mas- working class. sachusetts Institute of Technology for fur- Her brother Charles, a well-known aboli- ther studies in chemistry. She was the first tionist, was a proponent of women’s rights woman admitted to MIT, but her tuition and encouraged her to participate actively was waived because the university did not in the cause. “Sarah’s decision to join her want a woman on its roster. Richards at- brother was a courageous one given the pre- tended as an “experimental” case. She grad- vailing gender expectations held by many uated in 1873 with a B.S. in chemistry and black men involved in abolitionism” became the first woman to graduate from (Brownlee 1997, 109). MIT. She became a laboratory assistant at She went to France and settled in Flo- MIT after the school discouraged her pur- rence, Italy, in 1866. She attended the Santa suit of a Ph.D.; officials did not want the Maria Nuova Hospital from 1866 to 1868 first Ph.D. in chemistry to go to a woman. and became a professional medical practi- She married Robert Hallowell Richards tioner. She was well respected as a black and continued her career at MIT, teaching physician. She died on December 13, 1894, sanitation chemistry. She conducted a huge and is buried at the Protestant cemetery in survey of drinking water in Massachusetts Rome. in order to check for pollution. While teaching, she also was very active in advocating References: Brownlee, Sibyl Ventress, “Out equal educational rights for women, partic- of the Abundance of the Heart: Sarah Ann ularly in the sciences. By the 1890s she was Parker Remond’s Quest for Freedom,” developing the field of home economics. Ph.D. dissertation, Amherst (1997); Hunt, She was a very practical woman. When Karen Jean, “Remond, Sarah Parker,” Amer- friends considered a location for a home or ican National Biography, vol. 18, New York: summer cottage, “Mrs. Richards’s contribu- Oxford University Press (1999); Porter, tion, or shall we say her part of the house- Dorothy, B., “Remond, Sarah Parker,” in warming, would almost invariably be a Rayford W. Logan and Michael R. Winston, thorough investigation of the water supply. eds., Dictionary of American Negro Biography, When we consider how many people fall New York: Norton (1982). victims to typhoid fever during their summer outings, we realize how valuable this contribution was” (Hunt 1912, 106). Rich- Richards, Ellen ards continued her work until her death on March 30, 1911. Henrietta Swallow 1842–1911 References: Hunt, Caroline Louisa, The Life of Ellen H. Richards, Boston: Whitcomb & Ellen Richards was a chemist who led the Barrows (1912); Stage, Sarah, “Richards, effort for better sanitation in homes and is Ellen Henrietta Swallow,” American National commonly known as the mother of home Biography, vol. 21, New York: Oxford Uni- economics for the twentieth century. Her versity Press (1999). work in educating institutions on sanitation, the proper handling of foods, and the importance of water quality fueled the

172 Richards, Linda

Richards, Linda (Melinda Ann Judson) 1841–1930

Linda Richards was the first trained nurse in the United States. She was a pioneer in nursing-education reforms and differed significantly from other reformers of her day. From her early experience, she felt nurses needed to be self-sacrificing as well as competent. Unlike many of her colleagues, who felt physicians were hostile to the nursing profession, she was content with the current subjugation of nursing to the authority of hospitals and physicians, whom she trusted. She developed schools with an emphasis on nurses in this subservient role. Born on July 27, 1841, near Potsdam, New York, she was the daughter of Betsy Sinclair and Sanford Richards. Her family and she were deeply religious, and she began by helping the sick and poor in the community. Before long she was asked to help out in hospitals and was astonished to find such low standards in the nursing field. She Linda Richards (U.S. National Library of Medicine) found many nurses to be insensitive to patients as well as poorly educated. She was determined to change this state of affairs and embarked on a nursing career. ison with those used in the English and She graduated in 1873 from a nurses’ Scotch hospitals. How kindly were all her training course at the New England Hospi- criticisms, and how carefully did she ques- tal for Women and Children, thus becoming tion me concerning all I had seen while in the first trained nurse in the United States. England and Scotland! Her advice to me The next year she was superintendent of concerning the future was absolutely in- nurses at a Boston training school that later valuable” (Richards 1915, 52–53). became the Massachusetts General Hospital From 1885 to 1890 she was very involved Training School of Nursing. A few years in the mission field and founded a Japanese later she founded the Boston City Hospital nurses’ training school in Kyoto. In her Training School for Nurses and disturbed many years of service to the nursing profes- some of her contemporaries by not giving sion, Richards oversaw four major hospitals authority for the school to a board of and many small hospitals and mental hos- women, which had become the norm. In- pitals and was part of the Visiting Nurses’ stead she gave the hospital authority. Service. Other nursing educators who were She went abroad in order to see the hos- beginning to form training schools also con- pitals of Europe. In 1877 she met with Flo- sulted her on a regular basis. Richards died rence Nightingale. “Miss Nightingale on April 16, 1930, at the New England Hos- showed the truest interest in our American pital for Women and Children in Boston. training schools, and it was a marvel to me how she went to the very bottom of every- References: Baer, Ellen D., “Richards, thing concerning their needs and the rela- Linda,” American National Biography, vol. 18, tive value of American methods in compar- New York: Oxford University Press (1999);

173 Robb, Isabel Hampton

Richards, Linda, Reminiscences of Linda Richards, America’s First Trained Nurse, Boston: Whitcomb & Barrows (1915).

Robb, Isabel Hampton 1860–1910

Isabel Robb was a nursing leader and educator who advocated an undergraduate nursing curriculum in universities as the best way to train nurses. She believed nurses should have an academic education rather than learning in hospital wards alone. Born on August 26, 1860, in Welland, On- tario, she was the daughter of Samuel Hampton and Sarah Mary Lay. She did very well in school and taught upon completion. She was gifted early on at getting others to work together. She sought tutoring and was very ambitious to do something besides Isabel Hampton Robb (U.S. National Library of teach. In 1881 she went to New York City to Medicine) train as a nurse. She graduated from Belle- vue Hospital Training School for Nurses in 1883. Her early experience was quite varied. graduate training program for nurses at Co- She first worked at New York’s Women’s lumbia University in New York. She pub- Hospital, then traveled to Rome to work at lished books and lectured extensively. She a small hospital that provided care for trav- was an able administrator, organizer, and elers. She also worked for various wealthy writer. patients, traveling with them if needed. Af- Robb felt nurses needed to possess per- ter returning to the United States, she took a sonal domestic skill. position as superintendent of nurses at the Illinois Training School for Nurses at Cook Every woman before entering upon County Hospital, Chicago. hospital work should be a thoroughly In 1889 she moved to the newly opened trained housekeeper. Practical house- Johns Hopkins Training School for Nurses. hold economy should be a part of her She and her assistant, Lavinia Lloyd Dock, home education, for in hospital wards began to work toward raising the status of the nurses are the stewards, the care- the nursing profession by instituting higher takers of the hospital property, and standards and more stringent requirements. upon their thrift and careful ordering She and Dock helped with the organization must depend the economical outlay of of the American Society of Superintendents the hospital funds. I cannot dwell of Training Schools for Nurses of the United upon this practical household econ- States and Canada. omy with too great emphasis, for ex- She married Hunter Robb in 1894 and left perience has shown me to a painful Johns Hopkins and worked at various nurs- extent how this branch of woman’s ing occupations in Cleveland, Ohio, where work is neglected or superficially un- she had three children, one who died in in- derstood by so many women in all fancy. Five years later she was organizing a ranks of life. A total lack of or appreci-

174 Ruys, A. Charlotte

ation for the principles that govern See also: Jex-Blake, Sophia Louisa; Medical such work will inevitably be followed Act of 1858 by a deficiency in thoroughness and References: Roberts, Shirley, Sophia Jex- system. (Robb 1985, 28) Blake: A Woman Pioneer in Nineteenth Century Medical Reform, London: Routledge (1993). Robb’s devoted work for the nursing profession was prematurely cut short when she died in a streetcar accident in Cleveland on April 15, 1910. Ruys, A. Charlotte 1898–1980? See also: Dock, Lavinia Lloyd References: Noel, Nancy L., “Robb, Isabel Charlotte Ruys was a professor of microbi- Hampton,” American National Biography, ology. She served as dean of the medical fac- vol. 18, New York: Oxford University Press ulty at the University of Amsterdam. (1999); Robb, Isabel Hampton, Educational Born December 21, 1898, in Dedemsvaart, Standards for Nurses, New York: Garland the Netherlands, she was one of eight chil- ([1907] 1985). dren. She was interested in medicine at an early age and went to Utrecht University. During her final years there women were Rodriguez-Dulanto, experiencing sexual harassment, so she Laura Esther chose to transfer to the University of Groningen, where she graduated in 1924. 18?–19? She worked for the Public Health Service as a physician beginning in 1928. “It was Laura Rodriguez-Dulanto was the first fe- wonderful to be able to combine practice male physician in Peru. She graduated from and research,” she said of the experience. the University of San Marcos at Lima in 1900.

References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women My first real success was when I was Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan able to demonstrate that microscopic (1957). examination of specimens from children with vulvovaginitis often led to a false diagnosis of gonorrhea. In studying typhoid fever, we found that Russell Gurney contaminated water was frequently Enabling Act of 1876 the source of infection. The new methods of typing bacteria made The Russell Gurney Enabling Act of 1876, possible a more thorough study of passed by the British Parliament, over- the epidemiology of many infectious turned the Medical Act of 1858, which ex- diseases. In the 1930s I gave courses cluded women from medical schools. The of lectures on food hygiene to girls Russell Gurney Act gave women the same studying at a school of social science. rights as men to enter medical schools and (Hellstedt 1978, 165) receive a medical education. The bill was proposed by Russell Gurney, a member of Ruys saw both world wars. During World Parliament in London who supported equal War II, medical supplies and even food education for both sexes, and Sophia Jex- were hard to come by. She tended both Ger- Blake. Those who wanted women excluded mans and Allied soldiers but was an active from medical schools and the practice of member of the resistance movement. medicine opposed the act. With its passage, “In February of 1945 I was arrested be- Jex-Blake was able to finally obtain her li- cause I was in contact with a radio transmit- cense to practice medicine from the Irish ter of the Allies. A colleague bacteriologist College of Physicians. and three others who were also arrested

175 Ruys, A. Charlotte were shot a few days later. As I was a to 1953 and later worked with the Govern- woman, I had to be shot in Germany. I was ment Advisory Commission for Health un- in prison with two other women con- til 1966. She resigned from the university in demned on the same charge. We were not 1969 when she was seventy years old. moved, as transport to Germany was impossible; the Allies had blocked all the References: Hellstedt, Leone McGregor, roads. The day after the German surrender, Women Physicians of the World: Autobiogra- we were set free” (Hellstedt 1978, 166). phies of Medical Pioneers, Washington, DC: She married Guus Defresne in 1945 and Hemisphere (1978); Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, they were together until his death in 1961. Women Doctors of the World, New York: Ruys served as dean of the medical faculty Macmillan (1957). at the University of Amsterdam from 1949

176 S

el Saadawi, Nawal scourge of poverty, ignorance and sickness 1931– did to them. Women bore a double burden since they also suffered from the oppression Nawal el Saadawi is known for her writ- exercised on them by fathers and husbands, ings, which reveal the hardships many brothers and uncles and other men. I saw young girls and women endure in some young girls burn themselves alive, or throw Arab cultures. A physician and psychiatrist, themselves into the waters of the Nile and Saadawi has been persecuted many times drown, in order to escape a father’s or a hus- for her advocacy of women’s sexual rights, band’s tyranny” (Saadawi 1999, 290–291). and she has worked to educate others on the Saadawi found that one physician could harmful medical and emotional conse- not fix the bigger problem and turned to quences of female circumcision. writing in order to better help those who She was born on October 27, 1931, in Kafr suffered. Tahla, Egypt, to el Sayed and Zeinab. She “I was not attracted to the medical profes- attended Cairo University and earned a sion. It seemed unable to do much in face of medical degree in 1955 and a master’s in the sufferings imposed on people. I realized public health (M.P.H.) from Columbia Uni- how sickness and poverty are linked to pol- versity in 1966. She used her education to itics, to money and power, that medical gain employment as the director of health practice was removed from our everyday education with the Egyptian government’s life. Writing became a weapon with which Ministry of Health. In 1971 she was dis- to fight the system, which draws its author- missed from her job due to her outspoken ity from the autocratic power exercised by views on women’s rights. the ruler of the state, and that of the father In The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the or the husband in the family. The written Arab World, Saadawi gives a graphic de- word for me became an act of rebellion scription of her and her sister being circum- against injustice exercised in the name of re- cised when she was six years old. That ex- ligion, or morals, or love” (Saadawi 1999, perience, as well as seeing innumerable 291–292). little girls in her clinic who were suffering Saadawi has most recently been a visiting from the physical and psychological effects professor at Duke University. She has two of circumcision—effects that sometimes in- children. cluded death—changed her focus. She lost interest in a medical career and became References: Hiro, Dilip, Dictionary of the more involved in speaking out against the Middle East, New York: St. Martin’s Press continuing tragedy. (1996); “Nawal El Saadawi,” Contemporary “As a rural doctor I lived close to village Authors Online, Gale Group (2001); Saadawi, people, shared their experiences, learnt Nawal, A Daughter of Isis: The Autobiography about their lives, witnessed what the triple of Nawal El Saadawi, London: Zed Books

177 Sabin, Florence Rena

(1999); Saadawi, Nawal, The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World, Boston, MA: Beacon Press (1982).

Sabin, Florence Rena 1871–1953

Florence Sabin was the first woman elected to the National Academy of Sciences. Her extensive research in embryology and histology led to the discovery that blood cells and the lymphatic system develop in the veins and not in the tissue of the embryo. She was also the first woman faculty member of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. Born in Central City, Colorado, Novem- ber 9, 1871, she was the daughter of George K. Sabin and Serena Miner Sabin. Her father was a mining engineer, and she had one older sister. Her mother died when she was very young, and she was raised in part by an uncle in Chicago, then moved to Ver- mont to attend the Vermont Academy in Saxton’s River. She originally wanted to become a musi- Florence Rena Sabin (U.S. National Library of cian but later decided to take college Medicine) preparatory courses. Her sister, Mary, went to Smith College in 1887, and Florence joined her in 1889. She excelled at science the Atlas of the Medulla and Midbrain, pub- and determined to be a doctor even though lished in 1901, served for many years as a her father and sister were not supportive. standard medical textbook. She was encouraged by news that Johns Her major contribution to medicine was Hopkins was going to allow women to enter discovering that “the lymphatics arise from its new medical school and tutored to earn veins by sprouts of endothelium, and next the tuition. She graduated from Smith Col- that these sprouts or buds connect with each lege in 1893, and then taught for three years, other as they grow outwards from the veins entering medical school in 1897. toward the periphery, so that the entire sys- Women students had become the norm tem is derived from already existing vessels. by the time Sabin entered Johns Hopkins, Further, she showed that the peripheral and scholastic requirements were high. She ends of the lymphatics are closed and that did very well and was influenced and en- they neither open into the tissue spaces nor couraged by Franklin Mall, a well-known are derived from them” (McMaster and anatomist at Johns Hopkins University. She Heidelberger 1960, 279). She left Johns Hop- gained an internship upon completing her kins in 1925 to join Simon Flexner at the studies and later became the first full-time Rockefeller Institute. She was the first woman professor at Johns Hopkins. She did woman to head the American Association of much research in embryology and histology Anatomists and in 1925 was elected to the and was one of the earliest researchers to National Academy of Sciences, the first fe- use supravital staining as a technique for male to be so honored. studying blood cells. She wrote extensively Sabin joined her sister in Colorado in 1938 in the medical literature. One of her works, and eventually became immersed in public

178 Salpêtrière Asylum health issues. She became very well-known became naturalized in 1961. She worked in in Colorado during her day as a public Boston at the Children’s Hospital Medical health proponent and did much to encour- Center and the Martha Eliot Health Center age better funding, conditions, and legisla- for several years before moving to the Duke tion. She died in Denver, Colorado, on Oc- University School of Medicine. Her inter- tober 3, 1953. Her statue is in the U.S. ests lay in rural health care and equal care Capitol. for the poor in both urban and rural settings. She taught her students with enthusi- See also: Johns Hopkins University asm and tried to give them a sense of what References: Bluemel, Elinor, Florence Sabin: poor people had to go through to obtain Colorado Woman of the Century, Boulder, CO: proper care. University of Colorado Press (1959); De- The discrimination Salber faced as a laney, James J., Jr., “Roy Cleere and Florence woman and a Jew did not deter her from Sabin,” Colorado Medicine 80, no. 2 (February success as both a physician and a mother. In 1983): 46–47; Harvey, Abner McGehee, “A her autobiography she says, “I believe that New School of Anatomy: The Story of being a mother made me a gentler, more Franklin P. Mall, Florence R. Sabin and John sympathetic doctor and that being a doctor B. MacCallum,” Johns Hopkins Medical Jour- made me a more loving and understanding nal 136, no. 2 (February 1975): 83–94; Mc- mother. It isn’t easy for women to combine Master, Philip D., and Michael Heidel- motherhood and work outside the home, berger, “Florence Rena Sabin,” Biographical and we often feel guilty, but reviewing my Memoirs 34, New York: National Academy life enabled me to acknowledge that my of Sciences (1960); Morantz-Sanchez, Re- well-being depended not only on the love of gina, “Sabin, Florence Rena,” American Na- my family but also on the satisfaction I got tional Biography, vol. 19, New York: Oxford in being useful to some of society’s disre- University Press (1999). garded people” (Salber 1989, 273). Salber passed away on November 18, 1990. Salber, Eva Juliet References: Salber, Eva Juliet, The Mind Is 1916–1990 Not the Heart: Recollections of a Woman Physi- cian, Durham, NC: Duke University Press Eva Salber was a South African physician (1989); Salber, Eva Juliet, “Payment for who worked with her husband in public Health Care in the United States: A Personal and community health care in South Africa, Statement,” Journal of Public Health Policy 4, the United Kingdom, and the United States. no. 2 (June 1983): 202–206; Who’s Who of She advocated ceaselessly for equal health American Women, 17th ed., Chicago: Mar- care for minorities, those in rural communi- quis Who’s Who (1991). ties, and the elderly. Born in Cape Town, South Africa, on Jan- uary 5, 1916, Salber was the daughter of Salpêtrière Asylum Moses Salber and Fanny Srolowitz Salber. 1656–1970 She married Harry Tarley Phillips in 1939, and they had four children. She received her Louis XIV established the Salpêtrière Asy- education at the University of Cape Town, lum in order to house poor men and women earning a medical degree in 1955. She in Paris. It is best known for the work of worked in South Africa at the Sir Henry El- Phillippe Pinel in establishing more hu- liott Hospital in Umtata, the Cape Town mane methods for dealing with and treating Free Dispensary, and the Institute of Family the mentally ill who were placed there in and Community Health in Durban. In Lon- the late nineteenth century. It had signifi- don she worked at the Queen Elizabeth cance for many women desiring medical Hospital for Children. training because the Salpêtrière Asylum al- In 1956 she went to the United States and lowed them to work there when traditional

179 Sanger, Margaret hospitals turned them away. It became a traditional hospital in 1970—Hospital de la Pitié Salpêtrière (where Princess Diana died in 1997).

References: Guillain, Georges, and Pierre Mathieu, La Salpêtrière, Paris, France: Mas- son (1925).

Sanger, Margaret 1879–1966

Margaret Sanger was a nurse who crusaded early in the twentieth century for women’s rights to birth-control information. She fought state and federal laws prohibiting contraceptive information and forced the issue into the public. Her work as a visiting nurse to New York City’s poor gave her insight into the toll frequent childbirth had on families. Margaret Sanger (Underwood and Underwood/ She was born on September 14, 1879, in Library of Congress) Corning, New York, to Michael Hennessey Higgins and Anne Purcell Higgins. She had ten siblings and felt that her mother’s death this subject? Where was it hidden? at a young age was due to her having and Why would no one discuss it? It was caring for so many children. Margaret de- like the missing link in the evolution cided early on that she wanted an education of medical science. It was like the lost and attended Claverack College, Hudson trail in the journey toward freedom. River Institute, and White Plains Hospital. Seek it I would. If it was in existence it She worked toward her registered-nurse de- should be found. I would never give gree but quit when she married. She and her up until I had obtained it nor stop un- husband, William Sanger, moved to West- til the working women of my genera- chester, New York, and had three children. tion in the country of my birth were They returned to New York in 1911, and acquainted with its substance. (Sanger Sanger became involved in the radical ac- 1932, 58) tivism of New York that preceded World War I. She began writing on topics such as Sanger was indicted in 1914 for violation venereal disease, sex education, and contra- of the obscenity laws. She did not feel she ception and had several run-ins with the could have a just trial, so she jumped bail postal authorities, who considered her in- and went to England. Her marriage to formation obscene. Such information was, Sanger ended the same year. In England, in fact, obscene according to the laws of the she prepared her defense and was influ- time. enced by Havelock Ellis, who was challeng- Sanger later wrote, ing the views on sexuality long held by traditional Victorian society. The following spring found me still She returned to face the charges against seeking and more determined than her in 1915. “I was not afraid of the peniten- ever to find out something about con- tiary. I was not afraid of anything except be- traception and its mysteries. Why was ing misunderstood. That I dreaded. I did it so difficult to obtain information on not want to go to jail for ‘obscenity,’ but I

180 Saunders, Cicely Mary Strode had no hesitation to go for a principle or as Saunders, Cicely Mary Strode a challenge to the obscenity laws, providing 1918– my case could be properly heard” (Sanger 1932, 90). Cicely Saunders is the English founder of Her daughter Peggy died that same year, the current-day hospice movement. The and because she had the sympathy of much movement has revolutionized the way of the public, the government decided not health care workers, counselors, families, to prosecute her. She then decided to travel and physicians look at death and dying, pa- and lecture. Eventually she turned her focus tients’ rights, and the options of the termi- away from censorship issues and toward nally ill. the availability of contraceptives for Born in the borough of Barnet, in Greater women. She felt they would liberate women London, Saunders attended Roedean physically, emotionally, and economically. School and later St. Anne’s College at the She opened the first birth-control clinic in University of Oxford. She trained at the the United States in October 1916. The au- Nightingale School of Nursing as well as the thorities closed it several days later and ar- St. Thomas Medical School. She was a med- rested her. She continued to fight, and two ical student from 1951 to 1957. During this years later physicians were able to prescribe time, she witnessed the beneficial effects of birth control. She then aimed at ensuring many new drugs. She went on to St. women’s rights to sexual information and Joseph’s Hospice in London, where she birth control and at gaining government as- worked until 1965. She saw firsthand the sistance for contraceptive services. physical and emotional needs of terminal Over the next several decades Sanger or- patients and their families and wrote and ganized, increased public awareness of the lectured a great deal. issues, and sought international assistance. In 1967 she founded St. Christopher’s The medical profession was mixed on the is- Hospice in Sydenham in an effort to help sue. She eventually sought better female those with terminal illnesses die with dig- contraceptives and helped raise the funds nity. She promoted sensitive nursing care necessary for Gregory Pincus to develop the for the dying, pain control, and the concept first birth-control pill. that death is a part of living rather than a She has been synonymous with the birth- medical failure. She continued educating control movement for decades, but she also others, particularly health practitioners, on was motivated from the beginning to give the importance of palliative care. women the chance to live the healthy lives Saunders feels it is very important to do possible if they were aware of a means of research and have good physicians at St. limiting reproduction. Her efforts were Christopher’s Hospice. She “has always geared toward lengthening lives, enabling been determined that St. Christopher’s women to have careers, helping children should be unrivalled medically; that in have better health, and affording men better building a hospice as a protest against the socioeconomic situations by having fewer shortcomings of modern high technology children to take care of. Sanger died on Sep- she would not lose the benefits that modern tember 6, 1966. technology has to offer. To fulfill this aim she needed not only the best clinical physicians, References: Katz, Esther, “Sanger, Mar- she also needed a research team to establish garet,” American National Biography, vol. 19, and develop the scientific foundations on New York: Oxford University Press (1999); which their teaching is based” (Du Boulay Sanger, Margaret, My Fight for Birth Control, 1984, 183). She became a DBE (Dame of the London: Faber & Faber (1932). British Empire) in 1980 and received the Or- der of Merit in 1989. She lives in England.

References: Du Boulay, Shirley, Cicely Saun- ders: Founder of the Modern Hospice Move-

181 Scharlieb, Mary Ann Dacomb Bird ment, New York: Amaryllis Press (1984); Scharlieb, Mary Ann Dacomb Bird, Reminis- Parry, Melanie, ed., Chambers Biographical cences, London: Williams and Norgate Dictionary, Edinburgh: Chambers (1997); (1924), reproduced in the Gerritsen Collec- Saunders, Cicely, “A Personal Therapeutic tion of Women’s History, no. 2518.2, San- Journey,” British Medical Journal 313, no. ford, NC: Microfilming Corporation of 7072 (21–28 December 1996): 1599–1601. America (1975–1977).

Scharlieb, Mary Ann Dacomb Bird Scottish Women’s Hospitals 1845–1930 1914–1919

Mary Ann Dacomb Scharlieb was the first Dr. Elsie Maud Inglis of Scotland founded woman in England to be appointed to a the Scotland Women’s Hospitals (SWH). medical position at a general hospital They were established in order for women (Royal Free Hospital in London) and to serve as physicians and allied health founded the Royal Victoria Hospital in In- practitioners in World War I. dia around 1884. During World War I, women who had Born in London on June 18, 1845, she re- training as physicians and nurses were ceived her early education in Manchester. It barred from serving in regular medical wasn’t until after her marriage in 1865 to units. Inglis raised the money and in late William Scharlieb, and their move to India, 1914 established the Scottish Women’s Hos- that she became interested in medicine. pitals, made up of numerous units that Her husband was an attorney and while served all over Europe until the close of helping him with his practice, she found World War I. The women of the Scottish herself assisting the local women with Women’s Hospitals not only served the war childbirth after hearing about their reluc- effort but proved that an all-woman med- tance to see male physicians if they had ical unit could get the job done. Many lost problems. She determined to study medi- their lives in service. cine and went to the Madras Medical Col- lege in India. Although she qualified for a This characteristic common to them medical license there, she returned to En- all, of strength, reliability, and effi- gland to gain more medical education, re- ciency, has been impressed on each ceiving her M.D. from London University Unit largely by its chief medical offi- in 1888. She was the first woman to obtain cer. These last tragic years disclose in a medical degree there, with the encour- the ranks of the S.W.H., and many an- agement of Florence Nightingale and Eliza- other organization, an unfailing sup- beth Garrett Anderson. ply of women with force of character, Eventually she began teaching at the largeness of mind, and powers of lead- Madras Medical College as well as continu- ership, combined with professional ing to build her own practice in India, be- skill in various directions, who have coming an able surgeon. Her husband died devotedly given their services to hu- in 1891. Two of her three children became manity in noble and unselfish labour. doctors. She died on November 21, 1930. This must be a source of profound joy to all who love their country. (McLaren References: Cullis, W. C., “Scharlieb, Dame 1919, 358) Mary Ann Dacomb,” Dictionary of National Biography, 1922–1930, Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press (1937); Haines, Catharine The all-woman hospitals, using prisoners M. C., and Helen Stevens, International as orderlies, served Serb, Russian, French, Women in Science: A Biographical Dictionary to Italian, German, British, Austrian, Turkish, 1950, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (2001); Greek, Bulgarian, and Romanian soldiers

182 Scudder, Ida Sophia and civilians. They traveled anywhere they not swerve from her accepted purpose. were needed. They dealt with difficult ter- India claimed a devotion that never rain in all weather conditions and drove wavered. To return to India, qualified through explosions and gunfire to set up by skill and science to be of service to hospital units. They were a dependable, her people, was the one absorbing am- very competent, and courageous group of bition of this eager and impetuous, yet women who fought epidemics, typhus, tu- disciplined woman. The dream of one berculosis, and dysentery and performed who had no sisters of her own was numerous surgical operations. that the day would come when she might be a sister to others who, in See also: Inglis, Elsie Maud seclusion, suffered pain that might be References: McLaren, Eva Shaw, AHistory abated and died preventable deaths. of the Scottish Women’s Hospitals, London: Her busy brain seethed with great Hodder & Stoughton (1919). plans for the future. (Jeffery 1938, 57)

Before going to India, she raised money Scudder, Ida Sophia for a hospital in Vellore. She was on her own 1870–1960 fairly soon after arriving, as her father died within the first year. She found herself in a Ida Scudder was a pioneer medical mission- very rural area, and many patients were hes- ary. She established a hospital and medical itant to come to a woman doctor. Eventually college in Vellore, India, and served for they accepted her and sought out her help. decades. One of her endeavors was to help the ru- She was born in Ranipet, India, on De- ral population find transportation. She be- cember 9, 1870, to medical missionary John gan a series of roadside clinics that became Scudder and Sophia Weld Scudder. She very popular. She was able to secure vehi- grew up in India and at times in the United cles that typically States. In her early life she wanted to stay in the United States and not become a mis- held ten people plus medicine boxes, sionary like so many in her family before powder bags, sterile dressings and inher, but she visited her parents in India in struments. There were ten stops on the 1890 and had a life-changing experience. Gudiyatham roadside and so great One night when she and her father were was the demand for medical attention in the mission, three men came to ask for that the car was often overcrowded. help for their wives, who were in labor. John Waiting patients had to be taken to the Scudder could not help because the Hindu hospital in Vellore for operations or religion forbade a man to see or examine a better care and a chance visitor might woman. Ida Scudder had no medical train- find herself holding one or two pas- ing and did not go. During the evening all sengers in her lap while the servant three women died, and Ida Scudder deter- boy returned to Vellore, standing on mined that God wanted her to serve the the running board. Members of the women of India as a physician. staff in Vellore Medical College are Scudder went to the Women’s Medical now getting dusty on four roadsides College of Pennsylvania in 1895 and even- every week. They scout, they preach, tually decided to go to Cornell in New York they prescribe, they operate on the when it opened to women. She obtained her roadsides, and they offer no apologies. medical degree in 1899 and went to India, (Jeffery 1938, 146) deciding her father would be her best practical teacher. Her biggest contribution was her dedication to rural health care and the implemen- Throughout her long and arduous tation of the roadside clinics. Her faith and training as a medical student, Ida did hard work inspired those who worked with

183 Seacole, Mary Jane Grant her. The hospital in Vellore was built in a Her autobiography was very successful short time after she arrived and opened in in the years following the war. She wrote of 1902. As the workload increased she real- the siege of Sebastopol: “A line of sentries ized she would need to teach Indian women forbade all strangers passing through with- to care for the people. She opened a nursing out orders, even to Cathcart’s Hill; but once school and eventually the Vellore Medical more I found that my reputation served as a College. permit, and the officers relaxed the rule in Scudder stayed active in India most of her my favour everywhere. So, early in the day, life, working, teaching, and caring for the I was in my old spot, with my old appli- people there. The friends and the patients ances for the wounded and fatigued; little she cared for were her family. She died on expecting, however, that this day would so May 24, 1960, near her home in Kodaikanal. closely resemble the day of the last attack in its disastrous results” (Seacole 1988, 170). References: Jeffery, Mary Pauline, Dr. Ida: Some soldiers referred to her long after India—The Life Story of Ida S. Scudder, New the war ended as the Crimean Heroine. She York: Fleming H. Revell (1938); Jumonville, died on May 14, 1881, of a stroke. Robert Stuart, “Scudder, Ida Sophia,” Amer- ican National Biography, vol. 20, New York: References: Brice-Finch, Jacqueline, “Sea- Oxford University Press (1999). cole, Mary,” Oxford Companion to African American Literature, New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press (1997); Seacole, Mary, Wonder- Seacole, Mary Jane Grant ful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands, New York: Oxford University Press ([1857] 1805–1881 1988); Snodgrass, Mary Ellen, Historical En- Mary Jane Seacole was a Jamaican who cyclopedia of Nursing, Santa Barbara, CA: served as a nurse with the British during the ABC-CLIO (1999). Crimean War. She received the Order of Merit posthumously in 1990. Born in Kingston, Jamaica, to an African Seibert, Florence Barbara American woman and a Scottish soldier, 1897–1991 Mary Jane became very successful running boardinghouses for soldiers, as her mother Florence Seibert was a scientist who helped had done. While tending to the needs of her develop the tuberculin test. She also con- guests, she developed skills in treating tributed to implementing better safety stan- wounds and tropical diseases and even per- dards for drug therapy. formed minor surgeries. Born on October 6, 1897, in Easton, Penn- She had married Edwin Horatio Seacole, sylvania, Seibert survived polio at age three but after his early death, she and a brother to graduate with high honors from high left Jamaica and went to New Granada school. She attended Goucher College in (now known as Colombia, Ecuador, Pan- Towson, Maryland, and majored in chem- ama, and Venezuela). She found herself istry. After graduating in 1918 she worked treating people suffering from cholera. during World War I at Hammersley Paper When cholera broke out in epidemic pro- Mill as a chemist and then won a scholar- portions in Jamaica in 1853, she returned ship to Yale. She earned a doctorate in 1923 and served people there in large part based in biochemistry. on her experiences in New Granada. During her doctoral work she discovered She traveled to Haiti, Cuba, the Bahamas, that patients receiving drug therapy could and eventually to England, where she develop fevers from contaminated distilled served in the Crimean War. She was a free water. She developed a new method for dis- black woman, unlike many of her contem- tillation that killed all the bacteria. She con- poraries, and was able to make a significant tinued her research at the University of contribution to the war effort. Chicago and then taught and conducted re-

184 Sewall, Lucy Ellen

Seibert taught at the University of Penn- sylvania, becoming a full professor in 1955. She retired in 1958, at which time she became a consultant for the U.S. Public Health Service. She continued her research, focusing on cancer at the Cancer Research Labo- ratory in St. Petersburg, Florida. Seibert died on August 23, 1991, in St. Petersburg.

References: Lambert, Bruce, “Dr. Florence B. Seibert, Inventor of Standard TB Test, Dies at 93,” New York Times, sec. 1 (31 Au- gust 1991): 12, col. 4; Seibert, Florence Bar- bara, Pebbles on the Hill of a Scientist, St. Pe- tersburg, FL: St. Petersburg Printing (1968); Shearer, Benjamin F., and Barbara S. Shearer, Notable Women in the Physical Sciences, West- port, CT: Greenwood Press (1997).

Sewall, Lucy Ellen 1837–1890 Florence Barbara Seibert (U.S. National Library of Medicine) Lucy Sewall was one of the few nineteenth- century female physicians who had a thriving practice as well as hospital responsibili- search at the Sprague Memorial Institute. It ties. She spent the majority of her was there that she was involved in discov- professional career in Boston at the New En- ering “that the tuberculin protein, like other gland Hospital for Women and Children. proteins, was an excellent antigen; that is, She was born in Boston, Massachusetts, when, as a foreign substance it was injected on April 26, 1837, to Samuel E. Sewall and into the body it stimulated the body to pro- Louisa Maria Winslow. Her father was very duce antibodies in the blood stream against supportive of women’s rights, and she had it. Antibodies are known to be able to com- a liberal education. In 1856 she met Marie bine with the antigens that induced them Zakrzewska and became interested in med- and in this way frequently produce immu- icine. She saw the need for female physi- nity and protect the body against any toxic cians, particularly their value for women action that the free antigens might have. and children’s health. Various aspects of these immunological re- She enrolled at the New England Female actions were studied” (Seibert 1968, 46). She Medical College, and Zakrzewska also tu- later went with Dr. Esmond R. Long to the tored her a great deal. She received her Henry Phipps Institute at the University of medical degree in 1862 and then traveled to Pennsylvania. Europe to gain valuable practical experience She received a Guggenheim Fellowship in clinics and hospitals. She returned to and traveled to Sweden in 1937 to do re- Boston in 1863 and became resident physi- search at Uppsala University. There she was cian at the New England Hospital for able to isolate tuberculosis protein mole- Women and Children. She remained there cules and use the material to develop the the rest of her life and became very popular, skin test for infection. The tuberculin skin many patients wanting to see only her. She test is still used today. The United States also worked at building the hospital’s train- adopted it as a standard in 1941 and the ing program for other women who needed World Health Organization, in 1952. clinical experience.

185 Shaibany, Homa

Sewall led the way for many other Nuneaton Emergency Hospital. After it was women to seek a medical education. She destroyed by bombing, she worked at nu- suffered from poor health off and on her en- merous other British hospitals and operated tire life and died on February 13, 1890, in during wartime conditions of bombings Boston from heart disease. and heavy casualty loads. After the armistice she remained in Lon- See also: New England Hospital; Zakr- don at St. Leonard’s Hospital until 1948, zewska, Marie Elizabeth when she returned to Persia to finally References: Kass, Amalie M., “Sewall, Lucy serve her own country. She found much Ellen,” American National Biography, vol. 19, opposition from men and no possibility to New York: Oxford University Press (1999); teach or obtain a post at a university. How- Morantz-Sanchez, Regina Markell, Sympa- ever, she persevered because she knew thy and Science: Women Physicians in Ameri- Muslim women were forbidden to be seen can Medicine, New York: Oxford University by a male physician and thus needed her Press (1985). services. She was eventually aided and encouraged by Princess Shamse, head of the Per- Shaibany, Homa sian Red Cross. She established a hospital 1913?–19? for the Red Cross and aided in its successful operation, always dealing with resentment Homa Shaibany was the first woman sur- from male physicians. geon in Iran. She received a scholarship from the Persian government to attend References: Fahimi, Miriam, “Homa Shai- London University in 1930. She was one of bany, M.B.B.S.: First Woman Surgeon of the fortunate few foreigners to gain admit- Iran,” Journal of the American Medical tance to one of the only two colleges that Women’s Association 7, no. 7 (July 1952): 272– admitted women. She proved to have ex- 273; Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Doctors of ceptional talent. the World, New York: Macmillan (1957). Shaibany was born in Tehran to the daughter of a Cambridge graduate and wanted to study medicine in order to help Sheppard-Towner Act of 1921 the women of her country. She was educated at a U.S. mission school before pro- The Sheppard-Towner Act of 1921 was ceeding to London University. During “her passed by Congress under pressure from pre-clinical years she proved so brilliant in women physicians, particularly those of the human anatomy and morphology, embryol- U.S. Children’s Bureau, to better educate ogy, and neurology, that her professors ad- women about prenatal care, regulate mid- vised her to postpone clinical study and wifery, and establish health centers. Many take a degree in these subjects” (Fahimi male physicians of the American Medical 1952, 272). Association were convinced that the Ameri- She subsequently stayed at London Uni- can Medical Women’s Association had versity and received her B.Sc. in anatomy pressed for the act in order to show some and morphology. She obtained clinical ex- political weight, as women had just ob- perience in Dublin at the Rotunda Hospital tained the right to vote. They felt that and earned her licentiate from the Royal women were trying to control maternal College of Physicians. Unfortunately she health care and lobbied to overturn the act. could not return to Iran when she received The ensuing battle reflected both good inher M.B.B.S. in 1939, since World War II had tentions and political motivations, and Con- started. She stayed in England, and since gress rescinded the act in 1929. there was a need for physicians there, she worked in the Redlands Hospital for References: Barker, Kristin, “Women Physi- Women in Glasgow and then at the cians and the Gendered System of Profes-

186 Solis Quiroga, Margarita Delgado de sions: An Analysis of the Sheppard-Towner Physical Sciences, Westport, CT: Greenwood Act of 1921,” Work and Occupations 25, no. 2 Press (1997). (May 1998): 229–255. Siegemundin, Justine Sherrill, Mary Lura Dittrichin 1888–1968 1630–1705

Mary Sherrill worked on antimalarial drugs Justine Siegemundin was a Silesian mid- to replace quinine, which was impossible wife. She wrote a text for midwives that was for countries in Southeast Asia to obtain heavily utilized. She was self-taught and during World War II. Some of the new drugs served the royal family of Prussia. that came out of the research Sherrill headed are still used instead of quinine in References: Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Har- many instances. vey, eds., The Biographical Dictionary of Born on July 14, 1888, in Salisbury, North Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from An- Carolina, she was the daughter of Miles Sher- cient Times to the Mid-20th Century, New rill and Sarah Bost Sherrill. The youngest of York: Routledge (2000). seven, she received her early education at the public schools before entering Randolph- Macon Women’s College. She received her Solis, Manuela bachelor’s degree in chemistry in 1909 and a 18?–18? master’s in physics in 1911. She remained at Randolph-Macon for five years as a teacher. Manuela Solis was the first female physician In 1916 she went to the University of in Spain. She graduated from the University Chicago to work on her Ph.D. in chemistry. of Valencia. She did graduate study in Paris Before she obtained her degree she was and returned to Valencia and enjoyed a suc- asked to work with the Chemical Warfare cessful practice. She later moved to Madrid Service during World War I. She eventually and practiced obstetrics and gynecology. obtained her doctorate in 1923 while also working at Mt. Holyoke College in South References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Hadley, Massachusetts. She advanced to as- Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan sociate professor in 1924, full professor in (1957). 1931, and chair of the Department of Chem- istry in 1946. Her research at Mt. Holyoke focused on antimalarials to replace quinine. Solis Quiroga, Margarita She also studied briefly with the physicist Johannes D. van der Waals in Amsterdam in Delgado de order to learn more about synthesizing and fl. 1926–1957 purifying organic compounds. She received the Garvan Medal from the American Margarita Solis Quiroga was an early Mexi- Chemical Society in 1947. She retired in 1954 can physician. She also served as a physiol- and after several years moved back to North ogy and biology professor at the University Carolina. She died in High Point, North of Mexico. Carolina, on October 27, 1968. References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women References: Grinstein, Louise S., Carol Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan Rose, K. Rose, and Miriam H. Rafailovich, (1957); Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, Women in Chemistry and Physics: A Biobiblio- eds., The Biographical Dictionary of Women in graphic Sourcebook, Westport, CT: Green- Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to wood Press (1993); Shearer, Benjamin F., and the Mid-20th Century, New York: Routledge Barbara S. Shearer, Notable Women in the (2000).

187 Spaangberg-Holth, Marie

Spaangberg-Holth, Marie ceived a medical degree in tropical medi- 1865–1942 cine after study in Paris and Switzerland. In Kenya, while helping farmers who needed a Marie Spaangberg-Holth was the first fe- physician, the AMREF asked her to join and male physician in Norway. She led the way open flying clinics in northeastern Kenya. for others shortly after the University of She made her rounds over a five-week pe- Norway opened its doors to women. riod and became very familiar with spear Born in 1865, Spaangberg-Holth received and gunshot wounds, various diseases, and her medical degree from the University of infection. Norway in 1893 and went to Germany to Spoerry sometimes had to take her pa- study obstetrics and gynecology. She began tients by plane to a hospital. One patient a private practice the following year in Oslo. was the only survivor of a family that had The government then appointed her to been murdered. Once in the plane, work within the Department of Venereal she began to yell at the top of her Diseases, where she treated women pri- voice. She then undid her seat belt and marily for syphilis. tried to throw herself out of the door. I She married ophthalmologist Soren Holth had to keep the plane steady with one in 1897 and focused on diseases of the eye hand, while, with the other, trying to for the rest of her career. She raised three keep her in her seat. I tried to reason children. Spaangberg-Holth died in 1942. with her but she did not speak References: Gundersen, Herdis, “Medical Swahili. Finally I offered her some- Women in Norway,” Journal of the American thing to eat. I think it was a biscuit Medical Women’s Association 6, no. 7 (July and this seemed to pacify her.... 1951): 281; Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Three months later I passed through Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan Nakuru. At the hospital a woman (1957). called out to me. It was my patient, now fully recovered. She had acquired a little Swahili, sufficient for us to carry on a conversation. I said: “You Spoerry, Anne are much better. Next month I shall be 1918–1999? coming to take you home.” She smiled, a very sweet smile. This time Anne Spoerry was a female doctor in Kenya she had no qualms about flying. (Spo- who became a regional legend. She piloted erry 1996, 137–138) a small airplane, bringing medical services to a vast number of farmers in cooperation Spoerry strove to educate people on the with the African Medical Research Founda- importance of good hygiene and immunization (AMREF). tions. Many in the area remember her as Born in 1918 to a Swiss-Alsatian family, Mama Daktari, Swahili for Mother Doctor. she wanted to study medicine from an early age and went to Paris. Her studies were dis- References: “Anne Spoerry Tribute,” AMREF rupted by the Nazi occupation of Paris, and Current News, http://www.amref.org/ Spo- she and her brother François worked with erry.html; Spoerry, Anne, They Call Me Mama the French Resistance and ran a safe house. Daktari, Norval, ON: Moulin (1996). The Gestapo arrested them in 1943 and sent them to Fresnes Prison and later on to Ravensbruck, a concentration camp where Stern, Lina Solomonova she tried to utilize the few medical skills she 1878–1968 had to help the sick. After liberation she had to recuperate be- Lina Stern was a prolific writer on physiol- fore furthering her medical studies. She re- ogy and the first woman to be elected to the

188 Steward, Susan Maria Smith McKinney

Steward, Susan Maria Smith McKinney 1847–1918

Susan Steward was the first African Ameri- can physician in New York State. She was persistent in obtaining a medical degree and became the third black woman to become a physician in the United States. Born in 1847 in Brooklyn, New York, she was the daughter of Ann Springstead Smith and Sylvanus Smith. She was of mixed black, Indian, and European descent. She had a prosperous family with nine siblings and enjoyed music, learning to play the organ at an early age. In 1867, she entered the New York Med- ical College for Women, which was a homeopathic institution that welcomed women. Prior to her entering college, two of her brothers died during the Civil War, and a Lina Solomonova Stern (U.S. National Library of widespread cholera epidemic struck Brook- Medicine) lyn, resulting in numerous deaths. These events may have had an impact on her decision to become a physician. Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. She worked hard to get through medical She discovered the hematoencephalic bar- school and clinical training at Bellevue Hos- rier, which acts as a filtering membrane in pital and graduated at the top of her class in order to protect spinal fluid and nerves 1870. The private practice she opened after from harmful substances. graduation grew very slowly at first, but Born in Latvia in 1878, Stern was taken to eventually her reputation reached many in Switzerland at an early age. She graduated her community and she served both old and from the University of Geneva Medical Fac- young as well as black and white. ulty in 1903 and eventually became a full Steward married William G. McKinney professor of physiological chemistry there. and had two children. He was a minister, In 1925 she returned to the Soviet Union and she was active as the organist while and Moscow to work at the Moscow Med- working to raise a family and practice as a ical Institute and later became the director physician. In 1892 her husband died. of the Moscow Institute of Physiology. Her In 1891, Steward cofounded the Brooklyn studies involved the central nervous system Women’s Homeopathic Hospital and Dis- and the effects of injecting medications into pensary, which served African Americans. the nerve centers of the brain in order to by- She then received more medical education pass the hematoencephalic barrier. This at the Long Island Medical College Hospi- treatment proved helpful for some illnesses tal. From 1892 until 1896 she worked for the and for shock victims during World War II. New York Medical College and Hospital for Stern died in 1968. Women. She married a U.S. army chaplain, The- References: “Lina and the Brain,” Time 49, ophilus G. Steward, in 1896 and traveled no. 9 (3 March 1947): 45; “Prof. Lina Stern, with him to both Montana and Wyoming Physiologist, 89,” New York Times (9 March and practiced medicine in both states. She 1968): 29. eventually joined the faculty at Wilberforce

189 Stewart, Alice

University in Ohio, where she taught vari- ernment wanted to study the safety of the ous health courses for over twenty years. munitions plants before they opened again She also was an excellent writer and orator for World War II. She concluded quickly who presented papers in the United States that the handling of such substances as and overseas on various medical topics, es- TNT would indeed impede a person’s abil- pecially the needs of black women for equal ity to form blood. The British government education and opportunity. subsequently changed its manufacturing Steward was unusually successful rela- procedures. tive to other black female physicians in the Stewart became a very well-known epi- nineteenth century. Aspiring female physi- demiologist and in 1956 turned her atten- cians of the time greatly appreciated her in- tion to low levels of radiation, finding that tellectual gifts, musical talent, and oratory children who were exposed to more prena- skills. She died on March 7, 1918. tal X rays died from cancer at twice the rate of those who received lower exposures. References: Hayden, Robert C., “Steward, These findings were met with great opposi- Susan Maria Smith McKinney,” American tion, but over the next two decades more National Biography, vol. 20, New York: Ox- studies verified that her findings were ac- ford University Press (1999); Hine, Darlene curate. She testified in the late 1980s in U.S. Clark, and Kathleen Thompson, Facts on File congressional committees that the Depart- Encyclopedia of Black Women in America, vol. ment of Energy procedures for assessing ra- 11, New York: Facts on File (1997); Sam- diation exposure and hazards were not ad- mons, Vivian Ovelton, Blacks in Science and equate. Medicine, New York: Hemisphere (1990). She also is a strong advocate of getting medical students more involved in the study of diseases. Stewart, Alice 1906– The medical profession is very gravely to blame for not putting Alice Stewart is a British epidemiologist more of its brain into epidemiology. who uncovered the dangers of low-level ra- I’m absolutely certain that the present diation, particularly as it affected children system of teaching epidemiology with cancer. She has also fought for workers just puts medical students off. They in high-risk occupations despite fierce op- come to it too late. They should be position from the atomic energy industry. introduced to the subject before they Born in Sheffield, England, on October 4, get gripped with the fascination of 1906, she is the daughter of two physicians. clinical medicine—which should grip Her father, Albert Ernest Naish, was an in- them. I know the excitement someone ternist who taught at Sheffield University has coming from clinical medicine. and her mother, Lucy Welburn Naish, was But if you get to students before an anatomy teacher there. She had seven they’re seized with this passion and siblings and with her parents’ support at- reach them with the excitement of tended Cambridge University to become a looking at disease through the lens physician. Three of her siblings also studied of the group, if you could attune medicine. them to think of the larger picture She became a physician in 1931 and in every time they looked at an 1941 took a position at Oxford University. individual disease, you could get During World War II she aided the British them to see the fascination of government in studying the harmful ef- epidemiology. (Greene 1999, 225) fects on workers of handling TNT during World War I. Following World War I, many Alice Stewart continues to speak to stu- munitions workers developed blood disor- dents and scientists about many public ders, including liver disease, and the gov- health issues and has been steadfast in her

190 Stowe, Emily fight for better safety measures for workers Stowe, Emily in the nuclear energy industry. 1831–1903

References: Greene, Gayle, The Woman Who Emily Stowe was the first woman to prac- Knew Too Much: Alice Stewart and the Secrets tice medicine in Canada. She championed a of Radiation, Ann Arbor: University of woman’s right to equal education in medi- Michigan Press (1999); Kay, Virginia, “Stew- cine, was an activist in the women’s move- art, Alice,” Current Biography 61 no. 7 (July ment in Canada, and was antagonistic to- 2000): 70–76; Schneider, Keith, “Scientist ward the male medical establishment of her Who Managed to ‘Shock the World’ on day. Atomic Workers’ Health,” New York Times, Born to Solomon and Hannah Jennings sec. A (3 May 1990): 20, col. 1. on May 1, 1831, Stowe was the eldest of six daughters. One brother died in infancy. The Jenningses were of Quaker background and Stone, Emma Constance felt that in many ways their daughters were 1856–1902 equal to men. They lived in Norwich, On- tario, and educated their children at home, Emma Stone was the first Australian female with Emily doing much of the teaching physician. She worked with poor women when she was in her teens. In 1846 she had and children in Melbourne for many years a chance to fill in at the local school and and helped establish the Queen Victoria taught many children of all ages. Hospital. After several years she desired more edu- Stone was born on December 4, 1856. Her cation herself. She was denied admission to father was a London contractor who had Victoria College in Cobourg because she settled in Tasmania. She received her educa- was female. She proceeded to the Provincial tion in the United States at the Women’s Normal School in Toronto in 1853 in order Medical College of Pennsylvania in to complete a teacher-training course, which Philadelphia and in Canada at the Univer- she did in 1854. She excelled at academics sity of Trinity College in Toronto. She re- and became the first woman principal at an ceived her M.D. in 1888 and obtained her li- Ontario public school. centiate from the Society of Apothecaries in She married John Stowe in 1856 and had 1889 in London, subsequently spending three children, Ann Augusta, John Howard, most of her life practicing medicine in Aus- and Frank Jennings. By 1863 John Stowe tralia. was very ill with pulmonary tuberculosis She worked with the poor most of her ca- and was separated from the family, proba- reer and strove to raise the age for legal bly in a sanatorium. During this time Emily prostitution. She dedicated a large part of decided to become a physician and support her life to establishing a hospital for poor the family. women and children in Victoria. She main- After being rejected by some Canadian tained a private practice and worked at a schools, Stowe entered the New York Medical free dispensary on a regular basis. Stone College and Hospital for Women, a homeo- died on December 29, 1902, at the age of pathic institution, and graduated in 1867. She forty-six. set up a practice in Toronto without a license, feeling that she would have no chance at References: “Obituary,” British Medical Jour- passing the examinations required because nal 1, no. 2197 (7 February 1903): 343; the examiners were not supportive of Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, eds., The women. Also, like her great uncle Solomon, Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science, she felt it was all right to ignore the law if it New York: Routledge (2000). wasn’t fair, being confident that in time it would change. Her practice prospered. John Stowe was well now and back with the family. Emily had met Jennie Trout,

191 Sundquist, Alma whom she had influenced to go into medi- attended the Karolinska Institute of Stock- cine, and they attended lectures at the holm University and then organized and Toronto School of Medicine. Trout decided to worked in free clinics in Stockholm. Her go to the Women’s Medical College of Penn- work brought the problems of venereal dis- sylvania in 1872, and from that time forward ease to the attention of the authorities, who there was friction between the Stowes and needed to understand the importance of Trouts. This friction grew even more when preventive methods and treatment. Sund- Trout became licensed before Stowe, and quist became a well-respected physician in they moved on in their careers and founded her lifetime. She died in January 1940. different medical schools for women. Stowe was involved in a scandal in 1879 References: Journal of the American Medical involving the death of Sarah Lovell, whom Women’s Association 6, no. 1 (January 1951): she had known and who had died from tak- 33–34; Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Doctors ing poison to abort her unborn child. Stowe of the World, New York: Macmillan (1957); denied giving Lovell any poison and was Ogilvie, Marilyn, and Joy Harvey, eds., The found innocent in two separate trials con- Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science, cerning the death. Soon thereafter, officials New York: Routledge (2000). in the profession granted her a license to practice. Jennie Trout had gained her license in 1875; she was the only woman licensed to Swain, Clara A. practice medicine in Canada until Stowe ob- 1834–1910 tained her license in 1880. Stowe helped found the Ontario Medical Clara Swain was the first medical mission- College for Women, which became the ary to Asia in 1869. She worked diligently Women’s College Hospital in Toronto. for the Methodists, who sent her from the She was a vocal and strong-willed propo- United States to treat patients in India, teach nent for women, especially those seeking medicine to women, and eventually open a medical education. Stowe passed away on large hospital to take care of the needs of the April 30, 1903. people of Bareilly. Born on July 18, 1834, Swain was the See also: Trout, Jennie Kidd daughter of John Swain and Clarissa References: Duffin, Jacalyn, “The Death of Seavey. She was born in Elmira, New York, Sarah Lovell and the Constrained Feminism but her family moved to Castile when she of Emily Stowe,” Canadian Medical Associa- was very young. She graduated from the tion Journal 146, no. 6 (15 March 1992): Canandaigua Seminary and taught school 881–888; Fryer, Mary Beacock, Emily Stowe: for many years. Doctor and Suffragist, Toronto: Hannah Insti- Many relatives encouraged her to become tute; Dundurn Press (1990). a nurse because she had a gift for caring for others who were ill. She decided to become a physician and worked at the Castile Sani- Sundquist, Alma tarium at the invitation of Dr. Cordelia 1880?–1940 Greene, who had founded the institution, until she earned her medical degree at the Alma Sundquist was a Swedish physician Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania active in the League of Nations. She special- in 1869. ized in the treatment of venereal diseases of During the 1860s many traditional women and children. Very active in estab- churches were organizing to preach, teach, lishing the medical women’s organizations and lend medical aid in foreign countries. of her day, she served as president of the Swain’s church had raised money to sup- Medical Women’s International Association port a small mission in India, and Swain, in 1934. who had just graduated and who was very Born in Sweden around 1880, Sundquist religious, decided to serve.

192 Sylvain, Yvonne

In 1869, she left with another woman for 21, New York: Oxford University Press India. She opened a small clinic and found (1999); Swain, Clara A., A Glimpse of India: herself very busy. The first year she made Being a Collection of Extracts from the Letters of hundreds of visits to zenanas, the female Dr. Clara A. Swain, First Medical Missionary to part of Indian homes, and to other patients India of the Woman’s Foreign Missionary Soci- outside the clinic. ety of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Amer- She began teaching classes in anatomy ica, New York: J. Pott (1909), reprinted in and diseases the next year, and later some of History of Women Collection, no. 6170, New the women became licensed physicians. As Haven, CT: Research Publications (1977). more and more people came to the clinic, Swain realized they would need a hospital. A donor gave her an estate with over Sylvain, Yvonne forty acres to build a dispensary, and in 1874 1907–1989 the first women’s hospital opened in India. “At first we find it a little difficult to per- Yvonne Sylvain was the first female physi- suade the women to let us examine them, cian of Haiti. She is one of the most re- even to get at their pulse or to see their spected and admired Haitian women of all tongue, but this reluctance soon wears off, time. “She is an esthete and an aristocrat, a and some of the women now in the hospital daughter of an elite, extraordinarily edu- have lost a good deal of their shyness and cated and accomplished family whose roots meet us freely” (Swain 1977, 89). go back deep into Haiti’s violent and stub- The Indian men were also very grateful for bornly independent history. She is the best a female physician. “Quite a number of na- known woman in Haiti today” (“Doctor tive gentlemen have called to pay their re- Number One” 1955, 93). spects, as they say. Some of them have told She received her medical degree in 1940 me that they appreciate my having left my from the University of Haiti. She was the native land and all my friends to come here first woman accepted into the medical to care for their women who can never see a school, and following graduation she physician of the other sex” (Swain 1977, 29). worked in clinics in Port-au-Prince, made As she was increasingly called on by the house calls, educated people on hygiene and sick, she herself became ill and had to travel birth control, and worked on gaining proper to the United States to recover. She contin- therapies for cancer. She lived her life to ued to return to India and was asked to be- serve others. She was active in the women’s come the physician to the women of the suffrage movement. Sylvain died in 1989. palace for the rajah of Khetri. She remained in the palace for many years. Swain died on References: “Doctor Number One,” Holiday Christmas Day, 1910. 17, no. 2 (February 1955): 92; Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women Doctors of the World, New York: References: Beatty, William K., “Swain, Macmillan (1957). Clara A.,” American National Biography, vol.

193 194 T

Taussig, Helen Brooke til her retirement in 1963. She determined 1898–1986 early on that something could be done for children suffering from tetralogy of Fallot, Helen Taussig was a pioneer in pediatric which results in a lack of oxygen in the cardiology. Her work with Alfred Blalock blood. She was one of the first doctors to re- led to the “blue-baby operation,” which rev- ally understand congenital heart malforma- olutionized cardiac surgery and gave hope tions. to hundreds of parents who had children with cardiac problems. She also was instru- Because a person with one congenital mental in avoiding a national tragedy by anomaly not infrequently has others, helping to keep thalidomide off the market. some of Taussig’s children with tetral- This drug causes phocomelia, or shortened ogy of Fallot also had a persistent duc- limbs. tus. As she studied these patients in One of four children, she was born May her clinic and followed several of them 24, 1898, in Cambridge, Maine. Her mother, to the autopsy table, she began to ap- Edith Guild, died when she was still a child. preciate the fact that children with Her father, Frank W. Taussig, was a very both a persistent ductus and a tetral- well-known professor who helped establish ogy did reasonably well, but would the Harvard Graduate School of Business begin to deteriorate if the ductus spon- Administration and is regarded as one of taneously closed later in childhood. the founding fathers of economics in the Obviously, the ductus was serving to United States. She received an education at accomplish the opposite of what it did the Cambridge School for Girls and went on in the embryo: it allowed blood to pass to Radcliffe in 1917. After two years she was from the high-pressure aorta into the ready to get out from under her father’s low-pressure pulmonary artery be- shadow and transferred to the University of yond the obstruction. By shunting the California at Berkeley. circulation around the obstructed pul- Upon graduation in 1921 she told her fa- monary outflow tract, it provided a ther she wanted to become a doctor. He ad- bypass that markedly increased flow vised her to go into public health, but she to the lungs. The logical solution for wasn’t interested. She chose to go to Johns patients with tetralogy, then, was to Hopkins, which admitted women, to study surgically build a ductus. To Helen cardiology. She obtained her M.D. degree in Taussig, the building of a ductus 1927 and stayed at Johns Hopkins Hospital seemed a straightforward matter of to train in cardiology and pediatrics. plumbing—put a length of pipe in the In 1930 she began her career as head of right place, and thereby divert the blue the Children’s Heart Clinic at Johns Hop- blood around the narrowed pul- kins University and would remain there un- monary artery and into the lungs so

195 Taussig, Helen Brooke

Another of Taussig’s accomplishments was her work with Frances Kelsey, to ban thalidomide in the United States. Taussig confirmed Kelsey’s fears, arising from her work at the FDA, and those of others by studying the situation in Germany, where already thousands of babies had been born with phocomelia—shorter bones in their legs and arms. Their mothers’ taking of thalidomide while pregnant had caused the condition. Both Taussig and Kelsey testified before government officials, and the news spread that the disaster had been averted in the United States. Shortly after this success, Taussig worked to institute tougher drug regulations.

I feel the situation should be brought to the immediate attention of the public in this country. It is also important to remember that in many instances the damage is done before the mother knows she is pregnant. Therefore, young women must learn to be cau- Helen Brooke Taussig (U.S. National Library of tious about new drugs. Until new laws Medicine) have become effective, and indeed until research for the proper test on pregnant animals has been completed, physicians must bear in mind that that it can be oxygenated. (Nuland sleeping tablets, tranquilizers, and 1988, 438) other apparently innocent drugs may do terrible harm to the rapidly grow- In 1938 Taussig visited Maude Abbott at ing embryo and the unborn child. McGill University to learn all she could (Taussig 1962, 683) about heart defects. She met Alfred Blalock in 1941, and together they worked on per- Outspoken about abortion even in her fecting an operation that many physicians early days, she felt the mother, not the gov- of the time thought impossible. The Blalock- ernment, should make the choice. She also Taussig shunt successfully joined the sub- spoke out about continually having to fight clavian artery to the pulmonary artery in a the antivivisectionists, a conflict both she cyanotic child. Their accomplishment is one and other scientists found frustrating. She of the major milestones in medicine of the was concerned as well that the United States twentieth century. Their success in 1944 led did not have national health insurance that to open-heart surgery. covered both adults and infants. Her book, Congenital Malformations of the Many physicians who met or worked Heart, published in 1947, was a major con- with her over the years remembered her tribution to the field. “By means of this book fondly. One physician who referred a child the diagnosis of malformations of the heart to her later wrote, “I received a long, deis brought within the power of all physi- tailed letter from Dr. Taussig, but, although cians who are willing to devote time to its everything was made very clear, her letter study and to practice its teachings” (Parks was not just a technical report. That sweet 1947, viii). lady wrote a very personal, homey message

196 Thompson, Mary Harris almost as if we were again face to face tion at Troy Conference Academy in West across a room. From time to time Teddy Poultney, Vermont, and Ft. Edward Colle- needed to return to Hopkins for checkups, giate Institute in New York. She had to teach and I always received another friendly, un- in her teens in order to support her educa- pretentious letter.... Dr. Taussig will al- tion. She was a gifted student and devel- ways be a heroine to me” (Carlisle 2001, 59). oped an early interest in physiology and Taussig retired in 1963 but continued her anatomy, two subjects she was able to teach work and stayed active in the field until she others. was killed in a car accident on May 21, 1986, In 1863 she received her medical degree in Kennett Square, Pennsylvania. from the New England Female Medical Col- lege, having spent one year at the New York See also: Abbott, Maude Elizabeth Sey- Infirmary for Women and Children with the mour; Kelsey, Frances Oldham Blackwell sisters, where she gained some of References: Carlisle, Richard C., “Helen her clinical experience. She then decided to Taussig—A Heroine,” Pharos of Alpha Omega try to establish a practice in Chicago. Alpha–Honor Medical Society 64, no. 1 (Win- She found employment with the Sanitary ter 2001): 59; Grigg, William, “The Thalido- Commission, where she worked with mide Tragedy—25 Years Ago,” FDA Con- women and children who had lost their sumer 21, no. 1 (February 1987): 14–17; husbands and fathers in the Civil War. She Keene, Ann T., “Taussig, Helen Brooke,” also helped many of the returning soldiers American National Biography, vol. 21, New with their medical needs. It wasn’t long be- York: Oxford University Press (1999); Mc- fore she decided to raise money for a hospi- Namara, Dan G., et al., “Historical Mile- tal to tend to the overwhelming numbers of stones: Helen Brooke Taussig: 1898–1986,” women and children seeking medical help. Journal of the American College of Cardiology The Chicago Hospital for Women and Chil- 10, no. 3 (September 1987): 662–671; Nu- dren opened in 1865. She became the sur- land, Sherwin B., Doctors: The Biography of geon and top physician. Medicine, New York: Knopf (1988); Parks, Even though she had a medical degree, Edward A., “Foreword,” in Helen B. Taus- she applied to Rush Medical College for sig, Congenital Malformations of the Heart; more training. The college denied her appli- Taussig, Helen B., Congenital Malformations cation until she enlisted the help of William of the Heart, New York: Commonwealth Byford of Chicago Medical College. She Fund (1947); Taussig, Helen B., “Dangerous graduated in 1870. More women were not Tranquility,” Science 136, no. 3517 (25 May able to follow due to numerous objections 1962): 683; Taussig, Helen B., “Little Choice by male students and faculty. After gradua- and a Stimulating Environment,” Journal of tion, she and Byford founded the Woman’s the American Medical Women’s Association 36, Hospital Medical College in connection no. 2 (February 1981): 43–44. with her hospital. She was a professor at the college and also maintained her position at the hospital, becoming one of the best-known women sur- Thompson, Mary Harris geons in the nation. She specialized in pelvic 1829–1895 and abdominal surgery and also sought to improve current surgical instruments by in- Mary Thompson was a physician and sur- venting her own. Because of her compe- geon. She established a hospital and a med- tence, some males in the field who had ical college in Chicago so that women could doubts about a woman’s capacity to practice gain both academic and practical experience medicine came to change their views. She in the field. published numerous articles on a variety of Born on April 15, 1829, she was the medical topics and used her influence to aid daughter of John Harris Thompson and Ca- women in pursuing careers as physicians. lista Corbin. She received her early educa- She also opened a nurses-training program

197 Tilghman, Shirley Marie Caldwell at her hospital in 1874. Thompson died of a Trout, Jennie Kidd cerebral hemorrhage on May 21, 1895, in 1841–1921 Chicago. Jennie Trout was the first licensed female References: Hast, Adele, “Thompson, Mary physician in Canada. She served many Harris,” American National Biography, vol. small towns in Ontario and established free 21, New York: Oxford University Press dispensaries for the poor. She also founded (1999). the Women’s Medical College at Queen’s University in Kingston. Born on April 21, 1841, in Kelso, Scotland, Tilghman, Shirley Trout emigrated with her family to Canada Marie Caldwell when she was a small child. They settled 1946– near Stratford, Ontario, on a farm. She was very bright, as demonstrated by her early Shirley Tilghman greatly enhanced our education and successful efforts at teaching. knowledge of genes and their role in human She graduated from the Ontario Normal development. She was a key designer of the School in Toronto, which was one of the best Human Genome Project. at teacher preparation. She then taught for Born in Toronto, Ontario, in 1946, to four years near Stratford, Ontario. Henry Caldwell and Shirley Carre Cald- She married Edward Trout, a successful well, Tilghman moved with her family very publisher, in 1865. She was ill much of her frequently and became interested in chem- early life and was treated by electrotherapy. istry in high school in Winnipeg, Manitoba. During her illness she determined to be- She went on to study at Queen’s University come a physician. No Canadian medical in Kingston, Ontario, receiving her degree schools accepted women at that time, so she in biochemistry in 1968. She decided to be- went to the Women’s Medical College of come a molecular biologist and earned a Pennsylvania in Philadelphia and gradu- Ph.D. in biochemistry at Temple University ated in 1875. She returned to Canada and in 1975. founded the Electro-Therapeutic Institute, a She was a fellow at the National Institutes clinic that was well equipped to treat of Health and, with Philip Leder Tilghman, women with galvanic baths or electrical cloned the first mammalian gene. She stimulation. worked later at the Fox Chase Cancer Cen- She then became interested in providing ter in Philadelphia, the University of Penn- opportunities for women to pursue a med- sylvania, and Princeton University. Cur- ical education and in 1883 became the rently she is director of the Institute for founder and trustee of the Kingston Genomic Analysis at Princeton. Women’s Medical College. It merged with Her research has focused on the genetic the Toronto Medical College in 1894 and influence both parents have on the embryo. was known as the Ontario Medical College Her work with the Human Genome Project for Women. She died on October 30, 1921, in started before the project formally began in Los Angeles. 1990. This project, which is vital to medical science, is a cooperative effort that aims to References: Hacker, Carlotta, The In- identify approximately 30,000 genes in the domitable Lady Doctors, Toronto: Clarke, Ir- DNA of humans as well as discover the se- win (1974); “Jennie Kidd Gowanlock Trout,” quences of the billions of chemical bases http://www.rootsweb.com/~nwa/jennie. that make up human DNA. Tilghman has html; Rayson, Sandra, Robert A. Kyle, and two children with her former husband, Marc A. Shampo, “Dr. Jennie Kidd Trout— Philip Tilghman. Pioneer Canadian Physician,” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 68, no. 2 (February 1993): 189. References: Proffitt, Pamela, Notable Women Scientists, Detroit: Gale (1999).

198 Turner-Warwick, Margaret

Turner-Warwick, Margaret asthma. Her interests also expanded to im- 1924– munology and thoracic medicine. She became professor of medicine at the A British physician and immunologist, Cardiothoracic Institute in London in 1972, Margaret Turner-Warwick was the first and wrote her textbook, Immunology of the woman president of the Royal College of Lung, which is still used by numerous med- Physicians. ical schools today. From 1989 until 1992 she Born on November 19, 1924, she received served as the first woman president of the her early education in London. She then at- Royal College of Physicians. In 1991 she was tended Oxford, earning her B.A. in 1946. She made a Dame Commander of the Order of earned her medical degree at University Col- the British Empire (DBE). lege Hospital Medical School in London in 1956, and also earned a Ph.D. there in 1961. References: Haines, Catharine M. C., and Her early medical training involved posts Helen Stevens, International Women in Sci- at University College Hospital, Brompton ence: A Biographical Dictionary to 1950, Santa Hospital, and the Elizabeth Garrett Ander- Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO (2001); Turner- son Hospital. She studied upper respiratory Warwick, Margaret, Immunology of the Lung, tract diseases, particularly tuberculosis and London: Edward Arnold (1978).

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University of Bologna views regarding women receiving higher 1088?– education, as well as teaching. Beginning in 1772, Laura Bassi taught anatomy and The first university in the world, the Uni- physics at the University of Bologna. versity of Bologna was founded about 1088. Although it became well-known mainly for See also: Bassi, Laura Maria Caterina law studies, prominent women professors References: Rashdall, Hastings, The Univer- in the sciences, including medicine, taught sities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. 1: there. By the eighteenth century the Enlight- Salerno, Bologna, Paris, Oxford: Clarendon enment had brought about more liberal Press (1936).

University of Bologna (Archive)

201 University of Salerno

University of Salerno for scholasticism. Frederick II, the Holy Ro- fl. 900–1250 man Emperor, decreed in 1221 that the school at Salerno had to certify all physi- The medical school at the University of cians before they could practice legally. Salerno, in southern Italy, was the first medical school of medieval Europe. It flourished References: Rashdall, Hastings, The Univer- during the tenth through the beginning of sities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. 1: the thirteenth centuries and was coeduca- Salerno, Bologna, Paris, Oxford: Clarendon tional. It had as excellent a reputation for Press (1936). medicine as Bologna did for law and Paris

202 V

Van Hoosen, Bertha Believing that women had a right to bear 1863–1952 children painlessly, she was a strong proponent of twilight sleep (the use of scopo- Bertha Van Hoosen was a strong organizer lamine-morphine) during childbirth, a con- of women in the medical field. She was an troversial subject. Van Hoosen closely outstanding surgeon and founded the monitored patients using the drug and had American Medical Women’s Association in a very good success rate in delivering order to keep women abreast of current healthy babies. She published a book on the events, develop a voice for female physi- use of scopolamine-morphine in 1915. cians and enhance their image, and, most Responding to a growing need for a sup- important, provide a supportive network port system for women in the field, she for women physicians. founded the American Medical Women’s Born in Stony Creek, Michigan, on March Association in 1915. She was an excellent 26, 1863, she was the daughter of a farmer, surgeon, looked up to by her students. Joshua Van Hoosen, and a teacher, Sarah Other women in the field best know her for Ann Taylor. She attended school in Pontiac, her leadership qualities. She died in Romeo, Michigan, and then, despite her parents’ Michigan, on June 7, 1952. misgivings and after teaching and nursing to earn the tuition, enrolled at the Univer- See also: American Women’s Hospitals sity of Michigan Medical School, from References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women which she graduated in 1888. During her Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan studies there she encountered much gender (1957); McGovern, Constance M., “Van discrimination and fought for better clinical Hoosen, Bertha,” American National Biogra- experience, as she wanted to become a sur- phy, vol. 22, New York: Oxford University geon. She gained more clinical experience Press (1999). after she went to the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Boston, and also had experience as an intern at the Women’s Vejjabul, Pierra Hoon Hospital of Detroit. 1909– She opened her own practice in Chicago in 1892. In the early years, she found it very Pierra Vejjabul, a physician, worked to bet- difficult to attract patients, but as her repu- ter the social standing of women in Thai- tation grew, so did her practice. Her contin- land. Confronting many obstacles, she ued learning and teaching at various uni- fought for the rights of all in her country, versities around Chicago culminated in her particularly children and the poor, to ade- appointment in 1918 at Loyola University quate living conditions and medical care. Medical School as a professor and head of Born in Lampang on November 27, 1909, obstetrics. Vejjabul was the daughter of Thongkich

203 Villa, Amelia Chopitea

Hoontrakul and Phon He, a third wife. Vej- she boldly opposed unhygienic prac- jabul witnessed some of the rivalry among tices in child care, the custom of her father’s wives and was very much in polygamy, legal prostitution, and some support of monogamy at an early age. other customs of her people, in her de- AFrench doctor who helped her mother termination to dignify women and to influenced her to go into medicine; she was raise living conditions—especially also deeply affected by an unwed mother among the underprivileged. (“Vej- who committed suicide, dying in her arms. jabul” 1964, 455) She decided to work on raising the status of women as well as advocating better rela- Currently Vejjabul lives in Thailand. tionships between children and mothers. Her father was against her planned ca- References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women reer, so she ran away to Saigon when she Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan was only sixteen. Her father brought her (1957); “Vejjabul (Kunying) Pierra,” Current back home. Later she ran away to Paris and Biography Yearbook 1964, New York: Wilson went to the Sorbonne School of Medicine. (1964). She had to work and sell many of her personal belongings to make ends meet, but she managed to graduate in 1936 with a Villa, Amelia Chopitea medical degree from the Sorbonne School of 1899?–1942 Medicine. She went back to Thailand and worked for Amelia Villa was the first female physician the government, combating venereal dis- in Bolivia. She graduated from the Univer- ease. She was strongly against prostitution sity of San Francisco Xavier in Sucre in 1926. and helped with blood tests for people from She did some graduate work in Paris and all walks of life to determine whether they also founded the Pabellon de Niños at the had syphilis. She established some organiza- Oruro Hospital. The Bolivian government tions to fight prostitution and worked to en- recognized her service. act the law in 1960 that abolished it. She also worked to aid the blind and as- References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women sist poor mothers and children, taking nu- Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan merous children into her own home until (1957). there was a place for them with a family. Premier Luang Pibul Songram dubbed her Vejjabul, or “complete doctor.” She received Villa-Komaroff, Lydia much recognition and many awards for her 1947– work on educating the public about proper health care, including the Order of the Lydia Villa-Komaroff was involved in the White Elephant for meritorious service. discovery that insulin could be produced from bacteria and has done extensive re- In evaluating the pioneering humani- search to add to the knowledge of recombi- tarian contributions that Dr. Pierra Vej- nant DNA. She is the third Mexican Ameri- jabul has made to the improvement of can who has earned a Ph.D. in a science medical, sanitary, and moral standards field. in her country, journalists of the Amer- Born in Las Vegas, New Mexico, on Au- ican press have called her the Jane Ad- gust 7, 1947, she is the daughter of violinist dams of Thailand and the Dr. Albert and teacher John Vias Villa and Drucilla Schweitzer of Asia. A conventionally Jaramillo Villa, a social worker. She grew up reared daughter of a well-to-do family, with five siblings in a family where educa- she defied tradition by becoming a tion was highly valued. She developed an doctor. Then as Dr. Pierra, the name by early interest in science and pursued a col- which her patients generally know her, lege education.

204 Villa-Komaroff, Lydia

She began her education at the University Her work on recombinant DNA was use- of Washington and then transferred to ful in providing a technique to study genes Goucher College along with her future hus- within bacteria. This led to her work on band, Anthony Komaroff. They married af- cloning the insulin gene in rats, which even- ter Lydia graduated with a degree in biol- tually led to success in producing insulin for ogy in 1970. She went to work at the people from bacteria. Villa-Komaroff is cur- National Institutes of Health and became in- rently vice-president for research at North- terested in molecular biology, pursuing fur- western University. ther study at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where she obtained her Ph.D. References: Proffitt, Pamela, Notable Women in 1975. Scientists, Detroit: Gale (1999).

205

Wald, Florence Schorske States, in Branford, Connecticut, and led the 1917– movement for better understanding of the issues facing those who were dying. She Florence Wald brought the hospice move- feels hospice is not for everyone, as some ment to the United States in 1974. She was people want to fight to the end. Others who inspired by her visit to St. Christopher’s would have benefited have not always had Hospice, which Cicely Saunders founded in the opportunity. “As more and more peo- Great Britain. ple—families of hospice patients and hos- Wald was born in New York City on April pice volunteers—are exposed to this new 19, 1917, to Theodore Alexander Schorske model of how to approach end-of-life care, and Gertrude Goldschmidt Schorske. She we are taking what was essentially a hidden attended Mount Holyoke College and grad- scene, death, an unknown, and making it a uated in 1938. Wald received her master’s in reality. We are showing people that there are nursing from Yale University in 1941. She meaningful ways to cope with this very dif- worked for the New York Visiting Nurses ficult situation” (Friedrich 1999, 1685). Association early in her career and also Wald differs from Saunders on the ques- gained experience at Babies Hospital in tion of physician-assisted suicide, feeling New York City and Children’s Hospital in that there are times when this option should Boston. be available to patients; Saunders feels this She spent six years in research at the Sur- approach is never justified. Wald has advo- gical Metabolism Unit of the New York Col- cated and been supportive of better educa- lege of Physicians and later taught psychi- tion for nurses and others involved with the atric nursing at Rutgers State University. care of the terminally ill. Her initial push for Following this work, she took a position at hospices in the United States has grown the Yale University School of Nursing as an from the first hospice in Connecticut to over assistant professor of psychiatric nursing. 2,500 nationwide. Wald lives in Westport, This is where she has spent most of her ca- Connecticut, and is currently involved in reer and where she still works today. She hospice care in prisons. She married in 1959 was the dean of the School of Nursing for and has two children. nine years. In 1963, Cicely Saunders spoke at Yale, See also: Saunders, Cicely Mary Strode greatly impressing Wald. She felt Saunders References: American Nurses Association, was speaking to many of the issues she and “The Hall of Fame Inductees, Florence S. her colleagues were confronting. She made Wald” (1996), http://www.nursingworld. a decision soon after to become involved in org/hof/waldfs.htm; Friedrich, M. J., “Hos- the hospice movement. pice Care in the United States: A Conversa- Wald was instrumental in the establish- tion with Florence S. Wald,” JAMA 281, no. ment of the first hospice in the United 18 (12 May 1999): 1683–1685; Who’s Who of

207 Wald, Lillian D.

American Women, 3d ed., Chicago: Marquis Who’s Who (1963).

Wald, Lillian D. 1867–1940

Nurse, feminist, and health care reformer Lillian Wald advocated child-labor laws, brought to public consciousness the health care needs of the poor, and founded the famous Henry Street Settlement in New York City, one of the first settlement houses of its kind in a period of rapid industrialization in the United States. She founded the current concept of public health nursing. Born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on March 10, 1867, she was the daughter of Max D. Wald and Minnie Schwarz Wald, both German immigrants. She grew up in an affluent Ger- man Jewish neighborhood in New York City. She became interested in nursing and Lillian D. Wald (U.S. National Library of Medicine) graduated from the New York Hospital School of Nursing in 1889. She later attended the Women’s Medical College of the New York Infirmary, founded by Elizabeth Over the years, Wald trained nurses at the and Emily Blackwell, but did not become a Henry Street Settlement, cared for the sick physician. Instead she was asked by the and poor, listened to the illiterate, and Blackwells to begin training immigrants in worked to raise money as well as the con- New York in home nursing care. sciousness of a nation. Her leadership led to She was appalled by the poverty in the the creation of the Visiting Nurses Services. streets of New York City and determined to Nurses in this organization cared for pa- do something about it. She and Mary Brew- tients in their homes, saving the hospital ster started work with a little funding and beds for the critically ill. She also helped es- found they were very welcome and needed. tablish a school-nurses program to improve attendance at public schools. Children who Gradually there came to our knowl- attended school could be seen by a well- edge difficulties and conflicts not pecu- qualified nurse. liar to any one set of people, but inten- One of her biggest assets was her ability sified in the case of our neighbors by to raise funds from the affluent and from poverty, unfamiliarity with laws and politicians. She wrote, gave lectures, and customs, the lack of privacy, and the made the public better aware of the living frequent dependence of the elders and working conditions of the poor. Her upon the children. Workers in philan- work led to better child-labor laws and reg- thropy, clergymen, orthodox rabbis, the ulations on working conditions. Wald died unemployed, anxious parents, girls in in Westport, Connecticut, on September 1, distress, troublesome boys, came as in- 1940. dividuals to see us, but no formal organization of our work was effected till References: Daniels, Doris Groshen, Always we moved into the house on Henry a Sister: The Feminism of Lillian D. Wald, New Street, in 1895. (Wald 1915, 24) York: Feminist Press at the City University

208 Walker, Mary Edwards of New York (1989); Daniels, Doris Groshen, rary Opinions about Mary Walker: A Shy “Wald, Lillian D.,” American National Biogra- Pioneer of Therapeutic Neurology,” Neurol- phy, vol. 22, New York: Oxford University ogy 51, no. 5 (November 1998): 1433–1439; Press (1999); Duffus, Robert Luther, Lillian “Mary Broadfoot Walker,” Lancet 2, no. 7893 Wald, Neighbor and Crusader, New York: (7 December 1974): 1401–1402; Schmidt, Ja- Macmillan (1938); Wald, Lillian D., The cob Edward, Medical Discoveries: Who and House on Henry Street, New York: Henry When, Springfield, IL: Thomas (1959). Holt (1915). Walker, Mary Edwards Walker, Mary Broadfoot 1832–1919 1888–1974 Mary Walker was an early physician in the Mary Walker was a Scottish pioneer in treat- United States who fought many of society’s ing neurological disorders, particularly standards for women, most notably the way myasthenia gravis. She introduced physo- they dressed, and proved a valuable physi- stigmine in treating this neuromuscular dis- cian and surgeon during the U.S. Civil War. order in 1934. Only recently has this contri- She was born in Oswego, New York, on bution been fully recognized. November 26, 1832. Her father, Alvah Relatively unknown most of her life, Walker, was a farmer and physician. Her Walker was born in Wigtown, Scotland, in mother was Vesta Whitcomb Walker. She 1888 and received her medical degree from had four sisters and one brother who sur- the University of Edinburgh in 1913. She vived to adulthood. Her father was very served the Royal Army Medical Corps in supportive of some of the reform move- Malta and Salonika during World War I. She ments of the day, such as dress reform and then worked at St. Alfege’s Hospital in women’s rights. Greenwich for sixteen years. Later she Her early education covered the basics. served at several other hospitals, including Like her sisters, she attended Falley Semi- St. Leonard’s in Shoreditch, St. Francis’s in nary in Fulton and taught for a brief time. Dulwich, and St. Benedict’s in Tooting. She decided to become a physician like her Her publication in 1934 of her discovery father and attended Syracuse Medical Col- of the therapeutic effects of physostigmine lege, graduating in 1862. She married Albert on myasthenia gravis patients was a mile- E. Miller, also a physician, but the marriage stone in treatment of the disease. Her dis- ended in divorce. She practiced medicine in covery generated some interest at the time, Columbus, Ohio, and Rome, New York. and medical practitioners asked to demon- During this period she was an avid cru- strate her method a few times. However, for sader for dress reform. Reflecting her fa- the most part, the medical community ther’s views, she disliked the restrictive largely ignored her discovery during her clothing for women and objected to dresses lifetime. The Royal College of Physicians in altogether as bad for one’s health and not London awarded her the Jean Hunter Prize conducive to proper hygiene. She chose to in 1963 but did not elect her a fellow of the wear bloomers, pantaloons, or trousers, organization. Years after her death, many finding them more practical. felt her shy personality and lack of a mentor During the Civil War she volunteered or a laboratory for working on larger proj- when she was refused a commission. She ects kept her amazing accomplishment in worked in Washington, D.C., hospitals but the dark. She died on September 13, 1974. wanted to go to the field and traveled extensively to see and tend to casualties. Eventu- References: Kass-Simon, Gabriele, and Pa- ally she became an assistant surgeon in the tricia Farnes, Women of Science: Righting the Union army, working near the front in many Record, Bloomington: Indiana University battles before being taken prisoner in Rich- Press (1990); Keesey, John C., “Contempo- mond, Virginia. She spent four months there

209 Wars and Epidemics as a captive of the Confederate army until were accepted as healers in times of great she was released in a prisoner exchange. need. They then were able to use their expe- When the war ended she was the first rience to further their careers. woman to receive a Congressional Medal of For centuries, women were seen as not ca- Honor for her heroism. She then traveled pable of fruitful work. abroad and lectured on various subjects. When she returned home, she lectured and Roman men, as we have seen, were wrote about dress reform, marriage, the perceived as ambitious, energetic, re- war, women’s rights, health, and hygiene. sourceful, aggressive, and successful. Walker was a colorful character with In claiming their brides they demon- many interests who voiced her opinion strate their manhood and give evi- whether asked or not. She aided in the dence of their ability to maintain a se- progress of women in general and used her cure and prosperous household in the skills as a physician to save many a soldier future. Women, on the other hand, during the Civil War. were represented as weak, passive Her Medal of Honor was rescinded in bearers of children whose active alle- 1917 when Congress tried to change the re- giance is evoked principally through quirements of the medal to make it more their children, by appeal to the pas- prestigious. Walker refused to return hers, sions (cupiditas and amor), and by their wearing it daily until she died. President own awareness of their helpless de- Carter reinstated her medal posthumously pendence on men. (Miles 1995, 215) in 1977. Walker died in Oswego on February 21, 1919, just a little over a year before Women have been instrumental in coping women gained the right to vote in the with epidemics. In the seventeenth, eigh- United States. teenth, and nineteenth centuries in the United States alone, there have been numer- References: Chaff, S. L., “Walker, Mary Ed- ous regional outbreaks of influenza, ty- wards,” Dictionary of American Medical Biog- phoid fever, cholera, yellow fever, and raphy, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press measles. The yellow fever epidemic in 1852 (1984); Snyder, Charles McCool, Dr. Mary affected the entire nation, with the most Walker: The Little Lady in Pants, New York: concentrated fatalities in the New Orleans Vantage Press (1962); Spiegel, Allen D., and area. In 1775 the influenza epidemic reached Peter B. Suskind, “Mary Edwards Walker, worldwide proportions and required M.D.: A Feminist Physician a Century ahead women to travel long distances to care for of Her Time,” Journal of Community Health the sick outside their own communities. 21, no. 3 (June 1996): 211–235; Woodward, Women’s vital work in times of crisis did Helen Beal, The Bold Women, New York: Far- not necessarily lead to a wholehearted belief rar, Straus and Young (1953). in their competence as health care workers. Even as late as the twentieth century, many medical schools preferred male candidates. Wars and Epidemics In Great Britain “the most comprehensible explanation of the medical schools’ reaction Through the ages, the most optimal time for against women students is in terms of sim- women to exercise their right to practice ple ‘backlash,’ the reassertion of patriarchal medicine seemed to be when countries prerogatives after the war, in the first in- waged war or were faced with overwhelm- stance, and in the context of competition for ing epidemics. When deaths were imminent employment during the later 1920s” (Dy- and quickly occurring, even the most ardent house 1998, 122). antifemale medical professionals accepted Women’s contributions in the medical whatever help was available. Florence field were only a small part of their war ef- Nightingale, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, forts. They also took the men’s jobs while and Clara Barton are just a few women who they served in the military. Yet whether in

210 Wars and Epidemics

Women have served for centuries in wars and epidemics (Corbis)

the field tending to soldiers’ wounds or at tary. During the Vietnam War and the Gulf home doing the men’s work, women still War, women served in increasing numbers. had very little power. They continued to be By World War II, professional bodies in less valued both by society and under the Britain were more accepting of women law: “Employers in all nations paid women physicians. The Report of the Interdepartmen- at standards well below wages for men with tal Committee on Medical Schools, published equivalent skills, denying them fringe bene- in 1944, attests, “We believe that prudence fits whenever possible” (Kolko 1994, 96). and good sense dictate that the promise of In the medical field, women who had developing into a good doctor shall be the served on the battlefield often lost their status overriding factor in the selection of students during peacetime. “During the First World and that unsuitability for a medical career War there really was nothing a woman doc- shall be the sole barrier to admission to a tor could not do in the war zone. They treated medical school” (Goodenough 1944, 97). virtually every kind of wound and disease, In the United States, women have contin- they underwent the same hardships, priva- ued to enter the medical profession in both tions and dangers as men, became prisoners the private and government sectors. From of war, took part in devastating retreats, and 1970 to 2000, the number of women physi- worked under shells and bombs. None of this cians tripled in proportion to men (Ameri- valuable experience advanced their career can Medical Association 2002, 316–317). prospects. And it took the outbreak of an- Nursing continues to be a field dominated other world war to gain medical women by women (Scanlon 2001, 21). Despite commissioned rank in the British army” progress, however, some feel that women (Leneman 1994, 177). In 1943 the U.S. Con- physicians will never gain equality with gress finally authorized the commissioning their male colleagues, particularly in the of women physicians as officers in the mili- United States:

211 Wauneka, Annie Dodge

There is a “glass ceiling” on women Physicians Will Never Be True Equals in the physicians’ upward mobility. They are American Medical Profession,” in Gender, kept from top-level positions, I will ar- Work, and Medicine: Women and the Medical gue, through the subtle process of a Division of Labor, edited by Elianna Riska kind of colleague boycott—not keep- and Katarina Wegar, London: Sage (1993); ing them out entirely, but not includ- “Memories of War: How Vietnam-Era ing them in ways that allow them to Nurses Are Coping Today,” USA Today 121, replace the senior members of the no. 2574 (March 1993): 30–31; Miles, Gary B., medical community. This process is Livy: Reconstructing Early Rome, Ithaca, NY: the “Salieri phenomenon”—a combi- Cornell University Press (1995); Murray, nation of faint praise and subtle deni- Flora, Women as Army Surgeons, London: gration of their abilities to lead that Hodder and Stoughton (1920); Scanlon, delegitimates women physicians’ bids William S., “Nursing Workforce: Recruit- to compete for positions of great au- ment and Retention of Nurses and Nurse thority. The reason men are so reluc- Aides Is a Growing Concern,” Washington, tant to allow women into the inner cir- DC: General Accounting Office (2001); Tan- cles, I contend, is their fear that if too nenbaum, R. J., “Earnestness, Temperance, many women become leaders, the pro- Industry, the Definition and Uses of Profes- fession will “tip” and become sional Character among Nineteenth-Cen- women’s work—and men will lose tury American Physicians,” Journal of the prestige, income and authority. (Lorber History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 49, no. 1993, 63) 2 (April 1994): 251–283.

The fact that the male-dominated Ameri- can Medical Association elected Nancy Wauneka, Annie Dodge Dickey as its president in 1997 suggests that 1910–1997 more women can achieve leadership roles with administrative power. Annie Wauneka was a Navajo health care educator who taught her tribal members See also: Barriers to Success; Women of that proper hygiene and Western medicine Color in Medicine were essential to ridding the community of References: American Medical Association, tuberculosis. President John F. Kennedy “Physician Characteristics and Distribution awarded her the Presidential Medal of Free- in the United States, Chicago: Survey and dom shortly before his assassination in Data Resources, American Medical Associa- 1963. tion (2002); Dyhouse, Carol, “Women Stu- Born in the Navajo Nation near Sawmill, dents and the London Medical Schools, Arizona, on April 10, 1910, she was the 1914–39: The Anatomy of a Masculine Cul- daughter of Chief Henry Chee Dodge and ture,” Gender and History 10, no. 1 (1998): his third wife, K’eehabah. She grew up with 110–132; Goodenough, William MacNa- her father and tended the family flock. Her mara, Report of the Inter-Departmental Com- father was educated and had saved his mittee on Medical Schools, London: His money to provide well for his family. They Majesty’s Stationery Office (1944); Johnson, lived in a Western-style home rather than Samuel, Letters of Samuel Johnson, ed. George the traditional hogan. Birkbeck Hill, Oxford: Clarendon Press She received some education at a govern- (1892); Kolko, Gabriel, Century of War: Poli- ment boarding school in Fort Defiance, tics, Conflicts, and Society since 1914, New where she saw much sickness and disease. York: New Press (1994); Leneman, Leah, She helped care for some of her friends who “Medical Women at War, 1914–1918,” Med- were sick but saw many die. She later im- ical History 38, no. 2 (1994): 160–177; Livy, proved her spoken English at the Albu- The History of Rome, vol. 1, London: George querque Indian School. Bell (1906); Lorber, Judith, “Why Women When she was home she visited tribal

212 Weizmann, Vera members with her father, a strong advocate sity of Nebraska Press (2001); Suarez, Dar- of education and of helping the Navajo peo- lene Mary, “Annie Dodge Wauneka,” in ple, and began to realize the poverty of her Frank Magill, ed., Great Lives from History: tribe. She pursued further education with American Women Series, vol. 5, Pasadena, the U.S. Public Health Service. CA: Salem Press (1995). In dealing with ailments in her tribe, she faced shortages of medical supplies, substandard living conditions, and age-old Weizmann, Vera customs. 1879–1966

Navajos classify diseases by cause Vera Weizmann was a physician and well- rather than by symptom, maintaining known as the first lady of Israel; her hus- that all trouble and illness are a result band, Chaim Weizmann, became the coun- of a state of disharmony with the sur- try’s first president in 1949. She worked to rounding world, other people, and the improve public health in Israel. Born in supernatural environment. When all southern Russia in Rostov-on-Don as Vera things in the universe are in tune, peo- Chatzman, she traveled to Geneva for a med- ple have good health. But countless ical education. “The small group of young events can upset this harmony to women to which Vira Chatzman belonged cause sickness: a person can have a differed in a marked way from the general bad dream, break a taboo, or come run of Jewish girl-students in the Swiss uni- into contact with such contaminating versities of that time. Their looks, their de- forces as spirits of the dead, non- portment, their outlook on life, set them Navajos, or Navajo witches. A whole apart. They were far more attractive than range of animals, including snakes, their contemporaries from the Pale of Settle- bears, coyotes, and porcupines, can ment; they were less absorbed in Russian bring illness. Touching a tree struck by revolutionary politics; not that they were in- lightning or gathering and cooking different; but they paid more attention to with the wood from such a tree was their studies, and less to the public meetings thought to be a cause of tuberculosis. and endless discussions which took up so (Niethammar 2001, 87) much of the time of the average Russian student abroad” (Weizmann 1949, 95). She married George Wauneka in 1929, Like her husband, she was very active in and they reared six children. She was highly Zionist causes and organizations. She also recognized for her good works during her was instrumental in establishing health care lifetime. and disease prevention programs in her “A humanitarian and advocate for better country. Following her husband’s death in health, Dr. Annie, as she was known after 1952, she carried on the work he had started she received an honorary doctorate degree with the Weizmann Institute of Science in from the Navajo Community College, has Rehovot, Israel. been credited with saving thousands of She had two sons, Benjamin and Michael. lives of tribal members when she almost Michael was killed in World War II. She single-handedly convinced Navajos to go to died in September 1966. doctors to get treatment for tuberculosis” (Donovan 1997, A1). She died on November References: Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women 10, 1997, from Alzheimer’s disease. Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan (1957); Weizmann, Chaim, Trial and Error: The References: Donovan, Bill, “Life Devoted to Autobiography of Chaim Weizmann, New York: Health Care,” Navajo Times 36, no. 44 (13 Harper (1949); “Weizmann, Vera” [obit], New November 1997): A1; Niethammar, Carolyn York Times (25 September 1966): 85. J., I’ll Go and Do More: Annie Dodge Wauneka, Navajo Leader and Activist, Lincoln: Univer-

213 Western Reserve College

Western Reserve College She was a research fellow at Columbia 1826– University and earned a Ph.D. in 1975 in chemistry and both inorganic and physical Founded in 1826 in Tallmadge, Ohio, this biochemistry. She was a postdoctoral fellow college was an early pioneer in educating at the National Institutes of Health for a women and African Americans, as well as year and then returned to Columbia to work white males, partly because Ohio was a ma- at the Institute of Cancer Research. Soon jor center of abolitionism. The school moved thereafter she became the first female pro- to Hudson, Ohio, a year after its founding. fessor in chemistry at Dartmouth College. Carroll Cutler, president of the college She was a tireless researcher and writer, from 1870 to 1886, held the unconventional publishing more than eighty papers on can- belief that women should have the same cer-causing chemicals and metals as well as right as men to attend institutions of higher how they interact with DNA. She also education, encouraging many women to en- helped recruit female science students at roll in the college in the late nineteenth cen- Dartmouth in a program called the Women tury. Cutler had to continually defend his in Science Project (WISP), which served as a stance on women’s rights to the faculty, and model for recruiting programs at several after he resigned in 1886, admittance of other colleges and universities. women ended for a brief time. After her tragic death from mercury poi- The name of the college changed to West- soning on June 8, 1997, investigators discov- ern Reserve University in 1882. Both Emily ered that the standard lab gloves she was Blackwell and Marie Zakrzewska obtained wearing do not offer protection from di- their medical degrees at Western Reserve methyl mercury. Her husband, Leon H. University. In 1967, Western Reserve Uni- Webb, and a son and daughter survived her. versity merged with the neighboring Case References: Proffitt, Pamela, Notable Women School of Applied Science and became the Scientists, Detroit: Gale (1999). current Case Western Reserve University.

References: Summerfield, Carol, and Mary Elizabeth Devine, eds., International Dictio- Whately, Mary Louisa nary of University Histories, Chicago: Fitzroy 1824–1889 Dearborn (1998). Mary Whately established a medical mission in Egypt after treating many people on Wetterhahn, Karen Elizabeth her own. She was one of the first missionar- 1948–1997 ies in Egypt. Born August 31, 1824, at Halesworth in Karen Wetterhahn was an established can- Suffolk, she was the daughter of Richard cer researcher who also urged young Whately, archbishop of Dublin, and Eliza- women to enter the science field. She died beth Pope. She spent much of her early life prematurely from mercury poisoning, in Dublin with frequent trips to England. which brought international attention to the She was deeply religious and early on be- issue of laboratory safety. came interested in the Irish Church’s mis- Born in Plattsburgh, New York, on Octo- sion work abroad. She felt called to serve in ber 16, 1948, Wetterhahn was the daughter Egypt, in the midst of the Islamic world. of Gustave George Wetterhahn and Mary In Cairo, she provided health care and Elizabeth Thibault Wetterhahn. She re- worked to teach Muslims the Bible and con- ceived an early education at St. Mary’s High vert them to Christianity. As a missionary in School in Champlain, New York, and then the field, she had to depend largely on her went on to study chemistry and mathemat- own resources. “No resident doctor was at ics at St. Lawrence University, graduating in this time near the scene of her work; and she 1970 at the top of her class. herself administered constantly such reme-

214 Williams, Anna Wessels dies as she understood the use of, to the sick http://www.rki.de/GESUND/ ARCHIV/ poor around her. Many a really serious case IES/SWEDEN.HTM. of eye disorder has been cured by her; many a wounded or otherwise injured hand or foot healed by her skilful hand” (Whately Williams, Anna Wessels 1890, 61). 1863–1954 In 1879, Whately established a medical mission that served the needs of a poor Anna Williams was a bacteriologist and community. To help with the patient load, pathologist who partnered with William she obtained the services of a Syrian med- Hallock Park to identify the bacillus ical missionary who had been trained at the Corynebacterium diphtheriae. This work led to American Medical College in Beirut. She the development of an antitoxin serum for died on March 9, 1889. the treatment of and immunization against diphtheria, which had caused the deaths of References: Cale, Patricia S., “A British Mis- many children. Williams’s research led to a sionary in Egypt: Mary Louisa Whately,” Vi- greatly diminished occurrence of diphtheria tae Scholasticae 3, no. 1 (1984): 131–143; around the world, and her findings are still Whately, Elizabeth Jane, The Life and Work of useful to physicians today. Also important Mary Louisa Whately, London: Religious was her work in perfecting the diagnosis of Tract Society (1890). rabies. Born March 17, 1863, in Hackensack, New Jersey, she was the second of six chil- Widerstrom, Karolina dren of William and Jane Williams. She re- 1856–1949 ceived her early education at home from her parents before becoming a teacher at Karolina Widerstrom was the first woman the New Jersey State Normal School in doctor in Sweden. She paved the way for Trenton, New Jersey, in 1883. She taught for others by becoming a successful practicing a few years and then decided to become a gynecologist, social reformer, and writer. physician after her sister almost died from Born in Sweden in 1856, Widerstrom be- the delivery of a stillborn child. Her parents came a physician in 1888. She was a teacher consented, and she entered the Women’s on sex and hygiene and wrote a book, Hy- Medical College, which had become a giene for Women, that was widely used for branch of the New York Infirmary for decades. Well ahead of her time, in 1897 she Women and Children. implemented sex education for girls’ After obtaining her medical degree, she schools in Stockholm. She lectured on the stayed at the college in various teaching po- needs of infants, the importance of training sitions before furthering her education in parents in childcare, and the detrimental ef- Europe at several universities and hospitals. fects of early parenthood. Her research on diphtheria began during an Widerstrom was also concerned about the epidemic of the disease when she worked at harm to society of the accepted profession a new diagnostic lab for the Health Depart- of prostitution. Her success and good repu- ment of the City of New York. She and Park tation were inspirational to future women worked with a mild tonsillar diphtheria to physicians in Sweden. She died in 1949. isolate a pure culture and develop an antitoxin to the disease. References: Andreen, Andrea, “Women Williams was also very good at writing Doctors in Sweden,” Journal of the American for both the scientist and the layperson. She Medical Women’s Association 2, no. 2 (February and Park coauthored the second, 1905, edi- 1947): 44; Lovejoy, Esther Pohl, Women tion of the eleven-edition Pathogenic Mi- Doctors of the World, New York: Macmillan croorganisms Including Bacteria and Protozoa: (1957); Trost, Jan E., and Mai-Briht Bergstrom- A Practical Manual for Students, Physicians Walan, “Sweden (Konungariket Sverige),” and Health Officers. In 1929, she also collabo-

215 Williams, Cicely Delphin rated with Park on Who’s Who among the Mi- not sufficient for both the newborn and the crobes, a book for the nonprofessional. older child. Babies who lost their mothers or Later, Williams worked on treatments for had mothers with health problems also suf- strep infections and pneumonia. She did re- fered from the disease. These children were search on scarlet fever and was the first per- often passed around to female relatives who son to fully understand that rabies began could take turns breast-feeding, but usually with a change in brain cells. This discovery this practice did not provide enough milk to led to diagnosis in the early stages of the keep the child healthy. disease. Williams was nationally recognized The symptoms of kwashiorkor were slow for her work. In 1907 she was appointed to develop. “The baby might have been per- chair of the American Public Health Associ- fectly normal at birth, after four to twelve ation’s Committee on the Standard Methods months of such a defective diet it would be- for the Diagnosis of Rabies. Williams died come highly irritable, lose weight, and have on November 20, 1954. attacks of diarrhea. Its hands and feet would swell, and over a period of months References: Bailey, Martha J., American its hair would gradually become pale and Women in Science: A Biographical Dictionary, scanty, and its skin would turn a dull red- Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO (1994); Schafer, dish color. If untreated at this stage, it Elizabeth D., “Williams, Anna Wessels,” in would almost surely die of a progressive John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds., disease characterized by a terrible rash, an American National Biography, vol. 23, New extensive sloughing of the skin, and an en- York: Oxford University Press (1999); larged fatty liver” (Downs 1952, 443). Shearer, Benjamin F., and Barbara S. Shearer, Williams wasn’t able to perform any au- Notable Women in the Life Sciences: A Bio- topsies until she was in Accra in 1930. When graphical Dictionary, Westport, CT: Green- children were about to die, the mothers wood Press (1996). would take them back to their tribal grounds. Some workers told Williams this practice was a matter of custom, but she lis- Williams, Cicely Delphin tened to the mothers and discovered the 1893–1992 real reason:

Cicely Williams was a British physician. She Apparently the bus companies was the first to describe kwashiorkor, a dis- charged more to transport a corpse ease of young children that can result in and nothing for the live baby slung on death. its mother’s back in a shawl. So Cicely Born on December 2, 1893, in Kew Park, offered to pay the extra fare if the Jamaica, she was the daughter of James mother would allow her to “do a small Rowland Williams and Margaret E. C. operation before the baby goes home.” Williams. Her father was the director of ed- It was so simple, but no other Euro- ucation in Jamaica. She received her early pean had thought of eavesdropping on education at Bath High School for Girls, the natives before. The nearest labora- later attended Somerville College at Oxford, tory was two miles away and the body and then obtained her medical degree at had to be taken immediately.... It was Kings College. extremely difficult to define the certain She worked for the Colonial Medical Ser- cause of death because there would be vice from 1929 to 1948, serving on the so many contributory factors—in- African Gold Coast. It was here that she evitably worms, probably yaws, cer- witnessed a large number of children suffer- tainly evidence of improper diet—and ing from kwashiorkor, a disease caused by a frequently the child had died of pneu- diet high in carbohydrates and low in pro- monia anyway. If the autopsy showed tein. Older babies often suffered from this a lot of fat in the liver and oedema of disease when the mother’s breast milk was the neck if not the whole of the gall-

216 Women of Color in Medicine

bladder, she suspected a nutritional “From antiquity to approximately 1890, the deficiency. (Craddock 1983, 63–64) Western world demonstrated an evolution of definite patterns in thoughts and actions Williams began to treat the children with toward those of other races” (Lauren 1996, condensed milk, and their condition im- 48). Colonizers have often discriminated proved. She worked to educate many on against indigenous populations—“the Abo- recognition and prevention of the disease rigines and Torres Strait Islanders in Aus- and on its treatment. tralia, the Maori in New Zealand, the Uygur She taught at the American University in and the Hui in China, the Ainu in Japan, the Beirut from 1959 to 1964 and in 1971 was a Dayaks in Malaysia, the Papuans in Indone- professor at Tulane University in the School sia, the Andamans in India, the Saami in the of Public Health. She visited and lectured in Arctic regions of northern Europe, the many different countries on childhood dis- Basarwa in Botswana, the Aka Pygmies of eases and health care for children and moth- the Central African Republic, and the ers. Williams died July 13, 1992. Ju/Wasi San in Namibia” (Lauren 1996, 313). References: Craddock, Sally, Retired Except Race was an issue following both world on Demand: The Life of Dr Cicely Williams, Ox- wars, particularly after World War II, when ford: Green College (1983); Dally, Ann G., nations were faced with the overwhelming Cicely: The Story of a Doctor, London: Gol- evidence of Hitler’s mass annihilations. Of lancz (1968); Downs, Elinor, “The Story of interest during the two world wars was the Kwashiorkor,” Journal of the American Med- perspective of some in minority groups that ical Women’s Association 7, no. 12 (December the white race might exhaust itself on war, 1952): 443–446; Who’s Who, New York: St. providing other races with an opportunity Martin’s Press (1992). to propel themselves to higher status. Mo- hammed Duse, editor of African Times and Orient Review, the first African-Asian jour- Women of Color in Medicine nal, speculated that the nonwhite races of the world might benefit enormously from Women of color faced a double hurdle in World War I: “We can only watch and pray. proving themselves intelligent and compe- Unarmed, undisciplined, disunited, we can- tent enough to pursue medical studies and not strike a blow, we can only await the practice as nurses and physicians. “If white event. But whatever that may be, all the women, black men, and poor whites, as combatants, the conquerors and the con- many scholars argue, were outsiders in quered alike, will be exhausted by the strug- medicine, then black women, belonging as gle, and will require years for their recovery, they did to two subordinate groups, surely and during that time much may be done. inhabited the most distant perimeters of the Watch and wait! It may be that the non- professions” (Hine 1985, 107). European races will profit by European dis- For many centuries, women themselves aster” (Duse 1914, 450). were well down in the class system, in Racism continues to be a worldwide many countries being traded as slaves. They problem. often were illiterate. Until progress was made against gender discrimination, there The first global attempt to speak for was no hope of many cultures producing equality focused upon race. The first women educated for medicine. human rights provisions in the United Racism goes back to ancient times. The Nations Charter were placed there be- Hindu caste system was based on race; early cause of race. The first international cave drawings in Egypt represent racial dif- challenge to a country’s claim of do- ferences. Many cultures show early signs of mestic jurisdiction and exclusive treat- prejudice based on race, mainly because it is ment of its own citizens centered upon easiest to discriminate on the basis of color. race. The first binding treaty of human

217 Women of Color in Medicine

Women of color in medicine have to face both gender and racial discrimination (Corbis)

rights concentrated upon race. The in- “Whenever we talked about the war and ternational convention with the great- what the fighting was all about, someone est number of signatories is that on would mention Hitler and his racist attitude race. Within the United Nations, more toward blacks. We had no doubt about resolutions deal with race than with Hitler’s prejudice because we had all heard any other subject. And certainly one of the story about his snub of Jesse Owens dur- the most long-standing and frustrating ing the 1936 Olympic Games. It never problems in the United Nations is that dawned on us that there was a real irony in of race. (Lauren 1996, 4) the fact that the United States was trying to eradicate Nazi racism with a military During World War I, black female nurses formed along racist principles” (Conner made some headway in Britain. After the 1985, 29). war, they continued to fight for equal access Mary Mahoney opened a new profession to the profession. Having been refused by for black women by graduating from the the Red Cross, all the armed forces, and New England Hospital for Women and other voluntary agencies, they finally Children School of Nursing in Boston in achieved some success when in 1945 the U.S. 1879. In the early years of the National As- Navy accepted nurses regardless of color. sociation of Colored Graduate Nurses During the end of World War II, Colonel (NACGN), both Mahoney and Martha Florence A. Blanchfield, the Army Nurse Franklin worked hard to organize black Corps superintendent, supported women of women. A major event was the dissolution color in the ranks because more nurses were of the NACGN in 1951 when the American desperately needed. Like black servicemen, Nurses Association (ANA) accepted blacks they had to work in segregated units in the in the organization regardless of the policies beginning. One black soldier commented, of state units.

218 Women of Color in Medicine

Most of the early black nurses could work Ready, and Petersdorf 1994, 472). In the in only a few hospitals. By the 1950s not 1800s, some smaller liberal arts institutions much had changed, but the ANA worked to had made an effort to educate blacks. The make the public aware of discrimination. board of Oberlin College in 1835 “declared Women of color have often found allies in that ‘the education of the people of color is white women who have struggled to gain a matter of great interest and should be en- credence and status in male-dominated so- couraged and sustained in this institution’” cieties and professions, and a combined (Duffy and Goldberg 1997, 137). Policies force of both black and white nurses helped such as Oberlin College’s remained the ex- the cause of advancing black women ception well into the twentieth century. nurses. In 1953, Marie Mink became an as- “Prior to 1960, no selective college or uni- sistant professor in obstetric nursing at the versity was making determined efforts to University of Oklahoma. She was the first seek out and admit substantial numbers of black woman to hold that position. African Americans” (Bowen and Bok 1998, Black women physicians had the same 4). Even in the 1960s, civil rights awareness problems as black nurses. Many women’s in education focused on men of color. medical schools lacked facilities for women Numerous studies show that people of to gain clinical experience, but white women color perform as well as whites on licensing could at least obtain a nursing position in or- exams if they are given the same educa- der to observe doctors and surgeons. Most tional opportunities as whites. Many agree U.S. hospitals were segregated until the mid- that the “pool size eventually can be in- to late twentieth century, and black hospitals creased by improving the socioeconomic were few in number. Hospitals with all- well being for all African Americans” white staffs that allowed black women (Thomas 1999, 71). Thus the issue is social physicians to use their facilities were rare. As and political as well as educational. May Edward Chinn noted, “Even if a hospi- In the medical profession, ethnic diversity tal was around the ‘bend of the road’ it was is especially lacking in the specialties: useless to us who were denied any privi- “There is little doubt that women, African leges whatsoever of its facilities. We man- Americans, and Hispanics, have fewer op- aged the best we could” (Warren 1999, 27). portunities to enter, or once in, to become Women of color in medicine still face bar- contributing members of orthopaedic pro- riers. A noticeable problem is the lack of role grams in the United States. The expressed models for young girls of color. The contri- reasons for this by faculty members some- butions of blacks and other nonwhite times sound reasonable, but on analysis all groups, male or female, in medicine are of- are spurious” (Mankin 1999, 85). ten missing from history books. There is a Hispanics and Native Americans as well “dearth of narratives or biographies of sci- as descendants of Oriental countries have ence-trained Blacks, particularly Black had the same problems as blacks in addi- women” (Warren 1999, xiii). tion to facing barriers specific to their eth- Over the past few decades in the United nic groups. The women of these groups are States there has been emphasis on increas- also seen, many times, as inferior to their ing the enrollments of students from under- male counterparts as well as inferior to represented groups, but the effort has met white females in the same occupation. Late with limited success. People of color are still in the nineteenth century and into the underrepresented in the medical profession. twentieth, many medical missionaries In North America, and specifically the trained indigenous women to serve as United States, enrollment of black students nurses and physicians. in medical schools was only 2.2 percent in Women and even some men of color 1964, with the majority of them attending have taken advantage of the opportunity to all-black schools: Howard University in serve minority populations. Many work- Washington, D.C., and Meharry Medical ing-class neighborhood clinics have long College in Nashville, Tennessee (Nickens, waiting lines, and most white male physi-

219 Wong-Staal, Flossie cians do not choose to work in under- udice: The Politics and Diplomacy of Racial Dis- served communities. crimination, Boulder, CO: Westview Press Most race research does not include fe- (1996); Mankin, Henry J., “Diversity in Or- males. Some have realized this oversight; thopaedics,” Clinical Orthopaedics and Related for instance, in Great Britain, “a growing Research: Issues of Minorities in Medicine and number of studies have begun to explore Orthopaedics 363 (May 1999): 85–87; Nickens, the interrelationship between racism and Herbert W., Timothy P. Ready, and Robert G. sexism, racial inequality and gender in- Petersdorf, “Project 3000 by 2000: Racial and equality and the position of African- Ethnic Diversity in U.S. Medical Schools,” Caribbean, Asian and other migrant women New England Journal of Medicine 331, no. 7 in British society. This has helped to over- (1994): 472–476; Solomos, John, Racism and come the gender blind approach of many Society, New York: St. Martin’s Press (1996); studies of racial relations, though there are Staupers, Mabel Keaton, No Time for Preju- still many aspects of the position of black dice: A Story of the Integration of Negroes in and ethnic minority women which have re- Nursing in the United States, New York: ceived little attention” (Solomos 1996, 13). Macmillan (1961); Thomas, Claudia L., More research focused on women of color “African Americans and Women in Or- is needed to underscore empirical evidence thopaedic Residency: The Johns Hopkins that “abilities [are] separate and unrelated to Experience,” Clinical Orthopaedics and Related gender, color, race, creed, language, religion, Research: Issues of Minorities in Medicine and or country of origin. A scientist is a scientist, Orthopaedics 363 (May 1999): 65–71; Warren, not an African American person who does Wini, Black Women Scientists in the United science. A surgeon is a surgeon, not a woman States, Bloomington: Indiana University from Honduras who speaks the language Press (1999); Watson, Wilbur H., Against the with an accent and also does hand surgery. Odds: Blacks in the Profession of Medicine in the Judge them only on what they are and are in United States, New Brunswick, NJ: Transac- fact, put on earth to do: care for patients, tion (1999). teach, and do research” (Mankin 1999, 86).

See also: Barriers to Success; Blanchfield, Wong-Staal, Flossie Florence Aby; Chinn, May Edward; 1946– Franklin, Martha Minerva; Mahoney, Mary Eliza; Wars and Epidemics Flossie Wong-Staal codiscovered (with References: Bowen, William G., and Derek Robert Gallo) the human immunodeficiency Bok, The Shape of the River: Long-Term Conse- virus (HIV) and was the first scientist to quences of Considering Race in College and Uni- clone it. Known as one of the leading scien- versity Admissions, Princeton, NJ: Princeton tists in the fight against HIV/AIDS, Wong- University Press (1998); Conner, Douglas L., Staal has remained at the forefront of A Black Physician’s Story: Bringing Hope in knowledge on the deadly virus. Mississippi, Jackson: University of Missis- Born in Guangzhou, China, on August 27, sippi Press (1985); Duffy, Elizabeth A., and 1946, she is the daughter of Sueh-fung Wang Idana Goldberg, Crafting a Class: College Ad- and his wife. She attended Catholic school missions and Financial Aid, 1955–1994, Prince- and upon graduation decided on further ton, NJ: Princeton University Press (1997); study in the United States. She went to the Duse, Mohammed, “War!,” African Times and University of California in Los Angeles Orient Review (4 August 1914): 449–450; (UCLA) and majored in molecular biology. Hine, Darlene Clark, “Co-Laborers in the Upon graduation in 1968, she remained at Work of the Lord: Nineteenth Century Black UCLA and worked at the graduate level, Women Physicians,” in Ruth J. Abrams, ed., earning a Ph.D. in 1972. She then went to Send Us a Lady Physician: Women Doctors in Bethesda, Maryland, and worked for the America, 1835–1920, New York: Norton National Cancer Institute, researching retro- (1985); Lauren, Paul Gordon, Power and Prej- viruses with Robert Gallo. Her research

220 Wright, Jane Cooke group discovered the human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV) and later two related retroviruses, one of which was HIV. Wong-Staal was the first scientist to clone HIV and to genetically map the virus. This step was critical to providing a blood test for the presence of HIV/AIDS. In the following years, Wong-Staal wrote extensively to provide the scientific community with the necessary information for more research on the virus. In 1990 she became the director of the Center for AIDS Re- search at the University of California at San Diego. She believes in examining as many approaches as feasible, such as a vaccine and gene therapy. Not only does the virus reproduce very quickly but there are several strains, each of which may lend itself to a different treatment. Wong-Staal married Steven Staal in 1971, and they had two daughters. They are now Jane Cooke Wright (U.S. National Library of Medicine) divorced, and she and her daughters live in San Diego, where she is currently codirector of the AIDS Research Institute at the Uni- versity of California at San Diego. York City, Wright entered Smith College in order to prepare for medical school. Upon References: Kelly, Patrick, “Wong-Staal, graduation from Smith in 1942, she won a Flossie,” Current Biography 62, no. 4 (April scholarship to New York Medical College. 2001): 87–90. She obtained her M.D. and interned at Bellevue Hospital. She also worked at Harlem Hospital before getting married in Wright, Jane Cooke 1947 to David D. Jones Jr., a Harvard Law 1919– School graduate. She began working in internal medicine Jane Wright is a prominent cancer and was a school doctor in New York City chemotherapy researcher whose work with until she took a position in 1949 at the various drugs and their effects on malignant Harlem Hospital Cancer Research Founda- tumors has provided great insight into can- tion as a clinician. It was here that she began cer treatment. She has directed large hospi- studying the effects of drugs such as trieth- tal staffs as well as served as the dean of a ylene phosphoramide and triethylene medical college. Born in New York City on melamine on malignant growths. November 30, 1919, she is the daughter of She moved on to become the director of Dr. Louis Tompkins Wright and Corinne cancer chemotherapy research at New York Cooke Wright. Her family has a rich med- University Medical Center in 1955 and be- ical heritage with her father being one of the came an instructor in research surgery. She first black graduates of Harvard Medical expanded her own clinical experience by School and a leader in the field of cancer doing surgical work at Bellevue and Uni- chemotherapy; a grandfather was one of the versity Hospitals in New York City. By the first blacks to graduate from Meharry Med- 1960s, Wright believed, as did some other ical College. Her father was also a civil researchers, that cancer was caused by a rights leader. virus. Her investigations based on this view After attending private schools in New included the drugs fluorouracil and step-

221 Wright, Jane Cooke tonigrin. During this time she published has two daughters and lives in New York quite extensively; she has an impressive bib- City. liography documenting the chemotherapy research she was involved with. References: “Wright, Jane C.,” Current Biog- She became the associate dean and pro- raphy, New York: H. W. Wilson (1968); fessor of surgery at New York Medical Col- Shearer, Benjamin F., and Barbara S. Shearer, lege in 1967. Her duties broadened to heart Notable Women in the Life Sciences, Westport, disease and stroke as well as cancer. She CT: Greenwood Press (1996). Y

Yalow, Rosalyn Sussman 1921–

Rosalyn Yalow received the 1977 Nobel Prize for “the development of radioimmunoassay (RIA) of peptid hormones,” a technique that she discovered in 1959 with her partner in research, Solomon Berson (Shearer and Shearer 1996, 409). The technique revolutionized endocrinology, and other fields soon found it indispensable. She was born July 19, 1921, in New York City to Clara Zipper Sussman and Simon Sussman. Neither had much education, but they encouraged Rosalyn in her studies. She did very well in school and went to Hunter College in New York, which was free at the time; her family could not afford to pay for college. She decided on a career in physics and graduated in 1941. She proceeded to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Rosalyn Sussman Yalow (U.S. National Library of earning a master’s in 1942 and a Ph.D. in Medicine) nuclear physics in 1945. She felt that nuclear physics was extremely exciting at the time and that it had medical applications. 1950s, they made great progress in using ra- She met Aaron Yalow, a fellow physicist dioactively tagged insulin to determine graduate student, whom she married on how long insulin stayed in the diabetic’s June 6, 1943. They have two children, Ben- system. They deduced, correctly, that dia- jamin and Elanna. Aaron was supportive of betics could build up antibodies to insulin. Rosalyn’s career goals. Before that time scientists didn’t believe in- Yalow taught for a while upon earning sulin molecules were large enough to incite her Ph.D. but then decided to work full- an antibody. Their method of using radioac- time at the Veterans’ Administration Hospi- tive substances then allowed them to test for tal in the Bronx, New York. There, she many kinds of antibodies. Thus RIA was helped set up the hospital’s radioisotope born. service and later teamed up with Berson, a “The introduction of radioimmunoas- physician, to work on insulin. During the say... is probably the single most impor-

223 Yoshioka, Yayoi tant advance in biological measurement of Momentous Discoveries, Secaucus, NJ: Carol the past two decades. Together with related (1998); Shearer, Benjamin, and Barbara S. techniques it has revolutionised one major Shearer, Notable Women in the Life Sciences: A discipline—endocrinology—and has ex- Biographical Dictionary, Westport, CT: Green- erted a similar influence in other fields, no- wood Press (1996); Straus, Eugene, Rosalyn tably haematology, pharmacology, and can- Yalow, Nobel Laureate: Her Life and Work in cer detection” (Chard 1982, 1). Medicine: A Biographical Memoir, New York: Yalow feels strongly that it is important Plenum Trade (1998). for women to go into science or any other profession of their choosing as well as to become mothers. “Being a mother was an es- Yoshioka, Yayoi sential part of Rosalyn Yalow’s plan for her 1871–1959 life, and she insists that motherhood should fit into the lives of other women with ca- Yaoi Yoshioka was an early Japanese female reers in science” (Straus 1998, 186). physician who struggled against oppression Some feel Berson deserved more credit and social injustice to obtain a medical edu- for the development of RIA. Yalow has fully cation. She founded the Tokyo Women’s acknowledged his contribution during the Medical College in 1899, which was finally years it took them to refine the process. recognized by the Japanese government in Yalow’s “work and methods advanced 1920. medical science in the areas of diagnosis, She passed government examinations treatment, and prevention of disease. This and became a gynecologist in 1893. With her was done by providing breakthroughs in husband, she established the Tokyo Wom- the understanding of diabetes, in the diag- en’s Medical College, where she taught for nosis and treatment of many glandular dis- fifty years. Yoshioka also established hospi- orders such as dwarfism and cretinism, and tals in Tokyo. She died of pneumonia in through providing a method to save count- Tokyo on May 23, 1959, at the age of eighty- less people from acquiring liver disease eight. from blood transfusions. She fought for what she wanted and for her beliefs” References: “Dr. Yayoi Yoshioka Dies,” New (Straus 1998, 257). Today Yalow is retired York Times (24 May 1959): 88; Kawai, Yaeko, and lives in New York City. “Medical Women in Japan,” Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 6, no. References: Chard, T., An Introduction to Ra- 9 (September 1951): 352–353; Lovejoy, Es- dioimmunoassay and Related Techniques, Am- ther Pohl, Women Doctors of the World, New sterdam: Elsevier Biomedical Press (1982); York: Macmillan (1957); “Yoshioka, Yayoi,” McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch, Nobel Prize Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan, vol. 8, Tokyo: Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Kodansha (1983).

224 Z

Zakrzewska, Marie Elizabeth Samuel Gregory, because she wanted to 1829–1902 further her education. Gregory and she disagreed over the cur- Marie Zakrzewska was an early proponent riculum. She wanted to incorporate some of women becoming physicians and laboratory practices into the students’ work, founded the New England Hospital for such as dissection and the use of micro- Women and Children after working with scopes, but could not persuade him. She Elizabeth Blackwell and Emily Blackwell at also wanted to establish more rigorous the New York Infirmary for Women and qualifications for diplomas. “But I found Children and as a professor at the New En- very little support, and I was told that it gland Female Medical College. would be hard to disappoint some women Born in Berlin, Germany, on September 6, who had perseveringly labored for a 1829, Zakrzewska was the daughter of Lud- diploma. According to my ideas, which wig Martin Zakrzewska and Caroline Fred- agree, I know, with the ideas of the profes- ericke Wilhelmina Urban. Her father sion generally, perseverance alone does not worked in the military and later as a civil entitle persons to receive a diploma. Even servant. They had very little money, and her should a disappointment prove to be a mother worked as a midwife to help sup- deathblow to the student, it is better that port the family. She had trained at the Royal one should die rather than receive permis- Charity Hospital in Berlin. sion to kill many” (Zakrzewska 1924, 282). Zakrzewska many times went with her She felt compelled to leave the college and mother on rounds and became interested in did so in 1862. midwifery as a profession. She did well at Upon her departure, she immediately the Royal Charity Hospital in Berlin and went to work setting up the New England gained the position of head midwife in 1852. Hospital for Women and Children. She had She stayed there less than a year before she helped the Blackwells set up the New York left with her sister for New York City to be- Infirmary because she could see female come a physician. medical students’ immediate need for clini- After meeting Elizabeth Blackwell, she cal experience and the need for better health was inspired to go to Western Reserve Col- care for women and children. She saw the lege for a medical degree. She graduated in same need in Boston, and officially founded 1856, and the next year she helped the the hospital in 1862. Blackwells establish the New York Infir- Zakrzewska had a very strong personal- mary for Women and Children. She ity and worked hard to advance the status worked as a resident physician for a few of women. She was an active suffragist and years, then moved on to become a profes- reformer. She was also very compassionate sor of obstetrics in Boston at the New En- toward those she served. “At one time she gland Female Medical College, founded by was instrumental in having a lunch-room

225 Zakrzewska, Marie Elizabeth opened for poor working-girls, where for a References: New England Hospital for few cents a nourishing and appetizing meal Women and Children (NEHWC), Marie Eliz- was provided” (NEHWC 1977, 19). abeth Zakrzewska: A Memoir, Boston: New Zakrzewska effectively ran the New En- England Hospital for Women and Children gland Hospital for Women and Children (1902), reprinted in History of Women Collec- until 1899. She was involved in all aspects of tion, no. 5403, New Haven, CT: Research its operation. She continually urged women Publications (1977); Tuchman, Arleen Mar- physicians to gain as much scientific knowl- cia, “Zakrzewska, Marie Elizabeth,” Ameri- edge as possible. She earned an excellent can National Biography, vol. 24, New York: reputation as a physician, even among some Oxford University Press (1999); Zakr- of the male physicians of her day. She died zewska, Marie E., AWoman’s Quest: The Life in Boston on May 12, 1902. of Marie E. Zakrzewska, M.D., ed. Agnes C. Vietor, New York: D. Appleton (1924). See also: Blackwell, Elizabeth; New En- gland Female Medical College; New En- gland Hospital

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238 Index

Abbott, Maude Elizabeth Seymour, xx, 1(photo), Franklin, Martha Minerva, 79–80, 218 1–3, 196 Jemison, Mae Carol, 108–109 Abby, Charlotte, 45 Jordan, Lynda, 115–116 Abolitionist movement, 171–172 Mahoney, Mary Eliza, xix, 79, 135–136, 218 Abortion, 191, 196 Manley, Audrey Forbes, 136–137 Abouchdid, Edma, 3 medical schools, black enrollment in, 219 Abraham, Karl, 121 nurses, xix, 79–80, 135–136, 217–218 Abrege de l’art des accouchements (du Coudray), 66 Remond, Sarah Parker, 171–172 Acosta Sison, Honoria, 3–4 Steward, Susan Maria Smith McKinney, Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), 189–190 167 Wright, Jane Cooke, 221, 221(photo) AZT developed, 70, 71 African Medical Research Foundation (AMREF), discrimination against AIDS patients, 123 188 HIV discovered, 220 AIDS. See Acquired immune deficiency Kubler-Ross’s work, 124 syndrome (AIDS) Osborn’s work, 157, 158 Alcoholism, 126 Acyclovir (Zovirax), 71 Alexander, Hattie Elizabeth, 4–5 Adami, J. G., 2 Alexander, Virginia, 61 Adamson, Sarah Read. See Dolley, Sarah Read Alexius I, 45, 46 Adamson Ali, Safieh, 5 Aetios of Amida, 14 Alvord, Lori Arviso, 5–6 Africa Ambulances, 23, 24 African Medical Research Foundation, 188 American Chemical Society. See Garvan Medal female genital mutilation in, 76, 171 American College of Surgeons, 37, 61 kwashiorkor in, 216 American Medical Association (AMA) medical missionaries in, xx, 133–134, 145 Dickey elected president, 23, 62, 212 tryparsamide tested on humans, 160 military commissions for women not women in medicine from/in, 19, 22, 25, supported, 6 133–134, 136, 179, 188 Sheppard-Towner Act opposed, 186 African American women in medicine American Medical Missionary Society (AMMS), barriers to success, 44, 79, 135, 219 (see also 144 Women of color in medicine) American Medical Women’s Association Britton, Mary E., 37 (AMWA), 6, 140, 186, 203. See also American Brown, Dorothy Lavinia, 37–38, 38(photo) Women’s Hospital Service; American Canady, Alexa Irene, 41–42 Women’s Hospitals Chinn, May Edward, xix, 42–43, 219 American Nurses Association (ANA), 79, 135, Cobb, Jewel Plummer, 44–45 218 Cole, Rebecca, 45, 164 American Red Cross Crumpler, Rebecca Lee, 50 black nurses refused during WWI, 217 Daly, Marie Maynard, 55–56 foundation of, 25, 26 Dickens, Helen Octavia, 61(photo), 61–62 Healy as president, 94 Elders, Minnie Joycelyn, 69–70, 153 not selected to oversee military nurses, 139 Ferguson, Angela Dorothea, 77–78 Nursing Service, 57, 58

239 Index

American Society of Superintendents of Australia, women in medicine from/in, 22 Training Schools for Nurses, 64–65, 154, 174 Anderson, Charlotte Morrison, 8 American Women’s Hospital Service, 3, 6, 131 Kenny, Elizabeth, 118–120, 135 American Women’s Hospitals (AWH), 7 Macnamara, Dame Annie Jean, xx, 134–135 Amino acid similarity-scoring matrix, 57 Stone, Emma Constance, 191 AMREF (African Medical Research Foundation), Austria, women in medicine from/in 188 Freud, Anna, 81, 81(photo) AMWA. See American Medical Women’s Hubbard, Ruth, 100(photo), 100–101 Association Klein, Melanie, 121–122 Anatomy, 26–27 Mandl, Ines, 136 Andersen, Dorothy Hansine, 7–8 Possanner-Ehrenthal, Garbrielle, 163 Anderson, Charlotte Morrison, 8 Avery, Mary Ellen, 14–15 Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, xix, 8–10, 9(photo), AWH. See American Women’s Hospital Service; 210 American Women’s Hospitals and other women physicians, 9, 10, 31, 32, AZT (azidothymidine), 70, 71 103, 107, 182 See also Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital; Bacheler, Mary Washington, 17–18 New Hospital for Women and Children Bacon, Emily, 14 Anderson, Gladys. See Emerson, Gladys Bacteria and bacteriology Anderson Corynebacterium diphtheriae identified, 215 Anderson, Louisa Garrett (daughter of E. G. insulin production by, 205 Anderson), 9, 146 milk bacteria, 73, 74 Anderson Prison (Camp Sumter, Georgia), 26 Pittman’s research, 162 Anesthesiology, 13, 203 resistance to antibiotics, 4, 138 Angwin, Maria Louisa, 10–11 streptococci bacteria, 126, 127 Anna Comnena. See Comnena, Anna Bain, Barbara, 18 Antibiotics Bairsin, Anne, 66 bacterial resistance, 4, 138 Baker, Sara Josephine, xviii, 18(photo), 18–19, 166 Dick skin test made obsolete by, 60 Balfour, Margaret Ida, 19 for influenzal meningitis, 4 Baptist missionaries, 17, 38, 133–134. See also Nystatin (antifungal agent) discovered, 39, 92 Missionaries, medical Antibodies and antigens, 184 Barnes, Alice Josephine, 20 Antivirals, 71 Barriers to success, 20–23 Apgar score system, xx, 11. See also Apgar, Virginia for black women, 44, 79, 135, 217–220 (see also Apgar, Virginia, xx, 11–13, 12(photo) African American women in medicine) Arkansas Department of Health, 69 equality difficult to achieve, 22–23, 211–212 Army, British, 24–25, 151–152, 209 gender discrimination in hospitals, 99, 135 Army, U.S. legal and civil suits, 109, 114 Army Medical Corps, 49, 139 legal barriers, xviii, 109, 139, 175 Army Nurse Corps (ANC), 34–35, 138, 139, licensing and certification, 9, 22, 109, 139, 175 218 (see also Licensing of women physicians) Army School of Nursing, 85, 86 medical training, obstacles to receiving, 21–22 Congressional authorization for (see also Obstacles to medical training) commissioning women, 211 posts difficult to attain, xix, 34 first woman commissioned, 34–35 poverty, 22 first woman physician commissioned, 6, 49 Preston’s refutation of early arguments Army-Navy Nurse Act (U.S., 1947), 35 against women, 164 Ashby, Winifred Mayer, 13–14 private practice difficult for women, 22, 29, Asia, women in medicine in. See specific countries 30, 165–166, 203 Aspasia, 14 social objections, xix, 20 Astronauts. See Jemison, Mae Carol Barringer, Emily Dunning, 23–24 Atlas of Congenital Cardiac Disease (Abbott), 2 Barry, James, xix–xx, 24–25 Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure (Dayhoff), Barry, Katharine, 30 57 Barton, Clara, 25(photo), 25–26, 64, 166, 210 Atlas of the Medulla and Midbrain (Sabin), 178 Basseport, Madeleine, 27 Atwater, Dorence, 26 Bassi, Laura Maria Caterina, 26–27, 201 Auschwitz, 92 Bayerova, Anna, 27, 98, 122

240 Index

Beck, Joan, 13 Bone marrow transplantation, 18 Becquerel, Henri, 50, 51 Bosnia-Herzegovina, 27, 122 Bennett College, 37 Boston City Hospital Training School for Bernal, John D., 97 Nurses, 173 Berson, Solomon, 223 Bourgeois, Louise, 36(photo), 36–37 Beveridge, William, xviii Bragg, Sir William, 162 Biheron, Marie Catherine, 27 Brazil, women in medicine from/in, 22, 68, 131 Biochemistry, 68, 100, 115–116, 136. See also Brewster, Mary, 208 Genetics British Medical Association, 8, 20 Bird, Mary Ann Dacomb. See Scharlieb, Mary Britton, Mary E., 37 Ann Dacomb Bird Brown, Antoinette Louisa, 34 Birth. See Childbirth; Midwives; Obstetrics and Brown, Dorothy Lavinia, 37–38, 38(photo) gynecology Brown, Edith Mary, 38 Birth control Brown, Rachel Fuller, 39, 92, 93 birth control movement, xviii–xix, 46, 166, Brucellosis, 74 180–181 Brundtband, Gro Harlem, xvii, 39–40 Comstock Act, xix, 46 Bryn Mawr College, 21 Elders’ advocacy of, 69, 70 students and graduates, 47, 76, 102, 120 Jacobs’ advocacy of, 107 Bubonic plague, 83 Bishop’s College, 1 Budzinski-Tylicka, Justine, 40 Black, Sir James, 70 Bulletin No. IX (International Association of Black women in medicine. See African American Medical Museums), 2 women in medicine; Women of color in Burlingham, Dorothy T., 81 medicine; and specific women Burnet, Sir Macfarlane, 135 Blackwell, Elizabeth, 27–33, 28(photo) Burroughs Wellcome, 70–71 on addressing social evils, 65 Bush, George, 94, 153 education, 21, 28–29, 33, 85 Byford, William H., 142, 198 family and background, xix, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34 (see also Blackwell, Emily) Caldwell, Shirley Marie. See Tilghman, Shirley hospital founded, xx, 10, 30, 225 (see also New Marie Caldwell York Infirmary for Women and Children; Calverley, Edwin E., 41 Women’s Medical College of the New York Calverley, Eleanor Jane Taylor, 41 Infirmary for Women and Children) Canada, women in medicine from/in Jacobi’s views compared to, 106 Angwin, Maria Louisa, 10–11 medical school closed, 148 Nutting, Mary Adelaide, 154–155 other women encouraged, 9, 10, 32, 45, 56, Robb, Isabel Hampton, 64, 154, 174(photo), 109, 225 (see also Anderson, Elizabeth 174–175 Garrett; Jacobi, Mary Corinna Putnam; Jex- Stowe, Emily, 191–192 Blake, Sophia; Zakrzewska, Marie) Trout, Jennie Kidd, 192, 198 private practice difficult, xix, 22, 29, 30 Canady, Alexa Irene, 41–42 Wald asked to train immigrants in home Cancer detection nursing, 208 L’Esperance’s work, 128 Blackwell, Emily, xix, 28, 29–30, 33–34, 208, 214. Pap smear, 42, 43, 128 See also Blackwell, Elizabeth; New York Cancer research Infirmary for Women and Children; Chinn’s work, 43 Women’s Medical College of the New York Cobb’s work, 44–45 Infirmary for Women and Children Dunn’s work on mouse tumors, 67 Blackwell, Samuel and Hannah Lane, xix, 28, 33 Dyer’s index of tumor chemotherapy, 68 Blalock, Alfred, 195, 196 Elion’s drug discoveries, 70, 71 Blanchfield, Florence Aby, 34–35, 218 M. E. Jones’ work, 115 Blood transfusion, 163 Macklin’s work, 134 Bocchi, Dorothea, 35 Reed-Sternberg cells discovered, 141 Boivin, Marie Anne Victoire Gillain, 35–36, Stewart’s work on prenatal radiation 36(photo) exposure, 190 Bolivia, first female physician in, 204 viruses as cause, 82 Bologna, University of, 55, 66, 85, 201, Wetterhahn’s research, 214 201(photo) Wright’s chemotherapy research, 221

241 Index

Cancer treatment China chemotherapy, 68, 70, 71, 221 footbinding, 78–79 radiation, 52, 169 (see also Radium) Guangzhou, 87 See also Cancer research medical education of women, xx, 82, 83, 87, Canton Medical Missionary Hospital, 82, 83, 87, 93–94, 144 144 medical missionaries, 82–83, 87, 95, 144 Carbon fiber research, 80 women physicians from/in, xx, 22, 91–92, Cardiology, xx, 2, 7, 195–196 93–94 Carlisle, C. H., 97 Chinn, May Edward, xix, 42–43, 219 Carnegie Foundation, 78, 137–138 Cholera epidemics, 184, 189 Carpenter, Charles M., 74 Chou, Elizabeth. See Han Suyin Carr, Emma Perry, 162 Christison, Professor, 109 Case Western Reserve University. See Western Circumcision, female. See Female genital Reserve College mutilation Catholic missionaries, 59, 144. See also Roman Civil War (U.S.), 25–26, 31, 165, 209–210 Catholic Church Clarke, Catherine. See Fenselau, Catherine Cavendish, Margaret, 21 Clarke Cell biology, 75–76 Clarke, Edward H., 20 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Claypole, Edith Jane, 43–44 (U.S.), 165 Clayson, Esther. See Lovejoy, Esther Clayson Central Medical College (New York), 65, 79 Pohl Certification. See Licensing of women Cleanliness, 151, 166. See also Hygiene; Public physicians health Cesarean section, 4 Cleveland, Emeline Horton, xx, 44, 164 Chatzman, Vira. See Weizmann, Vera Clinical experience Chemistry access to laboratories/teaching hospitals, 69, Elion’s drug research, 70–71 103, 106, 109, 164 Emerson’s work on vitamins, 71–72 at the Women’s Medical College of first African American woman awarded Pennsylvania, 30, 164 Ph.D., 55–56 Clinton, Bill, 69 Hodgkin’s work on molecular structures, Cobb, Jewel Plummer, 44–45 96–98 Coello, Antonia. See Novello, Antonia Coello Hoobler’s work on cottonseed toxins, 98–99 Cohen, Stanley, 128, 129–130 Petermann’s research on ribosomes, 161 Cole, Rebecca, 45, 164 Pickett’s work on X-ray crystallography, 162 Colonization, and race discrimination, 217 [E.] Richards’ work, 172 Columbian College, 139 Sherrill’s work on antimalarial drugs, 187 Communicable Disease Center (U.S.), 165 Wetterhahn’s research, 214 Comnena, Anna, 45–46 See also Garvan Medal winners Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous System of Chemotherapy, 68, 70, 71, 221. See also Cancer Vertebrates, Including Man (Crosby, Kappers, research and Huber), 50 Chevandier Law (France, 1892), 42 Comstock Act (U.S., 1873), xix, 46 Chicago Hospital for Women and Children, 198 Comstock, Anthony, 46 Chicago, University of, 21 Concentration camps, xx, 92, 123, 188 faculty, 118 Congenital Malformations of the Heart (Taussig), research at, 184 196 students and graduates, 13, 39, 49, 60, 98, 115, Congo, Belgian, xx, 160 118, 162, 163, 187 Congo, Democratic Republic of, 133–134 Childbirth, 66–67, 147, 203. See also Birth control; Conley, Frances Krauskopf, 46–47 Midwives; Obstetrics and gynecology Contraception. See Birth control Children Cori, Carl, 47–48 advice books for parents, 120 Cori, Gerty Theresa Radnitz, 47(photo), 47–48 cancer caused by radiation, 190 Cornell University, 21, 32, 34 congenital heart malformations, 195–196 faculty, 169 psychoanalysis of, 81, 121–122 graduates, 24, 43, 74, 102, 108, 137, 183 See also Infants Correia, Elisa, 48–49 Chile, women physicians from, 22, 59–60, 161 Cottonseed toxins, 98–99

242 Index

Counsel to Parents on the Moral Education of their Dickey, Nancy Wilson, xvii, 23, 62, 212 Children in Relation to Sex (Eliz. Blackwell), Diphtheria treatment and immunization, 215 32 Discrimination Craig, Mr., 109 against AIDS patients, 123 Craighill, Margaret, xx, 6, 49, 49(photo) gender discrimination (see Barriers to success; Craighill, Rebecca. See Lancefield, Rebecca Obstacles to medical training) Craighill race discrimination, 44 (see also Abolitionist Crick, Francis, 80 movement; Nursing and nurses: black Crimean War, xvii, 150–151, 184 nurses; Women of color in medicine) Crosby, Elizabeth Caroline, 49–50 Dissection, 85. See also Vivisection Cross-dressing. See Barry, James Dix, Dorothea Lynde, 31, 62–64, 63(photo), 166 Crowfoot, Dorothy Mary. See Hodgkin, Dorothy Dixon, Mary Amanda. See Jones, Mary Amanda Mary Crowfoot Dixon Crumpler, Rebecca Lee, 50 Dmitrieva, Valentina Ionovna, 64 Crystallography. See under X-rays DNA Cupp, Janette Lorraine. See Alvord, Lori Arviso [R.] Franklin’s contributions, 80–81 Curie, Eve, 51, 112 Human Genome Project, 198 Curie, Irene. See Joliot-Curie, Irene as key to disease, 4 Curie, Marie Sklodowska, 50–53, 51(photo), 112 M. E. Jones’ work, 115 Curie, Pierre, 50–53, 112 recombinant DNA, 204, 205 Cushier, Elizabeth, 32, 34 See also Genetics Cutler, Carroll, 213–214 Dock, Lavinia Lloyd, 64–65, 174 Cystic fibrosis, 7 Dodge, Annie. See Wauneka, Annie Dodge Czech women physicians, 27, 47–48, 98 Dolley, Sarah Read Adamson, 65–66 Dominican Republic, women physicians from, Dalle Donne, Maria, 55 161 Daly, Marie Maynard, 55–56 The Double Helix (Watson), 81 Daniel, Annie Sturges, 56 Drug research. See Antibiotics; Chemotherapy; Danielsen, Karen Theodora Clementina. See Malaria; and specific drugs Horney, Karen Theodora Clementina du Coudray, Angelique Marguerite, xvii, 66–67 Danielsen Dufferin Fund, 67 Darrow, Ruth Renter, 56 Dufferin Hospital (Calcutta), 127 Dartmouth College, 5–6, 214 Duges, Marie-Louise. See Lachapelle, Marie- Davies, Emily, 9 Louise Duges Davis, Dorland, 162 Dunn, Thelma Brumfield, 67–68 Dawson, Benjamin Franklin, 114 Dunning, Emily. See Barringer, Emily Dunning Dayhoff, Margaret Oakley, 57 Durocher, Marie Josefina Mathilde, 68 Death Duse, Mohammed, 217 hospice movement, 181, 207–208 Dyer, Helen Marie, 68 Kubler-Ross’s work on, 122, 124 (see also Kubler-Ross, Elizabeth) Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, 69, 109 Dejerine, Jules, 57 Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women (Jex- Dejerine-Klumpke, Augusta, 57 Blake’s school), 21, 69, 103, 110 Delano, Jane Arminda, 57–58, 58(photo), Edinburgh, University of, School of Medicine, 123–124 24, 103, 109–110 Dempsey, Sister Mary Joseph (Julia), 58–59 Education of women Dengal, Anna Maria, xx, 59 Blackwell sisters’ education, xix, 21, 28–29, 33, Denmark, women physicians in, 149 85 Dering, Wladyslaw, 92 in early 20th-century Prague, 47 “Description of Early Symptoms of the in Italy, 33, 55, 202. See also Bologna, Meningeal Tumor Compressing the University of Cerebellum” (Jacobi), 106 objections to, 20, 21 Diabetes. See Insulin physiology as appropriate area for women, Diaz Inzunza, Eloiza, 59–60, 161 21 Dick, George, 60 women’s right to, 213–214 Dick, Gladys Rowena Henry, 60(photo), 60–61 See also Obstacles to medical training; and Dickens, Helen Octavia, 61(photo), 61–62 specific schools and universities

243 Index

Egypt 36(photo) female medical missionaries in, 145, 214–215 Bourgeois, Louise, 36(photo), 36–37 el Saadawi, Nawal, 177–178 Curie, Marie Sklodowska, 50–53, 51(photo), Eisenhower, Dwight D., 35 112 Elders, Minnie Joycelyn, 69–70, 153 Dejerine-Klumpke, Augusta, 57 Electrotherapy, 198 du Coudray, Angelique Marguerite, xvii, Elion, Gertrude Belle, 70–71 66–67 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital, 20, 149, Felicie, Jacoba, 76 199. See also New Hospital for Women and Hautval, Adelaide, 92 Children Joliot-Curie, Irene, 51, 52, 112–113 Emerson, Gladys Anderson, 71–72, 72(photo) Lachapelle, Marie-Louise Duges, 125 Emerson, Oliver, 72 See also France Endocrinology, 223–224. See also Insulin Franklin, Martha Minerva, 79–80, 218 England. See United Kingdom; United Franklin, Rosalind Elsie, 80–81 Kingdom, women in medicine from/in Frederick II (Holy Roman Emperor), 73, 202 Enzymes, 115–116, 136 Free Baptist missionaries, 17, 38. See also Baptist Epidemics, and women in medicine, 210. See missionaries; Missionaries, medical also specific diseases and individuals Freud, Anna, 81, 81(photo) Epidemiology, 190 Freud, Sigmund, 81, 99, 121 Erxleben, Dorothea Christiana, 72–73 Friend, Charlotte, 82 Eskelin, Karolina, 73 Fulton, Mary Hannah, 82–83, 87, 144 Ethics, medical, 62, 208 Fussell, Edwin, 105, 164 Eugenics, 134 Evans, Alice Catherine, 73(photo), 73–74 Gallo, Robert, 220 Explosives manufacturing, 90–91, 190 Garfield, James A., 26 Garret, Mary Elizabeth, 111 Fabiola, Saint, 75 Garrett, Elizabeth. See Anderson, Elizabeth Family planning. See Birth control Garrett Farquhar, Marilyn Gist, 75–76 Garvan Medal winners, 68, 72, 77, 136, 161, 162, Felicie, Jacoba, 76 187 Female genital mutilation (female circumcision), Genetics 76, 171, 177 chromosome repair following X-ray exposure, Female Medical College of Pennsylvania. See 137 Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania early embryo development research, 153–154 Fenselau, Catherine Clarke, 76–77 ethical concerns, 101 Ferguson, Angela Dorothea, 77–78 genetic disease research, 147 Finland, women physicians from, 73, 94–95, 108 Human Genome Project, 198 Flexner, Abraham, 78 “jumping genes” theory, 137, 138 Flexner Report, 78, 148 Lyon hypothesis, 132 Flikke, Julia, 35 Macklin’s work, 134 Folger, Lydia. See Fowler, Lydia Folger Tilghman’s research, 198 Fondal, Elizabeth. See Neufeld, Elizabeth Fondal See also DNA Footbinding, 78–79 Geneva Medical College, 21, 28–29, 85, 189 Fowler, Lydia Folger, 79 Genital mutilation. See Female genital France mutilation AWH hospital established, 7 Germany, woman physicians and scientists Chevandier Law (1892), 42 from/in La Maternité (Paris), 29, 44 Erxleben, Dorothea Christiana, 72–73 licensing of women physicians, 76 Hildegard of Bingen, 96 midwives in, 35–36, 66–67, 125 Horney, Karen Theodora Clementina Resistance (WWII), 113, 188 Danielsen, 99–100 Salpêtrière Asylum, 179–180 Hyde, Ida Henrietta, 102 University of Paris, 66, 106 Nusslein-Volhard, Christiane, 153–154 See also France, women in medicine from/in See also Zakrzewska, Marie France, women in medicine from/in Gerritsen, Carel Victor, 107–108 Biheron, Marie Catherine, 27 Giliani, Alessandra, 85 Boivin, Marie Anne Victoire Gillain, 35–36, Gist, Marilyn. See Farquhar, Marilyn Gist

244 Index

Glass ceiling, 23, 212 1100s, 45–46, 96 Glycogen, breakdown of into sugar, 47, 48 1200s, 76 Goodrich, Annie Warburton, xx, 85–87, 1300s, 76, 85 86(photo) 1400s, 35 Gordon, Doris Clifton Jolly, 87 1500s, 36–37, 96 Gosling, Raymond, 80 1600s, 36–37, 96, 187 Grant, Mary Jane. See Seacole, Mary Jane Grant 1700s, 26–27, 55, 66–67, 72–73, 125, 157, 201 Greece, 7, 14 1800–present (see specific women) Greene, Cordelia, 192 Hitchings, George, 70, 71 Gregory, Samuel, 147, 225 HIV (human immunodeficiency syndrome). See Guangzhou, China, 87, 144. See also China Acquired immune deficiency syndrome Gwynn, Mary, 111 (AIDS) Gynecology. See Midwives; Obstetrics and Hobart and William Smith Colleges. See Geneva gynecology Medical College Hoby, Lady Margaret, 96 Hackett Medical College for Women (China), 82, Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot, 96–98 83, 87, 144 Hodgkin’s disease, 141 Haden-Guest, Leslie, 166 Hoffman, Ruth. See Hubbard, Ruth Hahn, Otto, 112 Holt, Luther Emmett, 120, 141 Haiti, women physicians from, 193 Homeopathic medical schools, 189, 191 Halsted, William Stewart, 111, 120 Honzakov, Anna, 98 Hamburger, Viktor, 129, 130 Hoobler, Icie Gertrude Macy, 98–99 Hamilton, Alice, xviii, xx, 89–91, 90(photo), 166 Hoon, Pierra. See Vejjabul, Pierra Hoon Hampton, Isabel. See Robb, Isabel Hampton Horney, Karen Theodora Clementina Danielsen, Han Suyin, 91(photo), 91–92 99–100 Harding, Warren G., 52 Horton, Emeline. See Cleveland, Emeline Harlem, Gro. See Brundtband, Gro Harlem Horton Hautval, Adelaide, xx, 92 Hospice movement, 181, 207–208 Hazen, Elizabeth Lee, 39, 92–93 Houssay, Bernardo Alberto, 47, 48 He Manqiu, xx, 93–94 Howard University, 55, 77, 219 Healthy Babies Are Happy Babies: A Complete Hubbard, Ruth, 100(photo), 100–101 Handbook for Modern Mothers (Kenyon), 120 Huber, G. Carl, 50 Healy, Bernadine, 94 Hugonay, Countess Vilma, 101 Heckford, Nathaniel, 10 Hull House (Chicago), xvii–xix, 90 Heikel, Rosina, 94–95 Human Genome Project, 198 Hematoencephalic barrier, 188–189 Human immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV). See Hematology, 13, 18, 56, 163 Acquired immune deficiency syndrome Hemenway, Josephine. See Kenyon, Josephine (AIDS) Hemenway Hungary, women physicians in, 101 Hemenway, Ruth V., 95 Hunger, 64 Hemophilia, 163 Husband-and-wife teams Henderson, Purvis Sinclair, 61 Calverley, Eleanor J. T. and Edwin E., 41 Henry IV of France, 36 Cori, Gerty T. R. and Carl, 47–48 Henry, Gladys Rowena. See Dick, Gladys Curie, Marie S. and Pierre, 50–53 (see also Rowena Henry Curie, Marie Sklodowska) Henry Street Settlement, xvii–xviii, 208 Dejerine-Klumpke, Augusta and Jules Herbert, Sydney, 150 Dejerine, 57 The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World Dick, Gladys R. H. and George, 60 (el Saadawi), 177 Joliot-Curie, Irene and Frederic Joliot, 112–113 Higgins, Margaret. See Sanger, Margaret (see also Joliot-Curie, Irene) Hildegard of Bingen, 96 Hyde, Ida Henrietta, 102 Hindu women, 17, 67, 183. See also India Hygiene Hinkley, Edith. See Quimby, Edith Hinkley [Eliz.] Blackwell’s work, 29, 65 Hispanic American women in medicine, cleanliness, 151, 166 152–153, 204–205, 219 Daniel’s work, 56 Historical women in medicine Dock’s work, 65 ancient world, 14, 75, 210 milk safety, 131

245 Index

Hygiene, continued Levi-Montalcini, Rita, 128–130, 129(photo) Nightingale’s work, 29 Remond, Sarah Parker, 172 Widerstrom’s work, 215 See also Italy See also Public health; and specific individuals Hygiene and Morality (Dock), 65 Jacobi, Mary Corinna Putnam (Mary Putnam), Hygiene for Women (Widerstrom), 215 xix, 24, 32, 105(photo), 105–107, 164 Hysterectomies, 114 Jacobs, Aletta Henriette, 107–108 Jalas, Rakel, 108 Immigrants, 56, 76, 208 Jamaica, women in medicine from, 184 Immunology, 184–185, 199. See also Vaccination Japan, women in medicine from/in, 22, 157, Immunology of the Lung (Turner-Warwick), 199 173, 224 Imuran (organ transplant anti-rejection drug), Jean Baker Miller Training Institute, 142, 143 71 Jemison, Mae Carol, 108–109 India Jennings, Emily. See Stowe, Emily Balfour’s work in, 19 Jewish women, xx, 92, 213. See also Israel, [E.] Brown’s work in, 38 women physicians in; and specific women examination of women by men not allowed, Jex-Blake, Sophia, 10, 32, 69, 109–111, 175. See 17, 22, 67, 193 also Edinburgh School of Medicine for female medical missionaries in, xx, 17, 145, Women 183, 192–193 Johns Hopkins University Hospital, nurse medical schools, xx, 38, 67, 127–128, 145, 183 training at, 64–65, 154, 174 Nightingale’s work in, 152 Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, women physicians from, xx, 127–128, 145, 183 21, 111(photo), 111–112 (see also Scudder, Ida Sophia) faculty, 15, 76–77, 94, 111–112, 118, 120, 178 Industrial diseases. See Occupational health students and graduates, 4, 7, 13, 14–15, 49, 60, Industrial Toxicology (Hamilton), 91 94, 120, 134, 136, 141, 160, 195 Infantile paralysis. See Polio Joliot, Frederic, 52, 112–113 Infants Joliot-Curie, Irene, 51, 52, 112–113 advice books for parents, 120 Jolly, Doris Clifton. See Gordon, Doris Clifton Apgar score system, xx, 11, 12–13 Jolly erythroblastosis foetalis, 56 Jones, Mary Amanda Dixon, 113–114 influenzal meningitis, 4 Jones, Mary Ellen, 115 kwashiorkor, 216 Jones, Minnie Joycelyn. See Elders, Minnie mistaken for dead, 66 Joycelyn respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), 14, 15 Jordan, Lynda, 115–116 Influenza, 162, 210 Joteyko, Josephine, 116 Influenzal meningitis, 4 Jung, Carl Gustav, 123 Inglis, Elsie Maude, xvii, xx, 103–104, 182 Inoculation. See Vaccination Kagan, Helena, 117 Insulin, 97, 98, 205, 223 Kappers, C. U. Ariens, 50 International Association of Medical Museums, Kaufman, Joyce Jacobson, 117–118 2 Kelly, Howard, 111, 120 Iran, women in medicine from/in, 144–145, Kelsey, Francis Oldham, xx, 118, 196 186 Kelvin, Lord William Thomson, 51 Is My Baby Alright? (Apgar and Beck), 13 Kennedy, John F., 212 Israel, women physicians in, 117 Kenny, Elizabeth, 118–120, 135 Italy Kenya, women physicians in, 188 education of women before 1900, 35, 55, 202 Kenyon, Josephine Hemenway, 120–121 (see also Bologna, University of) Kidd, Jennie. See Trout, Jennie Kidd Jews discriminated against, 129 King, Elizabeth, 111 See also Italy, women in medicine from/in Kingston Women’s Medical College, 198 Italy, women in medicine from/in Klein, Melanie, 121–122 Bassi, Laura Maria Caterina, 26–27, 201 Klumpke, Augusta. See Dejerine-Klumpke, Bocchi, Dorothea, 35 Augusta Dalle Donne, Maria, 55 Korea, women physicians in, 159–160 Fabiola, Saint, 75 Krajewska, Teodora, 122 Giliani, Alessandra, 85 Kubler-Ross, Elizabeth, 122–124

246 Index

Kuwait, first woman physician in, 41 MacGregor, Jessie, 103 Kwashiorkor, 216 Macklin, Charles, 134 Macklin, Madge Thurlow, 134 La Maternité (Paris), 29, 44 Macnamara, Dame Annie Jean, xx, 134–135 Lachapelle, Marie-Louise Duges, 35, 125 Macy, Icie Gertrude. See Hoobler, Icie Gertrude Lady with the Lamp. See Nightingale, Florence Macy LaFlesche Picotte, Susan, 125–126 Mahoney, Mary Eliza, xix, 79, 135–136, 218 Lancefield, Rebecca Craighill, 126–127 Malahlele, Mary Susan, 136 Langevin, Paul, 51, 112 Malaria, 186, 187 Latin America, woman in medicine from/in, Male physicians 22 cultural restrictions on examination of women Diaz Inzunza, Eloiza, 59–60 by, 17, 22, 67, 144, 182, 183, 186, 193 Durocher, Marie Josefina Mathilde, 68 early women physicians’ ambivalence Lopez, Rita Lobato Velho, 131 toward, 106 Luisi, Paulina, 132 early women physicians Montoya, Matilde, 146 supported/encouraged by, 9, 11–12 Perez, Ernestina, 161 and the “glass ceiling,” 23, 211–212 Rodriguez-Dulanto, Laura Esther, 175 M. A. D. Jones’ relationship with, 114 Solis, Manuela, 187 and Nightingale, 151 Solis Quiroga, Margarita Delgado de, 187 opposition to Sheppard-Towner Act, 186 Villa, Amelia Chopitea, 204 opposition to women physicians in hospitals, See also Dominican Republic, women 24 physicians from public health field eschewed by, 165 Lazarus, Hilda, 127–128 resistance to women in medical schools, 105, Leadership abilities, xvii. See also specific women 109–110, 133, 198 Lebanon, women physicians in, 3 Mall, Franklin, 178 L’Esperance, Elise Depew Strang, 128 Mandl, Ines, 136 Leukemia, 70, 71, 82 Manhattan State Hospital, 123 Levi, Giuseppe, 129 Manley, Audrey Forbes, 136–137 Levi-Montalcini, Rita, 128–130, 129(photo) March of Dimes, 13 Lewis, Edward B., 153 Marie de Medici, Queen of France, 36 Licensing of women physicians Mary Johnston Hospital (Philippines), 160 in 14th-century France, 76 Mass spectrometry, 76 in England, 9, 22, 109–110, 110, 139, 175 Mayo Clinic, 14, 58–59 examinations closed to women, 109–110 Mayo, William Worrall, 58, 59 Japan’s restrictions on, 157 McClintock, Barbara, 137–138 practicing without a license, 73, 76 McDonnell, Aeneas, 119 required by Frederick II, 202 McGee, Anita Newcomb, 138(photo), 138–139 women of color, 219 McGill University, 1, 2 Lincoln, Abraham, 25–26 faculty and graduates, 15, 18, 118 Lipman, Fritz, 115 McKinney, Susan Maria Smith. See Steward, London Medical College for Women, 10 Susan Maria Smith McKinney London School of Medicine for Women, 32, McKinnon, Emily H. S., 139 110 McLaren, Agnes, 59 Long, Esmond R., 185 Mead, Jere, 15 Longshore, Hannah Myers, 130–131, 148 Medical Act (Great Britain, 1858), 109, 139, 175. Longshore, Joseph, 130 See also Russell Gurney Enabling Act Lopez, Rita Lobato Velho, 131 Medical College for Women (Scotland), 69, 103, Louis XIV of France, 67, 179 110 Louis XV of France, xvii, 66 Medical College of Pennsylvania. See Women’s Lovejoy, Esther Clayson Pohl, 131–132 Medical College of Pennsylvania Lovell, Sarah, 192 Medical training Luisi, Paulina, 132 admission requirements, 111 Lymphatic system, 178 in China, 82, 83, 87 Lyon, Mary Frances, 132, 132(photo) clinical experience, 30, 69, 103, 106, 109, 164 Mabie, Catharine Louise Roe, xx, 133–134 in India, 38, 67, 127–128, 145, 183

247 Index

Medical training, continued Milk safety, 131 schools admitting women before the mid-20th Miller, Jean Baker, 142–143 century, 21 (see also Bryn Mawr College; Mink, Marie, 219 Chicago, University of; Cornell University; Minoka-Hill, Lillie Rosa, 143–144 Johns Hopkins University School of Mission for Samaritans (Dengal), 59 Medicine; Michigan, University of) Missionaries, medical, xx, 144–145 schools for women only, 21, 148–149 (see also in Africa, xx, 133–134, 145 Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women; in China, 78, 82–83, 87, 95 Medical College for Women; New England in Egypt, 145, 214–215 Female Medical College; Women’s Medical in India, xx, 17, 38, 59, 183, 192–193 College of Pennsylvania; Women’s Medical indigenous women trained as College of the New York Infirmary for nurses/physicians by, 219 Women and Children) in the Philippines, 160 standardization of curriculums, 78 women needed as, 144 See also Obstacles to medical training Mixed leukocyte culture (MLC), 18 Medical Women’s Federation of Great Britain, Molecular biology, 57 140 Molecular structure, 96–98, 162 Medical Women’s International Association Montoya, Matilde, 146 (MWIA), 5, 19, 131, 140–141, 192 Morani, Alma Dea, 146, 146(photo) Medical Women’s National Association. See Munitions work, 90–91, 190 American Medical Women’s Association Murray, Flora, 146 Meharry Medical College, 219 Muslim women graduates, 37, 136, 221 circumcision of, 76, 171, 177 Melbourne Hospital, 135 examination by male not allowed, 67, 186 Meloney, Missy, 52 Krajewska’s work with, 122 Mendenhall, Dorothy Reed, 141–142 physicians, 177, 186 Mendoza-Gauzon, Marie Paz, 142 MWIA. See Medical Women’s International Meningitis, 4, 162 Association Mental illness, 62–63, 134, 179–180. See also Myasthenia gravis, 209 Psychiatry and psychology Myers, Hannah. See Longshore, Hannah Myers Mergler, Marie Josepha, 142 Methodist missionaries, 95, 160, 192–193. See NACGN. See National Association of Colored also Missionaries, medical Graduate Nurses Mexico, women in medicine from, 146, 187 Naegele, Franz Carl, 125 Meyer, Karl F., 74 Naish, Alice. See Stewart, Alice Michigan, University of NASA (National Aeronautics and Space faculty, 49, 50 Administration), 108 graduates, 41–42, 49, 89, 153, 203 National Academy of Sciences, 75, 82, 178 Medical School, 21, 89, 203 National Aeronautics and Space Administration racism at, 44 (NASA), 108 Middlesex Hospital (U.K.), 9 National Association of Colored Graduate Midwives, xvii Nurses (NACGN), 79, 135, 218 Boivin, Marie Anne Victoire Gillain, 35–36, National Cancer Institute (U.S.), research at, 67, 36(photo) 68, 220 du Coudray, Angelique Marguerite, xvii, National Institutes of Health (NIH) 66–67 Healy as first woman head, 94 education of, 35, 66, 103, 159 research at, 147, 153, 162, 198, 205, 214 Lachapelle, Marie-Louise Duges, 125 National Medal of Science, 147 Midwives Act (U.K.), 159 National Medical Association (NMA), 79 Paget, Mary, 159 National Organ Transplant Act (U.S., 1984), 153 Siegemundin, Justine Dittrichin, 187 Native American women in medicine Zakrzewska, Marie, 225 (see also Zakrzewska, Alvord, Lori Arviso, 5–6 Marie) barriers to success, 219 Midwives Institute (England), 159 LaFlesche Picotte, Susan, 125–126 Military commissions for women, 24, 34–35, Minoka-Hill, Lillie Rosa, 143–144 138, 139, 211. See also Army, U.S.; Craighill, Ockett, Molly, 157 Margaret; Navy, U.S. Wauneka, Annie Dodge, 212–213

248 Index

Navajo people, 212–213. See also Alvord, Lori Curie, Marie Sklodowska, 50–53, 51(photo), Arviso 112 Navy, U.S., 6, 218. See also Military commissions Curie, Pierre, 50–53, 112 for women Elion, Gertrude Belle, 70–71 Nerve growth factor (NGF), 129–130 Hitchings, George, 70, 71 Nervous system, drug effects on, 117, 118 Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot, 96–98 Netherlands, women physicians from, 107–108, Houssay, Bernardo Alberto, 47, 48 175–176 Joliot, Frederic, 52, 112–113 Neuberg, Carl, 136 Joliot-Curie, Irene, 51, 52, 112–113 Neufeld, Elizabeth Fondal, 147 Levi-Montalcini, Rita, 128–130, 129(photo) Neurology, 57 Lewis, Edward B., 153 Neurosurgery. See Conley, Frances Krauskopf Lipman, Fritz, 115 New England Female Medical College, 147–148 McClintock, Barbara, 137–138 clinical experience, 30 Nusslein-Volhard, Christiane, 153–154 faculty, 130, 147–148 Watson, James D., 81 graduates, 50, 185, 198 Wieschaus, Eric F., 153 standards for graduation, 225 Yalow, Rosalyn Sussman, 223(photo), 223–224 See also New England Hospital [for Women See also Dick, Gladys Rowena Henry and Children] North India School of Medicine for Christian New England Hospital [for Women and Women, 38 Children], 148(photo), 148–149 Norway, women physicians from, xvii, 39–40, establishment of, 31, 148, 225–226 188 nurses’ training course, 173, 218 Notes on Nursing (Nightingale), 151. See also staff, 10, 19, 89–90, 148, 185, 203 Nightingale, Florence See also New England Female Medical College Nova Scotia, first woman physician from, 10–11 New Hospital for Women and Children Novello, Antonia Coello, xvii, 152–153 (London), 9, 10, 107, 149. See also Elizabeth Nunn, T. W., 9 Garrett Anderson Hospital Nuns, 22, 58–59, 150 New York City Nurses Associated Alumnae, 135. See also first black woman physician in, 42–43 American Nurses Association Health Department, 19, 215 (see also Baker, Nursing and nurses Sara Josephine) American Nurses Association (ANA), 79, 135, Henry Street Settlement, 208 218 New York Infirmary for Women and Children, Army Nurse Corps (ANC), 34–35, 138, 139, 10, 30, 31, 32, 45, 225. See also Blackwell, 218 Elizabeth; Blackwell, Emily; Women’s Army School of Nursing, 85, 86 Medical College of the New York Infirmary Barton, Clara, 25(photo), 25–26, 64, 166, 210 for Women and Children; Zakrzewska, black nurses, xix, 79, 135, 184, 217–218 Marie Blanchfield, Florence Aby, 34–35, 218 New York Medical College for Women, 189, 191 during the Crimean War, 150–151, 184 New York Psychoanalytic Institute, 49, 99–100 Delano, Jane Arminda, 57–58, 58(photo), New Zealand, women in medicine from, 87, 139 123–124 Newborns, 11, 12–13, 56, 66. See also Infants Dempsey, Sister Mary Joseph (Julia), 58–59 Newcomb, Anita. See McGee, Anita Newcomb Dock, Lavinia Lloyd, 64–65, 174 NGF (nerve growth factor), 129–130 domestic skill needed by nurses, 174–175 Nielsen, Nielsine Mathilde, 149 early physicians relegated to nursing, xix Nightingale, Florence, xvii, 149–152, 150(photo), education, 30, 31, 58, 152, 154–155, 173 166, 210 Franklin, Martha Minerva, 79–80, 218 and other women in medicine, 29, 31, 173, 182 Goodrich, Annie Warburton, xx, 85–87, Nightingale Home and Training School, 152 86(photo) NIH. See National Institutes of Health Kenny, Elizabeth, 118–120, 135 NMA (National Medical Association), 79 licensing and registration, 86 Nobel Prize winners Mahoney, Mary Eliza, xix, 79, 135–136, 218 Black, Sir James, 70 McGee, Anita Newcomb, 138(photo), 138–139 Cohen, Stanley, 128, 129–130 Nightingale’s reforms, 151–152. See also Cori, Gerty T. R. and Carl, 47–48 Nightingale, Florence Crick, Francis, 80 predominance of women in, 211

249 Index

Nursing and nurses, continued Occupational health, xx, 89, 90–91 professional standards, xx, 64, 85, 173, 174 Ockett, Molly, 157 Ramsey, Mimi, 171 Ogino, Ginko, 157 Richards, Linda, 135, 173(photo), 173 Oldham, Frances. See Kelsey, Francis Oldham Robb, Isabel Hampton, 64, 154, 174(photo), Omaha tribe, 125–126 174–175 On Death and Dying (Kubler-Ross), 124 Sanger, Margaret, xviii–xix, 46, 166, Ontario Medical College for Women, 192, 198 180(photo), 180–181 Organ transplantation, 18, 70, 71, 153 Seacole, Mary Jane Grant, 184 Osborn, June Elaine, 157–158 standards for education, 154–155 Osler, William, xix, 2, 111–112, 120 student nurses, conditions for, 154–155 Oxford University. See Somerville College Visiting Nurses’ Service, 173, 208 Wald, Florence Schorske, 207–208 Paediatric Gastroenterology (Anderson), 8 Wald, Lillian D., xviii, xx, 64, 65, 166, Paget, Mary, 159 208(photo), 208–209 Pak, Esther Kim, 159–160 Nusslein-Volhard, Christiane, 153–154 Palade, George, 75 Nutrition, 98 Pap smear, 42, 43, 128 Nutting, Mary Adelaide, 154–155 Papanicolauo, George, 43 Nystatin (antifungal agent), 39, 92, 93 Paralysis, 57. See also Polio Paris, University of, 66, 106 Oakley, Margaret. See Dayhoff, Margaret Oakley Park, William Hallock, 215 Oberlin College, 219 Parrish, Rebecca, 160 graduates, 44, 158 Pasteurization of milk, 73, 74 Observations (Boivin), 36 Pathogenic Microorganisms Including Bacteria and Obstacles to medical training Protozoa (Williams and Park), 215 access to laboratories/teaching hospitals Pathology, 2. See also Dissection limited, 106, 109, 164 Pearce, Louise, 19, 160–161 admission to medical schools refused, xx, 1, 9, Pediatrics 21, 29, 31, 65 congenital heart malformations, 195–196 examinations closed to women, 109–110 Kenyon’s advice book, 120 faculty resistance, 105, 109–110, 133, 198 Novello’s work, 152, 153 family opposition, 60, 80, 204 pediatric gastroenterology, 8 gender discrimination in the late 20th/early respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), 14, 15 21st centuries, 46–47, 203, 210 sickle cell anemia, 77 legal barriers, 109, 139, 175 (see also Russell Penicillin, 97 Gurney Enabling Act) Perez, Ernestina, 161 licensing, 22 (see also Licensing of women Perozo, Evangelina Rodriguez, 161 physicians) Persia, medical missionaries in, 144–145 sexual harassment, 175 Peru, first woman physician from, 175 student opposition, xix, 1, 9, 73, 109, 133, 198 Petermann, Mary Locke, 161–162 Obstetrics and gynecology Philippines, women physicians from, 3–4, 142, before 1800, 14, 36–37, 66 160 [E.] Anderson’s practice, 10 Physician-assisted suicide, 62, 208 Barnes’ work, 20 Physiology Dickens’ work, 61–62 as appropriate area for women, 21 Durocher’s work, 68 hematoencephalic barrier, 188–189 Gordon’s work, 87 Hyde’s work, 102 M. A. D. Jones’ work, 113–114 Joteyko’s work, 116 Mergler’s work, 142 Pool’s work, 163 Nazi experimentation upon Jewish women, Physostigmine, 209 92 Pickett, Lucy Weston, 162 Pap smear, 42, 43, 128 Pierce, Franklin, 63 in the Philippines, 3, 4 Pincus, Gregory, 181 reasons for women’s specialization in, 22 Pittman, Margaret, 162–163 Schauta’s clinics, 163 Pius IX, Pope, 59, 63 surgical procedures, 4, 44, 114 Plastic surgery, 146 See also Childbirth; Midwives; Pregnancy Plummer, Jewel. See Cobb, Jewel Plummer

250 Index

Pohl, Esther Clayson. See Lovejoy, Esther Baker’s work, 18–19, 166 Clayson Pohl in China, 83 Poland, women in medicine from/in Daniel’s work, 56 Budzinski-Tylicka, Justine, 40 Dix’s work, 62–63, 166 Curie, Marie Sklodowska, 50–53, 51(photo), early opportunities for women, 21, 165 112 graduate degrees in, 166 Joteyko, Josephine, 116 Hyde’s work, 102 Krajewska, Teodora, 122 Manley’s work, 136–137 Polio (infantile paralysis) Mendenhall’s work, 141 research, xx, 60, 134, 135 milk safety, 73, 74, 131 treatments, 118–120 Novello’s work, 153 Polonium, 50, 51, 112 nursing and, 65, 208 (see also Nursing and Pool, Judith Graham, 163 nurses) Portugal, women physicians from, 48–49 occupational health, xx, 89, 90–91 Possanner-Ehrenthal, Garbrielle, 163 [E.] Richards’ work, 172 Practice of medicine Ruys’ work, 175 barred by France’s Chevandier Law, 42 surgeons general (U.S.), xvii, 69–70, 136, private practice difficult for women, 22, 29, 152–153 30, 165–166, 203 [L.] Wald’s work, 166, 209 without a license, 73, 76, 191 World Health Organization (WHO), 39–40, See also specific physicians 141, 165, 185 Pregnancy See also Barton, Clara; Hygiene; and specific Aspasia’s writings on, 14 diseases, issues, and public health departments du Coudray’s anatomical model, 66 Public Health Service (U.S.), 4, 68, 74, 86. See also fetal development, 178 Surgeons general fetal heartbeat, detection of, 35 Puerto Rico, women physicians from, 152–153 lung development during, 15 Pulmonary surfactant, 14, 15 Rh factor and, 56 Putnam, Mary Corinna. See Jacobi, Mary Sheppard-Towner Act (1921), 186 Corinna Putnam teen pregnancy, 62, 69 thalidomide during, xx, 118, 195, 196 Quimby, Edith Hinkley, 169(photo), 169–170 X-rays during, 190 See also Childbirth; Midwives; Obstetrics and Rabies, diagnosis of, 215 gynecology Race and women in medicine, 217–220. See also Premature infants, 14, 15 African American women in medicine; Presbyterian missionaries, 82–83. See also Women of color in medicine Missionaries, medical Race research, 219–220 Preston, Ann, xx, 29, 44, 105, 163–165, Radiation and radioactivity 164(photo) artificial radiation discovered, 112 Preventive medicine, 166. See also Public health dangers of, 52, 113 Princeton University, 5 prenatal X-rays, 190 Prisons, 63 radioactivity discovered, 51 Prostitution, 65, 204, 215 radioimmunoassay of peptide hormones, Protein, 57, 161 223–224 Protestant missionaries, 144. See also Baptist safe handling of materials, 169–170 missionaries; Methodist missionaries; See also Curie, Marie Sklodowska Presbyterian missionaries Radium, 50, 51, 169 Psychiatry and psychology Radium Institute (France), 52, 112, 113. See also Craighill’s practice, 49 Curie, Marie Sklodowska; Joliot-Curie, [Anna] Freud’s work, 81 Irene Horney’s work, 99–100 Radnitz, Gerty Theresa. See Cori, Gerty Theresa Joteyko’s work, 116 Radnitz Klein’s work, 121–122 Ramsey, Mimi, 171 Kubler-Ross’s work, 123–124 Randall, Sir John, 80 Miller’s work on the psychology of women, Red Cross, 186. See also American Red Cross 142–143 Reed, Dorothy. See Mendenhall, Dorothy Reed Public health, xviii, 165–167 Remond, Charles, 172

251 Index

Remond, Sarah Parker, 171–172 Schorske, Florence. See Wald, Florence Schorske Report of the Sanitary Commission of Massachusetts Scopolamine-morphine, during childbirth, 203 (Shattuck), 165 Scotland Research certification, 38 difficulties for women, 101 medical schools for women (see Edinburgh drug research (see Antibiotics; Chemotherapy; School of Medicine for Women; Medical Malaria; and specific drugs) College for Women) early opportunities for women, 21 women physicians from, xvii, 19, 103–104, 209 husband-and-wife teams, 47 (see also (see also Jex-Blake, Sophia) Husband-and-wife teams) See also Scottish Women’s Hospitals; United management skills and, 94 Kingdom, women in medicine from/in race research, 219–220 Scottish Women’s Hospitals, xvii, 103–104, 165, See also Cancer research; and specific fields and 182 researchers Scudder, Ida Sophia, xx, 145, 183 Respiratory diseases, 115 Seacole, Mary Jane Grant, 184 Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), 14, 15 Seibert, Florence Barbara, 184–185, 185(photo) Retroviruses, 220. See also Acquired immune Settlement houses, xvii–xviii, 65, 90, 208 deficiency syndrome (AIDS) Sewall, Lucy Ellen, 109, 185 Rh factor, 56 Sex education, xviii–xix, 69, 70, 215. See also Ribosomes, 161 Birth control Richards, Ellen Henrietta Swallow, 166, 172 Sex in Education; or A Fair Chance for the Girls Richards, Linda, 135, 173(photo), 173 (Clarke), 20 Robb, Isabel Hampton, 64, 154, 174(photo), Shaibany, Homa, 186 174–175 Shattuck, Lemuel, 165 Rockefeller Institute, research at, 127, 160 Shattuck Report, 165 Rodriguez-Dulanto, Laura Esther, 175 Sheppard-Towner Act (U.S., 1921), 186 Role models, lack of, 219 Sherrill, Mary Lura, 162, 187 Roman Catholic Church Sickle cell anemia, 77 Catholic missionaries, 59, 144 Siegemundin, Justine Dittrichin, 187 nuns as nurses, 58–59, 150 Simpson, Sir James Young, 33 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 24, 120 Sison, Antonio, 4 Roosevelt, Theodore, 26 Sklodowska, Bronia, 51 Ross, Emmanuel Robert (Manny), 123, 124 Sklodowska, Marie. See Curie, Marie Royal College of Midwives, 159 Sklodowska Royal College of Physicians, 199, 209 Sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis), 160 Royal Free Hospital (London), 10, 110 Smith, Susan Maria. See Steward, Susan Maria Rush Medical College, 133 Smith McKinney students, 29, 33, 133, 198 Social activism, xvii–xix. See also Birth control; Russell Gurney Enabling Act (Great Britain, Settlement houses; Women’s [rights] 1876), 110, 139, 175. See also Medical Act movements Russell, William Howard, 150 Society of American Bacteriologists, 74 Russia, women in medicine from/in, 22, 64, 104, Society of Apothecaries (U.K.), 9, 191 189, 213 Solis, Manuela, 187 Ruys, A. Charlotte, 175–176 Solis Quiroga, Margarita Delgado de, 187 Somerville College, Oxford University, 97, 216 el Saadawi, Nawal, 177–178 Songram, Luang Pibul, 204 Sabin, Florence Rena, 141, 178(photo), 178–179 South Africa, women physicians in, 25, 136, 179 Salber, Eva Juliet, xix, 179 Soviet Union. See Russia Salerno, University of, 202 Spaangberg-Holth, Marie, 188 Salpêtrière Asylum, 179–180 Spain, first female physician in, 187 Sanger, Margaret, xviii–xix, 46, 166, 180(photo), Sparkman Act (U.S., 1943), 24 180–181 Spoerry, Anne, 188 Sanitation, 172. See also Cleanliness St. Christopher’s Hospice (England), 181, 207 Saunders, Cicely Mary Strode, 181, 207 St. Mary’s Hospital (Rochester, Minnesota), Scarlet fever, 60 58–59 Scharlieb, Mary Ann Dacomb Bird, 182 Standard Curriculum for Schools of Nursing Schmideberg, Melitta, 121, 122 (Nutting), 155

252 Index

Stanford University, 46–47 Toward a New Psychology of Women (Miller), graduates, 72, 160 142–143 Sterilization, 92 Trout, Jennie Kidd, 192, 198 Stern, Lina Solomonova, 188–189, 189(photo) Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), 160 Sternberg, Carl, 141 Tryparsamide, 160 Steward, Susan Maria Smith McKinney, 189–190 Tuberculosis Stewart, Alice, 190 Navajo treated for, 213 Stone, Emma Constance, 191 research on, 43, 184–185, 199 Stone, Lucy, 34 tuberculin skin test, 184–185 Stowe, Emily, 191–192 Tufts, Henry, 157 Strang, Elise Depew. See L’Esperance, Elise Turkey Depew Strang Nightingale’s work in, 150–151 Streptococci bacteria, 126, 127 women physicians, 5 Stretchers, 119 Turner-Warwick, Margaret, 199 Stuart, Emmeline, 145 Twins, birth of, 66 Success, barriers to. See Barriers to success; Typhoid fever, 43, 172, 175 Obstacles to medical training Suicide, physician-assisted, 62, 208 Undulant fever, 74 Sundquist, Alma, 192 Union Conscription Act (U.S., 1863), 31 Surgeons general (U.S.), xvii, 69–70, 136, United Kingdom 152–153 Abortion Act, 20 Surgery acceptance of women physicians, 211 black female surgeons, 37–38, 61 backlash against women medical students, licensing of women in 17th-century England, 210 22 black nurses, 217–218 neurosurgery (see Conley, Frances Krauskopf) British Army, 24–25, 151–152, 209 obstetrical/gynecological surgeries, 4, 44, 114 hospice movement, 181 pediatric cardiac surgery, 195–196 licensing of women physicians, 9, 22, 109–110, plastic surgeons, 146 139, 175 Thompson’s work, 197–198 Midwives Act (1902), 159 Sussman, Rosalyn. See Yalow, Rosalyn Sussman National Insurance Act, xviii Swain, Clara A., 192–193 Nightingale’s work in, 150 Swallow, Ellen Henrietta. See Richards, Ellen race research in, 219 Henrietta Swallow See also Scotland; United Kingdom, women in Sweden, first woman physician in, 215 medicine from/in Switzerland, women in medicine from, 122–124 United Kingdom, women in medicine from/in Sylvain, Yvonne, 193 Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, xix, 8–10, Sylvia Stretcher, 119 9(photo), 31, 32, 103, 107, 182, 210 (see also Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital; New Taussig, Frank W., 195 Hospital for Women and Children) Taussig, Helen Brooke, 195–197, 196(photo) Ashby, Winifred Mayer, 13–14 Taylor, Eleanor Jane. See Calverley, Eleanor Jane Balfour, Margaret Ida, 19 Taylor Barnes, Alice Josephine, 20 Tetralogy of Fallot, 195–196 Barry, James, xix–xx, 24–25 Textbook for Materia Medica for Nurses (Dock), Brown, Edith Mary, 38 64 Franklin, Rosalind Elsie, 80–81 Thailand, women physicians from, 203–204 Hoby, Lady Margaret, 96 Thalidomide, xx, 118, 195, 196 Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot, 96–98 Thomas, M. Carey, 111 Inglis, Elsie Maude, xvii, xx, 103–104, 182 Thompson, Mary Harris, 197–198 Jex-Blake, Sophia, 10, 32, 69, 109–111, 175 (see Thoms, Adah Belle Samuels, 79 also Edinburgh School of Medicine for Thurlow, Madge. See Macklin, Madge Thurlow Women) Tibetan funerals, 93 Klein, Melanie, 121–122 Tilghman, Philip Leder, 198 Lyon, Mary Frances, 132, 132(photo) Tilghman, Shirley Marie Caldwell, 198 medical training, 9, 30–31, 32 (see also specific Todd, Margaret, 110 schools) Tokyo Women’s Medical College, 224 Murray, Flora, 146

253 Index

United Kingdom, women in medicine from/in, See also American Nurses Association; Army, continued U.S.; United States of America Nightingale, Florence (see Nightingale, United States of America, women physicians Florence) from/in Paget, Mary, 159 Abbott, Maude Elizabeth Seymour, xx, Saunders, Cicely Mary Strode, 181, 207 1(photo), 1–3, 196 Scharlieb, Mary Ann Dacomb Bird, 182 African American women (see African Stewart, Alice, 190 American women in medicine) Turner-Warwick, Margaret, 199 Alexander, Hattie Elizabeth, 4–5 Walker, Mary Broadfoot, 209 Alvord, Lori Arviso, 5–6 Whately, Mary Louisa, 145, 214–215 Apgar, Virginia, xx, 11–13, 12(photo) Williams, Cicely Delphin, 216–217 Avery, Mary Ellen, 14–15 See also Blackwell, Elizabeth Bacheler, Mary Washington, 17–18 United States of America Baker, Sara Josephine, xviii, 18(photo), 18–19, armed forces (see Army, U.S.; Military 166 commissions for women; Navy, U.S.) Barringer, Emily Dunning, 23–24 Civil War, 25–26, 31, 165, 209–210 Blackwell, Elizabeth (see Blackwell, Elizabeth) Comstock Act (1873), xix, 46 Blackwell, Emily, xix, 28, 29–30, 33–34, 208, Congressional Medal of Honor, 209–210 214 hospice movement, 207–208 Britton, Mary E., 37 mental illness, historic care for people with, Brown, Dorothy Lavinia, 37–38, 38(photo) 62–63 Calverley, Eleanor Jane Taylor, 41 National Economy Act, xviii Canady, Alexa Irene, 41–42 number of women physicians, 211 Chinn, May Edward, xix, 42–43, 219 Red Cross (see American Red Cross) Claypole, Edith Jane, 43–44 Sheppard-Towner Act (1921), 186 Cleveland, Emeline Horton, xx, 44, 164 tuberculin skin test adopted, 185 Cobb, Jewel Plummer, 44–45 women in medicine (see Native American Cole, Rebecca, 45, 164 women in medicine; United States of Conley, Frances Krauskopf, 46–47 America, nurses from/in; United States of Cori, Gerty Theresa Radnitz, 47(photo), 47–48 America, women physicians from/in; Craighill, Margaret, xx, 6, 49, 49(photo) United States of America, women scientists Crosby, Elizabeth Caroline, 49–50 from/in) Crumpler, Rebecca Lee, 50 United States of America, nurses from/in Daniel, Annie Sturges, 56 Barton, Clara, 25(photo), 25–26, 64, 166, Dejerine-Klumpke, Augusta, 57 210 Dick, Gladys Rowena Henry, 60(photo), 60–61 black nurses, 79–80, 135–136, 217–218 Dickens, Helen Octavia, 61(photo), 61–62 Blanchfield, Florence Aby, 34–35, 218 Dickey, Nancy Wilson, xvii, 23, 62, 212 Delano, Jane Arminda, 57–58, 58(photo), Dolley, Sarah Read Adamson, 65–66 123–124 Dunn, Thelma Brumfield, 67–68 Dempsey, Sister Mary Joseph (Julia), 58–59 Elders, Minnie Joycelyn, 69–70, 153 Dock, Lavinia Lloyd, 64–65, 174 Ferguson, Angela Dorothea, 77–78 Franklin, Martha Minerva, 79–80, 218 first woman physician (see Blackwell, Goodrich, Annie Warburton, xx, 85–87, Elizabeth) 86(photo) Fowler, Lydia Folger, 79 Mahoney, Mary Eliza, xix, 79, 135–136, 218 Fulton, Mary Hannah, 82–83, 87, 144 McGee, Anita Newcomb, 138(photo), 138–139 Hamilton, Alice, xviii, xx, 89–91, 90(photo), 166 Nutting, Mary Adelaide, 154–155 Healy, Bernadine, 94 Ramsey, Mimi, 171 Hemenway, Ruth V., 95 Richards, Linda, 135, 173(photo), 173 Hispanic American women, 153–154, 219 Robb, Isabel Hampton, 64, 154, 174(photo), Horney, Karen Theodora Clementina 174–175 Danielsen, 99–100 Sanger, Margaret, xviii–xix, 46, 166, Jacobi, Mary Corinna Putnam (Mary 180(photo), 180–181 Putnam), xix, 24, 32, 105(photo), 105–107, Wald, Florence Schorske, 207–208 164 Wald, Lillian D., xviii, xx, 64, 65, 166, Jemison, Mae Carol, 108–109 208(photo), 208–209 Jones, Mary Amanda Dixon, 113–114

254 Index

Kenyon, Josephine Hemenway, 120–121 Levi-Montalcini, Rita, 128–130, 129(photo) Kubler-Ross, Elizabeth, 122–124 Mandl, Ines, 136 LaFlesche Picotte, Susan, 125–126 McClintock, Barbara, 137–138 L’Esperance, Elise Depew Strang, 128 Neufeld, Elizabeth Fondal, 147 Longshore, Hannah Myers, 130–131, 148 Petermann, Mary Locke, 161–162 Lovejoy, Esther Clayson Pohl, 131–132 Pickett, Lucy Weston, 162 Mabie, Catharine Louise Roe, xx, 133–134 Pittman, Margaret, 162–163 Macklin, Madge Thurlow, 134 Pool, Judith Graham, 163 Manley, Audrey Forbes, 136–137 Quimby, Edith Hinkley, 169(photo), 169–170 Mendenhall, Dorothy Reed, 141–142 Richards, Ellen Henrietta Swallow, 166, 172 Mergler, Marie Josepha, 142 Sabin, Florence Rena, 141, 178(photo), Miller, Jean Baker, 142–143 178–179 Minoka-Hill, Lillie Rosa, 143–144 Seibert, Florence Barbara, 184–185, 185(photo) Morani, Alma Dea, 146, 146(photo) Sherrill, Mary Lura, 162, 187 Novello, Antonia Coello, xvii, 152–153 Tilghman, Shirley Marie Caldwell, 198 Osborn, June Elaine, 157–158 Villa-Komaroff, Lydia, 204–205 Parrish, Rebecca, 160 Wetterhahn, Karen Elizabeth, 214 Pearce, Louise, 19, 160–161 Wong-Staal, Flossie, 220–221 Preston, Ann, xx, 29, 44, 105, 163–165, Yalow, Rosalyn Sussman, 223(photo), 223–224 164(photo) See also United States of America Remond, Sarah Parker, 171–172 Universities. See specific universities Salber, Eva Juliet, xix, 179 University College (U.K.), 9 Sewall, Lucy Ellen, 109, 185 Uranium, 113. See also Radiation and statistics, 211, 219 radioactivity Steward, Susan Maria Smith McKinney, Uruguay, women physicians from, 132 189–190 surgeons general, 69–70, 136, 152–153 Vaccination, 31–32, 43, 135, 162, 215 Taussig, Helen Brooke, 195–197, 196(photo) van der Waals, Johannes D., 187 Thompson, Mary Harris, 197–198 Van Hoosen, Bertha, 6, 203 Van Hoosen, Bertha, 6, 203 Vejjabul, Pierra Hoon, 203–204 Walker, Mary Edwards, 31, 209–210 Vellore [Christian] Medical College (India), xx, Williams, Anna Wessels, 215–216 127, 128, 145, 184 Wright, Jane Cooke, 221, 221(photo) Venereal disease, 107, 123, 192 Zakrzewska, Marie (see Zakrzewska, Marie) Victoria, Queen, 67, 159 See also United States of America Villa, Amelia Chopitea, 204 United States of America, women scientists Villa-Komaroff, Lydia, 204–205 from/in Viruses, 71, 82, 220. See also Acquired immune Brown, Rachel Fuller, 39, 92, 93 deficiency syndrome (AIDS) Daly, Marie Maynard, 55–56 Visiting Nurses’ Service, xviii, 173, 208 Darrow, Ruth Renter, 56 Vitamins, 72, 96–97 Dayhoff, Margaret Oakley, 57 Vivisection, 29, 106. See also Dissection Dyer, Helen Marie, 68 Volhard, Christiane. See Nusslein-Volhard, Elion, Gertrude Belle, 70–71 Christiane Emerson, Gladys Anderson, 71–72, 72(photo) Volunteer work by women, 165. See also Evans, Alice Catherine, 73(photo), 73–74 Missionaries, medical; Nursing and nurses Farquhar, Marilyn Gist, 75–76 Fenselau, Catherine Clarke, 76–77 Waddington, Conrad H., 132 Friend, Charlotte, 82 Wald, Florence Schorske, 207–208 Hazen, Elizabeth Lee, 39, 92–93 Wald, George, 101 Hispanic American women, 204–205 Wald, Lillian D., xviii, xx, 64, 65, 166, Hoobler, Icie Gertrude Macy, 98–99 208(photo), 208–209 Hubbard, Ruth, 100(photo), 100–101 Walker, Mary Broadfoot, 209 Jones, Mary Ellen, 115 Walker, Mary Edwards, 31, 209–210 Jordan, Lynda, 115–116 Walking Out on the Boys (Conley), 47 Kaufman, Joyce Jacobson, 117–118 Wars, and women in medicine, xviii, 210–211. Kelsey, Francis Oldham, xx, 118, 196 See also Civil War (U.S.); Crimean War; Lancefield, Rebecca Craighill, 126–127 World War I; World War II

255 Index

Watson, James D., 81 Blackwell sisters’ views on, 29, 30, 33–34 Wauneka, Annie Dodge, 212–213 and education, 213–214 Weizmann, Chaim, 213 and female medical missionaries, 144 Weizmann, Vera, 213 Remond’s activism, 171, 172 Welch, William Henry, 111, 120, 141 Walker’s support of, 209 West, Rose, 165 Wong-Staal, Flossie, 220–221 Western Pennsylvania Hospital, 99 The Work of Medical Women in India (Balfour), 19 Western Reserve College, 214 World Health Organization (WHO), 39–40, 141, graduates, 30, 33, 225 165, 185 Wetterhahn, Karen Elizabeth, 214 World War I Whately, Mary Louisa, 145, 214–215 American Women’s Hospital Service, 6, 7 (see Whipple, Alan, xix, 11–12 also American Women’s Hospital Service) White, John, 97 Barringer’s work during, 24 WHO. See World Health Organization benefits to nonwhite races anticipated, 217 Who’s Who Among the Microbes (Williams and equality of women physicians, 211 Park), 216 Jacobs’ views on, 108 Widerstrom, Karolina, 215 munitions work, 90–91, 190 Wieschaus, Eric F., 153 nurses and nursing during, 34, 57, 58, 86, 119, Wilkins, Maurice, 80 217–218 Williams, Anna Wessels, 215–216 Scottish Women’s Hospitals, 103–104, 165, 182 Williams, Cicely Delphin, 216–217 (see also Inglis, Elsie Maude) Willis, Dr., 9 Shaibany’s work during, 186 Wilson, Nancy. See Dickey, Nancy Wilson women health care workers overwhelmed Winslow, Charles-Edward Amory, 166 during, 140 WMNA. See American Medical Women’s women restricted following, xviii, 165, Association 210–211 Women of color in medicine, 217–220 Women’s Hospital Corps (France), 146 black nurses, 79, 135, 184, 217–218 World War II See also African American women in American Women’s Hospital Service during, medicine; and specific women of color 6 Women’s Hospital Corps (France), 146 Army Nurse Corps (ANC) during, 35 Women’s Hospital of Philadelphia, 44, 164 Barringer’s work during, 24 graduates and interns, 79, 125, 143, 146 concentration camps, xx, 92, 123, 188 Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania, Dutch Resistance, 175–176 139–140, 140(photo) French Resistance, 113, 188 clinical experience, 30, 164 Kubler-Ross’s work in post-war Poland, 123 deans, 44, 49, 163 (see also Preston, Ann) Manhattan Project, 169 faculty, 14, 146 military commissions for female name changed, 164 nurses/physicians, 35, 49, 211 (see also and the New England Female Medical Army, U.S.; Navy, U.S.) College, 147–148 munitions work, 91 Pearce as president, 161 penicillin needed, 97 students and graduates, 4, 44, 82, 105, 114, Wright, Jane Cooke, 221, 221(photo) 125, 130, 143, 146, 183, 191, 192 Wright, Louis Tompkins, 221 Women’s Medical College of the New York Infirmary for Women and Children, 30, 31, X-rays 32, 34 chromosome repair following exposure to, closure, 148 137 curriculum and standards, 21–22, 31 Pickett’s research on, 162 faculty and staff, 31, 106 prenatal X-rays, 190 students and graduates, 17, 18–19, 24, 56, 128, X-ray crystallography, 96, 97, 162 198, 208, 215 See also Blackwell, Elizabeth; Blackwell, Yale University Emily; Zakrzewska, Marie faculty, 86 Women’s Medical Service (India), 19, 127 graduates, 98, 115, 184, 207 Women’s [rights] movements, xviii School of Nursing, 86, 207 in the Arab world (see el Saadawi, Nawal) Yalow, Rosalyn Sussman, 223(photo), 223–224

256 Index

Yellow fever, 210 New England Hospital [for Women and Yoshioka, Yayoi, 224 Children]) and Lucy Sewall, 185 Zaire. See Congo, Democratic Republic of and the New England Female Medical Zakrzewska, Marie, 225–226 College, 148, 225 and the Blackwells’ infirmary, 30, 33, 225 Zon, Leonard, 154 education, 30, 214, 225 Zovirax (acyclovir), 71 hospital founded, 31, 148, 225–226 (see also Zurich, University of, 123, 163

257

About the Author

Laura Lynn Windsor is a health sciences reference librarian at Ohio University. She has been a reference librarian at public and academic libraries for more than fifteen years. She is a member of the American Library Association and the Medical Library Association.

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