ENGLISH AND HAUSA LOAN WORDS IN TIV

BY

Usar, Ignatius Iornenge [email protected] Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages University of Jos

AND

Ofoegbu Cyril Okechukwu [email protected] Department of English, Anambra State University, Igbariam Campus, Anambra State.

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Abstract

The Tiv language spoken largely in and some parts of should on the face value be thought to have developed so much considering that studies in the language started in the early 20th Century. However, owing to contact with the and the status of the as the National/Official language of Nigeria, words from the Hausa and English languages shave been loaned into the Tiv through various processes. This paper examines English and Hausa adopted words into Tiv with the aim of finding out the enormity of loanwords from the two. The paper also examines strategies adopted by the Tiv language in naturalizing and integrating the loan words into the target language.

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1.0 Historical Background of the

There is no agreement among scholars as to the original home of the Tiv from where they may have started their migration to the present home. One can of course say this of most, if not all the ethnic groups in Nigeria. Most accounts however indicate that the Tiv are of Bantu stock, and therefore must have had their original home somewhere in central Africa. The linguistic approach to the question attempts to establish a link between the Negro groups by pointing to the similarity of language. Abraham (1933) bases his thesis on a Congo origin for the Tiv on a sixty­seven word list. The list purports that to demonstrate some similarity between Tiv language and the Bantu Nyanza who live in present day Malawi.

The time of Tiv migration to their permanent homeland cannot be known with any certainty, however, Downes (1933) cited in Wegh (1997) estimates that the really general migration into the present area began around 1800 and that the Tiv were present south of the Benue River in large numbers by 1850. The various clans shifted position until 1890 when the boundaries were rather well established and permanent settlement undertaken.

Greenberg (1963) provides a broad and significant framework for classifying African languages which has earned the status of a reference point. Tiv is a member of the a sub­division of Benue Congo group where it forms a prominent part of the sub group. Benue Congo is a sub­family of the Niger­Congo family.

Today, the Tiv people are predominantly found in central Nigeria and a significant number in the Republic of Cameroon in West Africa. Gboko is the headquarters town of the Tiv. Studies by Udu, Dooga, and Isa ( 1998, p.2 and Udu 1999, p.4) cited in Udu (2009) have revealed that in Nigeria, the Tiv people occupy over thirty three (33) Local Government Areas across Benue, Nassarawa, Taraba and Cross River States. In alone, the Tiv settle in large numbers in Buruku, Gboko·, Guma, Katsina­Ala, Konshisha, Kwande, Ushongo, Makurdi, Vandeikya, ,Gwer, Gwer­West, Ukum, Tarka and Logo Local Government Areas. In , they are found in Yala, Boki, Obudu and lkom areas while in , the Tiv language is spoken in their settlement areas such as Aldokolor, Sardauna, Wukari, lbi , Bali, , Donga, and Gasol Local Government Areas while in Nassarawa State they settle in Lafia, Keana, Doma, Awe, Nassarawa and Obi. Furthermore, the Tiv are also found in Qu'an Pan, Shendam and Langtang South in . Considering the geographical spread and the large number of speakers, Tiv language is indeed a very important language.

It is an interesting scenario that in spite of the fact that while the English and Hausa languages belong to the Indo­European and Chadic family respectively, Tiv language which is a Bantu language borrowed excessively from the two. Although Hausa, the largest known Chadic language is spoken in Nigeria, Tivland does not share any close geographical affinity with speakers of the language. One wonders therefore, why languages indigenous to Nasarawa, Taraba, Cross River and Plateau states have not found their way into the Tiv lexicon. The plausible explanation for this is simply that languages indigenous to these states have themselves heavily depended on the Hausa language thus serving as ‘buffer languages which facilitated the extensive loanwords found in the Tiv lexicon.

From the above information therefore, it can be asserted that a large number of the Hausa words adopted into the Tiv language were originally English or other languages from which the Hausa might have also borrowed. Consider the following words:

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English Hausa Tiv Gloss Table Tebur Tebul Table Shovel Shebur Shebul Shovel Bread Burodi Beredi Bread Mango Mangoro Mongoo Mango Field Fili Fiidi Field Garage Gareji Galeeji Garage Government Gwamnati Gomenti government

1.1 Hegemonic Influence of the Hausa Language evidenced in Loanwords The nature of the Hausa people of Nigeria as traders and the influence which the Hausa language has on many languages in the Northern part of the country has made encouraged the growth and continual blossoming of the language. According to Busa (2008) ‘Hausa Language has virtually captured almost all the minor languages of Northern Nigeria in so many ways. This process has compelled the native speakers of the minority languages to adopt Hausa words into their vocabulary through the processes of loan­adoption, coinage, extension of meaning and loan­ translation.’ This process has also helped in developing the vocabulary of the Tiv language and has made for ease of interaction with their neighbouring communities who have also fallen prey to the Hausa language’s hegemonic influence and assimilation processes. This paper is therefore concerned with English and Hausa adopted words in Tiv only.

1.2 What is Loanword and what Factors Necessitate Loaning According to Crystal (2008, p.286) a ‘loan’ is a linguistic unit (usually a lexical item) which has come to be used in a language or dialect other than the one where it originated. It says further that several types of loan process has been recognized, such as loan words (where both form and meaning are borrowed, or assimilated with adaptation to the phonological system of the new language; loan blends, loan shifts and loan translations.

Mathews (2007:230) describes a loan word as a word imported by borrowing from another language. Such words are sometimes adapted directly to fit the sound patterns of the borrowing language.

Millar (2007:21­22) says there are many different ways of acquiring new words in language, some of them exceedingly common, others rather unusual but the simplest and most obvious source of all in borrowing. The process of acquiring new words is curiosly called borrowing because the lending language does not lose the use of the word, nor does the borrowing language intend to give it back.

Why should people be so eager to borrow somebody else’s word? Linguists have proposed so many reasons for loaning of lexical items from one language to another which include:

i. the word is the name of something genuinely new to speakers of the borrowing language; ii. the need to designate new things, persons, places and concepts for which a language has no term(s) in its vocabulary but has sufficient contact with another language which has these terms; iii. to enhance communicative competence amongst speakers of different languages in

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contact; and iv. to promote scientific and technological development and advancement of the borrowing language, amongst other reasons.

2.0 English Loan Words in Tiv

This study shows that there are a large number of English loanwords in Tiv. Words denoting mostly household items, clothing, means of transportation, school materials etc. have been loaned into the Tiv language. These words in the Tiv vocabulary were originally English and did not come into the lexicon through any buffer languages. These words are loaned into the Tiv language directly from the English language, they include the following:

English Names Tiv Adopted Name Gloss Shirt Sheti Shirt Air conditioner Eakondishena Air conditioner Skirt Siketi Skirt Cup Koopu Cup Plate Peleti Plate Drum Durum Drum Digger Ijiga Digger Black board Belakaboodu Black board Desk Deseke School desk Duster Doseta Duster Pencil Pensel Pencil Biro Biro/bairo Biro Dust bin Dosebin Dust bin Cupboard Koboodu Cupboard Whistle Wusul Whistle Ball Bol Ball Teacher Tica Teacher Wheel barrow Wiibaro Wheelbarrow Pick up Pikov Pick up van Tractor Turokoto Tractor Grader Gereda Grader Pastor Paseto Pastor Lawyer Loya Lawyer Chairman Ciaman Chairman Deacon Diakon Deacon Dictionary Dikishenali Dictionary Typewriter Tapirata Typewriter Ink Inki Ink Brush Buroshi Brush Soldier Orshoja Soldier

It is noticeable that the English words assume a new phonological shape in the Tiv language.

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This is because in order for borrowed material to be fully integrated into the recipient language it must be adapted into the existing patterns of that language. The phonological shape of the borrowed item has to be made to conform to recipient­language patterns. Hence we find English words loaned into the Tiv language spelt as if it were written in the English phonetic forms.

3.0 Hausa Loanwords in Tiv This study shows that there are a large number of English and Hausa loanwords in Tiv. Words relating to names of animals, plants and fruits, commerce and transport, household items/utensils, professions as well as clothing have, over the years, found their ways into t h e Tiv language. Some of the words in these categories are presented thus:

3.1 Hausa Words Relating to Animals Tiv language has borrowed a lot of Hausa names relating to animals. In the case of animals, the borrowed words are mostly alien to Tiv land as such animals are only found in particular regions. In addition the migration of the Tiv from along the Congo River basin as enumerated above did not follow routes along the Sahel where especially camels and donkeys are found in large number. They borrow such words so as to effectively communicate with the speakers of the Hausa language and other tribe members who may be so familiar with the Hausa language more than Tiv. The words include:

Hausa Names Hausa Adopted Names into Gloss Tiv Jaki Ijaki Donkey Kunkuru Kurugh Tortoise Rakumi Rakumi Camel Zaki Zaki Lion

3.2 Names of Fruits and Trees Tiv has loaned a large number of Hausa names of fruits and trees into its lexicon as shown in the following examples:

Hausa Names Tiv Adopted Name Gloss Gwaiva Gwava Guava Albasa Alabesa Onion Attarugu Atarugu Large chilies Mangoro Mongoo Mango Lemu Alum Orange Ayaba Ayaba Banana

In this category of borrowing of words from Hausa to Tiv, assume new phonological shapes in order to make their pronunciation ‘Tivicised.’ In so doing, the loan words are made to look as if they were originally part of the Tiv language lexicon.

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3.3 Names Relating to Transport and commerce The history of trade and transport amongst the Hausas and the Tiv is as old as their history itself. The Hausas are found in virtually all states in Nigeria and are known to sell commodities such as salt, potash and clothing usually referred to as ‘alaha’ (second hand clothing) even among the Tiv. The Tiv farmers have also been selling farm produce and food stuffs to the Hausas in turn, sometimes travelling as far as Kano, Sokoto and to the extreme parts of Hausa land. As a result of this trade, the following words have been borrowed from Hausa into Tiv:

Hausa Names Tiv Adopted Name Gloss Mota Mato Car Tipa Tipa Tipper Kasuwa Kasuwa Market Tanka Tanka Tanker Keke Ikyekye Bicycle Gongoro Gongolo Truck Girgi Igirgi ­ Sama ­ Purugh Airplane ­ Kasa (dogo) ­ Dogo Train ­ Ruwa ­ Mnger Ship

Birki Biliki Brakes Buhu Bufu Bag Chanji Cenji Exchange (balance) Dari Deri Hundred Dubu Dubu Thousand Gargada Gadagada Bumps (road) Gari Gar Town/village

In this category of borrowing of words, some words enjoy a wholesale transfer from the Hausa language into Tiv. The concept for airplane, train and ship are entirely borrowed from the Hausa language where the stem igirgi has suffixes attached to describe air, land and water as is found in the Hausa language. Tiv numeral system used to be in tens and twenties, where hundred was described using five twenties (akundu a ataan) to mean hundred but words such as ‘deri’ are in use today. Virtually all means of transportation except for the motor bike have been adopted from the Hausa language.

3.4 Hausa Names of Utensils loaned into Tiv Utensils are materials or equipment used in households to ease activities. The following are names of household utensils loaned into Tiv.

Hausa Names Tiv Adopted Name Gloss Cokali Cokoli Spoon Tasa Tesa Plate Perenti Pelengi Tray

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Kujera Kujira Stool Soso Soso Sponge Tozali Tojii Eye powder Laria Lalia Sieve Akwati Akwati Box Ashana Ashanu Matches Tsintsiya Chancha Broom Wondo Wondu Trousers Riga Riga Shirt Kampe Kempe Under shorts Almakeshi Keshi Scissors Alura Anula Needled/Injection Agogo Agogo Wristwatch/clock Makuli Makuli Keys Danko Donko Elastic material

From the above words loaned into Tiv, tsintsiya "broom" changes to chancha; and ashana "matches" changes to ashanu in Tiv adopted Hausa words. Considering that the Alveolar lateral souns /l/ and the alveolar trill /r/ are allophones of the same phoneme, that is, they do not contrast meaning, where one occurs in the Hausa language, the other occurs in Tiv. Words such laria changes to lalia, alura changes to anula

3.5. English-Hausa-Tiv Loan Words The following are names of some household items/utensils which are believed to have first been borrowed into Hausa language from the English language before eventually finding their way into the Tiv language. They have been loaned into Tiv as follows:

English Names Hausa Names Tiv Adopted Name Gloss Pillow Pilo Pilo Pillow Bench Benci Benci Bench Radio Radiyo Redio Radio Television Telebijin Televishen Television Singlet Singileti Shingil Singlet Telephone Talho/waya Telefon/waya Telephone Bucket Bokati Bokoti Bucket Soldier Soja Orshoja soldier

In this category of words it is noticeable that the Tiv language borrowed certain lexical items that even the Hausa language can be said to have borrowed same from the English language. As is usually the case with loanwords, the spellings and the pronunciations are adapted to suit the recipient language thereby naturalizing the words and giving them a seeming status of originality.

3.6 Names Relating to Musical Instruments Loaned into Tiv Name of some musical instruments have been loaned into the Tiv language from Hausa. They might have borrowed such names from the Hausas to enhance easy interaction

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amongst members of the two communities. Again it is noteworthy to mention most of the instruments listed below are used by the Hausa. Examples of such musical instruments’ names loaned into Tiv include:

Hausa Names Tiv Adopted Name Gloss Ganga Genga Drums Molo Moro A kind of musical instrument Kalangu Akelangu A kind of musical instrument Busa Busa Bugle Kakaaki Kakaki A long flute

4.0 Summary and Conclusion We have observed in this paper how Tiv has loaned a number of words from the English and Hausa languages. We also observed that it is notable that some types of words are loaned more readily than others. For one thing, nouns are borrowed more often than verbs or adjectives. This occurs partly because nouns are far more numerous than other classes of words to begin with, partly because new things are more likely to be denoted by nouns than by any other words and partly because new nouns are often easier to accommodate within the grammatical system of the borrowing language.

The effect of this sociolinguistic phenomenon on the Tiv people and their language is that, the present day native speaker of the target language finds it difficult to interact in his mother tongue without interference from the English and Hausa languages. Often times than not, speakers are found unconsciously code­switching and code­mixing even when the conversation is between Tiv native speakers. It is my candid opinion that if this trend is allowed to continue unabated, it may lead to endangerment of the Tiv language as more and more young speakers no longer use indigenous Tiv words in spite of the fact that they do exist.

The paper also reveals that, Tiv people do not borrow English and Hausa words because they do not have their equivalent in their native language. They borrow such words in order to ease communication and interaction processes with especially the non Tiv who may be more comfortable with the English and Hausa languages.

4.1 Recommendations

Based on our findings, the following recommendations are made: i. The orthography of the Tiv language should be standardized and indigenous writers should be encouraged to publish works in the language.

ii. Loanwords should be allowed in the Tiv language in the light of the fact that loans and borrowings enhance communicative competence but speakers should be encouraged to use indigenous words where and when necessary to avoid such words going into extinction. In addition, the Tiv Language Studies and

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Development Association should be upgraded to a full­fledged Governmental agency with Centers which should be responsible for the standardization and codification of new words and phrases as they come into the Tiv language. iii. Works such as the ‘sababbin kalmomi Ingilishi zuwa Hausa’ published by the Centre for the Study of Nigerian Languages, Bayero University Kano should be encouraged in other languages as has been done for the Hausa language and especially for the Tiv language.

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References

Busa, M.A. (2013). Hausa Loanwords in Gbagyi. In Yalwa, L. D. et al (eds.) Studies in Hausa Language, Literature and Culture, Proceedings of the First National Conference pp 26­ 37. Zaria: ABU Press. · Bynon. T. ( 1979). Historical Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v ers i t yPress.

Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing

Gyanggyang, S. (1997). Dikishenali i Tiv. Zaria: Agitab Publishers.

Matthews, P. H. (2007). Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, 2nd edition. Oxford: OUP

Millar, R. M. (2007). Trask’s Historical Linguistics, 2nd edition. London: Hodder Arnold Education

Orkar, J. T. (2005). Seer Fan Zwa Tiv. Makurdi: Indyer Publications

Udu, T. T. (2009). Tiv Language: A Reference Book. Kaduna: Labari Communications and Publishers.

Wegh, S. F. (1994). Marriage, Family and the Church in Tiv. Makurdi: Decon Computer Services

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