PERFORMANCE, FUNCTIONALISM AND FORM IN ỊZỌN ORAL POETRY A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Of RHODES UNIVERSITY By ARMSTRONG, IMOMOTIMI JUNE 2019 SUPERVISOR PROF RUSSELL KASCHULA CO-SUPERVISORS DR HLEZE KUNJU DR N. MAZWI Abstract Since the publication of Ruth Finnegan’s influential Oral Literature in Africa, way back in 1970, scholars have been paying earnest attention to oral traditions on the African continent. That seminal book pointed out to Africanist scholars the need to urgently collect and document the oral literatures of their various ethnic groups before they die out. However, it is the verbal arts of the major ethnic groups on the continent that very often benefit from this collection and documentation, as it were. Therefore, this study sought to examine the oral poetry of the Ịzọn, a minority ethnic nationality, located in the oil-rich Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The study employed unstructured interviews and participant observations to collect the data for the research. The transcribed and translated data was examined through three eclectic theories to the study of folklore: Russian formalism, performance and functionalism. The study found out that Ịzọn oral poetry is a combination of songs and one person’s praise chants. Moreover, it revealed that praise chanting is a recent practice amongst the Ịzọn that was introduced into Ịzọnland by Chief Adolphus Munamuna from the Yoruba of southwestern Nigeria. Furthermore, the study established that oral poetry plays important roles amongst the people. Besides, it ascertained that the performance of some sub-categories of the poetry is highly dramatic and theatrical. It also discovered that stylistic techniques such as formula, parallelism, proverb, ideophone, praise title, metaphor, repetition, alliteration, assonance, vowel lengthening, amongst others, give the poetry the quality of “literariness.” In addition, the study found out that the poetry, like oral poetry in other ethnic groups, demonstrates the three qualities of change, adaptability and survival. The study has contributed to existing scholarship on African oral traditions in the sense of collecting, documenting and generating awareness on Ịzọn oral poetry, most importantly iii pointing out the existence of praise chanting amongst a people who had no such culture and the conditions that gave rise to that practice. iv Declaration I, the undersigned, hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that all sources which I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references ---------------------------------- -------------------------------- Armstrong, Imomotimi Date v Dedication For Jah, the only true God vi Acknowledgements Jehovah, for a love that no word comes close to modifying. My mother, Woyengi-Inetemona, and father, Undutimi Dengimo, who can make any sacrifice to ensure that all their children are educated. Rejoice Chioma, my wife, who suspended her tertiary education in Nigeria, came to South Africa and went through a most horrible weather in Grahamstown. I will not be able to count the number of times I said, “Baby, please, I am busy,” even though she was heavily pregnant with our first child. Moreover, I will forever be grateful to a man with a good soul, Professor Russell Kaschula, my supervisor. From giving me a signed copy of his study of Xhosa oral poetry to something to “spend for the weekend” to putting my name through to NRF for funding, all on the first day I met him, to making his library available to the quick feedback each time I sent him a chapter! Dr Hleze Kunju, the author of the first PhD in IsiXhosa and my co-supervisor, always had discussions with me. In fact, he was so nice to me that it was just once I booked an appointment with him to see him. After that first meeting, each time I saw the door ajar, I walked in straight. Our discussions were not limited to just the office; anywhere he saw me, we would have interactions. Besides, I express my indebtedness to the respondents for this study, including the praise chanter, Chief Adolphus Munamuna, who willingly gave me all the manuscripts of his previous chants. This study would not have been done without their cooperation. I can never hope to pay in full the kindnesses of my two research assistants: Undutimi Miekumo and Armstrong U. Armstrong. Furthermore, I note in deep appreciation the kindnesses of Ms Goosen, Assistant Librarian: Interlibrary Loans. In the course of writing this study, I realised that Rhodes University did not have some of the most important studies of oral traditions on the African continent. It was Ms Goosen who ensured that I got all the books that were not in the Library and in Prof Kaschula’s from other South African universities. vii Ms Wicks, Manager Student Bureau, responded swiftly to all my inquiries even when I had not come to Rhodes University. She also readily wanted to accommodate me, a postgraduate student, in one of the undergraduate residences when she knew I would not be able to afford a stay in the postgraduate halls of residence. To her, too, I extend warmest thanks. The Grahamstown Congregation of Jehovah’s Witnessess showed a very genuine denominational love to my wife and me throughout our stay in South Africa. In fact, the first baby shower we ever experienced or took part in was the one organised by the brothers and sisters for our baby! My wife and I deeply appreciate their love. Additionally, my younger siblings: Inerepamo, Franklin, Armstrong, Lucky-ere and Kelvin for the tremendous brotherly love. Mr Nathan Gordon, a loving elderly friend and Christian brother, kept in touch on a regular basis throughout this study, for that I am heartily grateful. Ikpoere Okpotolomo, an aunty with an immense love, called often. To her, too, I express my sincere gratitude. Also, thanks are due to Professor S. E. Ogude, my deceased undergraduate supervisor and academic mentor, and for their encouragements, Professors Tanure Ojaide, S. O. Umukuoro, Barine Ngaage and Dr Timi Oyabara. Furthermore, I extend my gratitude to Professor Karin Barber who took the time to respond to an email that was sent to her and kindly sent me two articles written by herself when I was thinking of pursuing doctoral studies. Shout out to Joy, a Nigerian friend who completed her PhD in French at Rhodes in 2019. Cheers to Associate Prof Dion Nkomo, who never forgot to ask how the “battle” was going on each time we met, Ms Nosilela, who always flashed a smile and Balbawa, who was ever ready to print anything out whenever the need arose, all members of staff of the African Language Section of the School of Languages and Literatures. Lastly, the financial support of the NRF through the National Research Foundation SARChl Chair: Intellectualization of African Languages, Multilingualism & Education, School of viii Languages and Literatures, Rhodes University and Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Nigeria, towards this research is hereby acknowledged. ix Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………iii-iv Declaration……………………………………………………………………………………v Dedication……………………………………………………………………………………vi Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………vii-ix CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY………………………………………..1 1.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..1 1.2 The Context of the Study………………………………………………………………..1-2 1.3 Ịjọ, Ijaw or Ịzọn…………………………………………………………………………….3 1.4 The Languages and Dialects of the People………………………………………………3-4 1.5 The Dialect(s) of Transcription…………………………………………………………….5 1.6 The Geographical Location and the People……………………………………………...5-7 1.7 Worldview, Death, Religious Beliefs and Practices……………………………………..7-9 1.8 The Concept of Death…………………………………………………………………..9-10 1.9 Youth Activism/The Ịjọ Struggle or Problem…………………………………………10-14 1.10 Egbesu, the Ịzọn God of War……………………………………………………..14-15 1.11 The Scope of the Study………………………………………………………………15 1.12 The Goal of the Research…………………………………………………………….16 1.13 Research Questions…………………………………………………………………..16 1.14 Research Methodology……………………………………………………………….16 1.15 Research Methodology: Theoretical Framework…………………………………….17 1.16 Formalism………………………………………………………………………...17-20 1.17 Functionalism……………………………………………………………………..20-23 1.18 Performance Theory………………………………………………………………23-26 1.19 The Structure of the Thesis………………………………………………………..26-27 1.20 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………....27 CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AND LITERATURE REVIEW…..28 2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….28-29 x 2.2 Studies of Generic Poetic Forms of Ethnic Groups…………………………………..29-39 2.3 The Role of the Verbal Artist in Africa………………………………………………39-54 2.4 Composition and Performance of African Oral Poetry………………………………54-66 2.5 The Stylistic Aspects of African Oral Poetry…………………………………………66-72 2. 6 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….73 CHAPTER THREE: FORMS OF ỊZỌN ORAL POETRY………………………………….74 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...74-76 3.2 War Songs (Sụụ Duma ama)………………………………………………………….76-88 3.3 Wrestling Songs (Anda Duma ama)…………………………………………………88-98 3.4 Circumcision Songs (Biriwarị Duma ama)………………………………………...98-113 3.5 Songs of Association (Ogbo ama Duma ama)……………………………………...113-126 3.6 Marriage Songs (Dudu Nana Duma ama)………………………………………….126-134 3.7 Religious Songs (Sosị Duma ama)…………………………………………………134-144 3.8 Political Songs (Gometi Duma ama)…………………………………………….…144-151 3.9 Lullabies (Kalaọwọụ Duma ama)…………………………………………………..151-160 3.10 The Praise Chants of Chief