CHAPTER II

HISTORY OF MUSLIMS IN AHMADNAGAR

Section I of this chapter deals with the history of Muslims in India in general and the history of Muslims in Ahmadnagar in particular. Section II deals with the socio­ economic, religious and educational background of the sample.

Section I

From the early aurora of history, India has been invaded by aliens like Greeks, Aryas, Sakas, Kushans, Huns and recently Muslims and Britishers. Some were absorbed into Hindu fold and its polity, others left little mark on the country and its aborigins. When any culture comes into contact with dominant culture, the process of acculturation begins and the latter leaves its mark on the former. 'The history of Muslim rule in India is the story of Islam in a predominantly non-Muslim environment1 says the well known Islamic scholar Ikram. It led to many social processes like conflict, tension, accul­ turation which became the topic of interest to the students of various disciplines.

Rise of Islam

Prophet Muhammad laid the foundation of the new monothei­ stic religion of Islam, in the early part of Seventh Century

51 52

A.D. in Arabia. The foundation of this newly born religion rested on two pillars : (1) That there is but one God and Muhammad is his prophet and (2) That all the believers are equal and brothers in the sight of God. Thus the new faith in the existence of one God and brotherhood among its followers abolished all the distinctions within the community. This created an atmosphere of enthusiasm among those who believed in Islam. The Arabs soon after the death of the Prophet set throughout the world to preach and convey the message of Islam. 'Their zeal for the faith, enabled the Arab to make themselves masters of Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Persia within the short space of twenty years.*

Islam in India

The first contacts between India and Arabia were established in the south because of trade relations. Qureshi observes that 'trade relations between the Arabs and India existed before recorded history'.' The Arab traders and sailors had settlements on the Indian coast. 'When Islam swept over Arabia, its influence was felt immediately in Kerala also.* Miller also holds the same view by stating that ' in all probability began in Kerala, and the Mappilas are the descendants of the first Indian Muslims.'

The Arabs learnt of the fabulous wealth and idolatory of India from the traders who frequented the Indian coasts and decided to lead an expedition to India. 'The first 53

recorded expedition was sent from Uman to pillage the coasts of India in the year 636-37 A.D. during the Khilafat of Omar.* Plunder was the objective of these early raids which were faced with many dangers and difficulties so that the Caliph prohibited all further efforts.

Islam gained increasing strength in the time of Abu Bakr, who succeeded Omar as Caliph. 'By 644 A.D. when Omar died, the whole of Persia as far as the Herat had been conquered by the'Arabs; and by 650 A.D. they had extended their power to the foot of the Hindu-Kush Mountains'' as far as the north-western parts of India. 'But no permanent occupation of the country was attempted till the conquest of Sind by Muhammad bin Kasim'. The first organized and planned Arab invasion took place in Sindh under the command of Muhammad bin Qasim in the year 711 A.D. He captured the whole of lower Indus valley. Titus observes that 'the history of Islam in India properly begins in the year A.D. 711, when it was introduced into Sind by the Arabian general Imad-ud-din Muhammad bin Qasim'. Qasim was suddenly put to death by order of Caliph, when he had planned to march to Kanauj. The Arab conquest was ceased with his death. 'There was a period of suspended military operations for more than two and a half centuries, during which time Muslim conquerors did not trouble themselves about India. ' ° The Arabs had lost their old vigour and military zeal. The caliphate too lost its former strength and it was transferred about 750 A.D. from Ommiad 54 dynasty into the hands of the Abbasids (750-125$ A.D.). In the meantime the Turks gained the military power and place of prominance in Persia.

A fresh series of attacks were launched against Indian territories by Muslim Turks. The prominent among them was Mahmud of Ghazni. 'Mahmud was a fierce and fanatical Muslim 12 with an insatiable thirst for wealth and power.' He had made a firm resolution to spread Islam at the point of the sword into heathen lands carrying destruction. Mahmud attacked India several times during his thirty years of reign (997 - 1030 A.D.). 'At his death his kingdom extended from Bokhara and Samarqand to Gujarat and Kanouj in the Doab and included Afghanistan, Transoxiana, Khorasan, Tabaristan, Sistan, Kashmir and a large portion of North-Western India.' After the death of Mahmud, his successors could not retain the kingdom and it soon started declining. The total destruction of Ghaznavids was caused by Ghories. (1161 - 1135 A.D.). The house of Ghori a small mountain state between Herat and Ghazni soon rose to the political prominence and succeeded to the Indian heritage of the Ghaznavids. Historians observe that among Ghories - (Shahab-ud-din) Muhammad Ghori •first conquered part of Khorasan from the Seljuks and then began a series of campaigns in India which really laid the foundation of Muhammadan rule in our country'. (1176 - 1206 A.D.). 55

After the death of Muhammad Ghori, his faithful slave Kutub-ud-din Aibek became the first slave king of Delhi. He founded 'an independent kingdom and got from Ghorifs successor a formal confirmation of his independence'. It was the beginning of a continuous Muslim rule in India. 'His successor, Shams-ud-din Altamash, sought and obtained investiture from the Khalif of Bagdad in 1229; and from that year India became a separate Muhammadan kingdom'.1^ Blunt observes that all succeeding dynasties were of foreign origin - Turks, Arabs, and Afghans. There were no further 1$ foreign invasions till 1526. However, there were inter­ mittent unsuccessful invasions by the Mughals.

The : (1526 - 1760 A.D.)

Chroniclers observe that 'the year 1526 is a great epoch-making year in Indian History; for in that year was laid the foundation of a big (Mughal) empire which swayed the political destinies of the Indian people for more than two centuries.' 19 From that time until the advent of British, the great part of India remained a separate Muslim kingdom.

Muslim Invasion of South India

After the end of the slave dynasty, Khiljis succeeded to the throne of Delhi (1290 - 1320 A.D.). The Deccan was so far untouched by the Muslims. In the year 1274 A.D. Ala-ud-din the nephew of Sultan Jalal-ud-din Khilji marched 56 on Devagiri, the wealthy capital of the Yadava king of and plundered it. Later on his accession to the throne in 1296 A. D., Ala-ud-din having conquered northern India, launched an invasion of the Deccan in 1306-7 A.D. •The gates of the Deccan thus opened to the north, were never again closed.' 20

The rulers of Delhi had hitherto confined themselves to the north. The Muslim state in India was not yet fully 21 developed. Ishwari Prasad observes that, at that time 'an attempt to conquer the Deccan was looked upon as a perilous enterprise' and its subjugation was not possible for three reasons. Its physical condition, the hostility of Hindu Rajas and the long distance from the capital of the empire.

It is needless to relate in detail the historical developments in the north and south India. Suffice for our purpose to account the major historical events till the foundation of the kingdom of Ahraadnagar.

Tughlaq Dynasty : (1320 - 1412 A.D.)

The Tughlaq dynasty ascended to the throne of Delhi after the house of Khilji was extinguished. Tughlaq era is marked for two reasons. It was during the early years of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign that he transferred his capital to Devagiri renaming it Daulatabad (1327 A.D.). Secondly it was in his last years that many rebellions broke out in 22 the empire between 1343 and 1351 A.D. and disintegration 57

started taking place. The whole Hindustan was now divided into a number of principalities. The Deccan, Gujarat, Malwa, Jaunpur, Khandesh and Bengal had become kingdoms with their 23 own independent rulers. ' The Bahamani Kingdom was one of these smaller principalities.

The Bahamani Kingdom : (1347 - 1513 A.D.)

The empire of Muhammad Tughlaq broke up during his life time. The foreign Amirs of the Deccan successfully- revolted against the authority of the emperor and set up their own kingdom at Daulatabad. Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahaman was its founder. The Bahamani kingdom extended up to the Tapti on the north and the Tungbhadra and the Krishna on the south, and at the end of fifteenth century its boundaries on the east and west extended from sea to sea. It had a glorious career of 179 years and was ruled by fourteen Sultans from A.D. 13^7 to 14#2 when it broke up into five Sultanates.

The Fall of Bahamani Kingdom

For administrative purpose Ala-ud-din Bahaman Shah divided his kingdom into four provinces namely , Daulatabad, Berar and and placed each in charge of a governer. As disorders mounted on all sides, these provincial governors began to assert their own independence. Radhey Shyam observes that 'the basic cause of the disruption of the empire was party strife for which ambitious nobles found 52 ground too fertile and they unscrupolously engaged them- selves in grinding their own axes'. 27 As a result the kingdom was broken into five independent principalities which were -

1. The Imad Shahi dynasty of Berar. 2. The Nizam Shahi dynasty of Ahmadnagar. 3. The of Bijapur. 4. The Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golkunda. 5. The Barid Shahi dynasty of Bidar.2^

The Kingdom of Ahmadnagar ; The Background

It is needless to relate in detail all political causes for the fall of Bahamani kingdom and all minute historical events that followed. Nevertheless, we would take into account the major cause which lead to the forma­ tion of parties in the court and clash among them, which subsequently laid the foundation of an independent kingdom. Radhey Shyam 29 observes that there was a constant flow of foreigners from their distant homelands to the Deccan. They received patronage at the hands of the Bahamani rulers. These foreigners were handsome, - energetic, enterprising, cultured and literate. They stood in striking contrast to the Deccanis who were mostly dark, skinned, illiterate, lethargic and unimaginative.

In the administrative set-up, the Bahamani rulers did not assign honourable places to the Deccanis. On the other hand the foreigners were getting a fair deal. The climax 59 reached its peak because of the conflicting religious beliefs between the rival groups. The foreigners were mostly Shias while the majority of the Deccanis and the Abyssinians were Sunnis.

At the close of the fourteenth century the Deccanis began to realise that they were being gradually displaced from the power by the foreigners. Malik Hasan who was of native origin became the Prime Minister of the Bahamani Kingdom during the reign of Sultan Muhammad III (A.D. 1432). He was aware of the fact that his countrymen had been deprived of their rightful share of the honour and control in the affairs of the kingdom. He decided to champion the cause of the Deccanis.

The Nizam Shahi Dynasty of Ahmadnagar

Nizam-ul-mulk Bahri, the son of Malik Hasan and the leader of the Deccan party at Bidar, laid the foundation of the Nizam Shahi dynasty. He successfully revolted against Mahmud Bahamani in 1490 A.D. and proclaimed himself an independent ruler. 'He took the title Ahmad Nizam Shah and his dynasty came to be called Nizam Shahis.'

The Nizam Shah dynasty ruled for about 150 years (1490 - 1637 A.D.) and thirteen Sultans in succession. The end of the kingdom came in 1637 A.D. when ' took with him the last of Nizam Shahi Kings, Murtuza Nizam Shah III.'31 60

2.10 The Foundation of the City of Ahmadnagar 1494 A.D.

The city was founded by the first of its Sultan Ahmad Nizam Shah Bahri in the year 1494 A.D. and named after him­ self as Ahmadnagar.

On declaring his independence, Ahmad undertook campaigns to increase the territorial limits of his kingdom. He launched his first campaign to seize the fort of Daulatabad but without success. When Ahmad was returning from his campaign, he arrived at Bhingar - a place where he defeated the Bahamani troops under Khan - a village between the two towns of Junnar and Daulatabad. Here he decided to build a city from where he could detach his forces every 32 year against the fort of Daulatabad. He chose a green tract with hills and plains. An auspicious day was selected to commence the building operations. Ahmad Shah invited engineers, architects and builders to build the city and beautify it with palaces, gardens and houses. 'Within two years the new city rivalled the cities of Cairo and Baghdad 33 in spendour and magnificence.* Ahmadnagar remained with Mughals till the Marathas took over in I759 A.D. Finally the British took possession of the fort and city on August 12th, 1303.

2.11 The Progress of Islam in India

As has been pointed out earlier, Islam entered into the subcontinent with Arab traders and sailors within a few years 61 after the prophet proclaimed the new religion. It gained momentum in tenth century after the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni. Titus observes that from the time Mahmud of Ghazni attacked India, 'there was a rapid succession of invasions, conquests, and dynasties down to the middle of nineteenth century. These all contributed to the widespread establish­ ment of Islam in India.'^ The progress of Islam in India was not due to its doctrinal simplicity but because it was the religion of the ruling power, which sometimes enforced it at the point of sword. The 'canon law in Islam holds that it is incumbent on a Muslim ruler to fight to extend the rule of Islam until the whole world shall have been 3 5 brought under its sway'. History has recorded such forcible conversions abundantly.

Secondly, the Muslim missionaries also contributed to the spread of Islam. There were very few missionaries in the eleventh and twelfth century A. D. The thirteenth century A. D. records the work of the noted missionary Khwajah Muin-ud-din Ghishti of Ajmer. 'The fourteenth century A.D. seems to have been the time of the greatest display of missionary zeal, since the number of missionaries of whose names and work we find a record exceeds that of any other single century"-. In the later centuries there was a decline in missionary activity probably due to the tolerant religious policies of the , particularly Akbar. 62

Thirdly, the motives of personal gain were also at the helm of spreading Islam. Since Islam was the religion of the ruling power, the Muslims were the favoured children of the state. The highest offices in the state were held by the Muslims. The desire to obtain high office in the state and the privileges attached to it led many people embrace Islam.

Fourthly, the Arab traders too were instrumental in propagating Islam in the subcontinent. The Arab traders and sailors had settlements on the Indian coast. When Arabia was converted to Islam, the Arab traders being so full of enthusiasm for his new faith, would seek every opportunity to speak about it.-5' The Muslim population in coastal region increased because many Arab settlers married local women.

Lastly, the oppressive social conditions and degrading positions of low caste Hindus led many low castes to embrace Islam. In this connection testimony of a converted Harijan is worth noting who states that, 'we are happy to be Muslims. It is better than being Harijans. *-* Titus observes that 'any out caste man, who wished to escape the insults and degradation imposed upon him by his social status, could easily find a welcome freedom by accepting the benefit of a system of religion which has no out castes, and which permits 39 prince and sweeper to worship together in the house of God.* Thus to sum up, forced conversions, missionary acti­ vities, motives of personal gain, the traders an\ the degrading position of low castes were all instrumental in the 63

progress of Islam in India.

2.12 The History of People belonging to Different Sects in Ahmadnagar

Sunni and Shia Sect

Sectarian phenomenon is not unknown to religion. As time goes on after the emergence of any religion, division and subdivisions develop one after another. The major religions of the world like Christianity, Hinduism, Islam are divided into a number of sects. Here we are concerned only with those sects among Muslims that are present in Ahmadnagar.

Enumerating various reasons for the emergence of new sects in Islam, Engineer observes that besides other factors Ln •political struggles for power gave birth to new sects.1 He further asserts that fthe major schism in Islam apparently took place on the question of succession to the Prophet Muhammad. Sunnis and Shias split on this question. • 41 After the demise of Prophet Muhammad, the question of succession to the spiritual leadership of Islam rose. Because 'Muhammad left no male heir. On his death claims were made on behalf of his son-in-law and cousin Ali, but senior members of the community elected as their leaders or caliph, the Prophet1s companion, Abu Bakr.' The controversy started at this point. In this controversy, one section of the Muslims advocated that 'the right of succession to the Imamate, or caliphate, of the Muslim community was vested in Ali and his 64 lineal descendants, since through his wife, Fatimah, a daughter of the Prophet, they were all of the Prophet's family. ' This section came to be known as 'Shia'. 'The Shias believe that Ali ought to have immediately succeeded the Prophet instead of Abu Bakr, Omar and Usman... their contention has been that Ali should have been the rightful successor to the leadership of Islam.' On the other hand Sunnis held that the right to succession should be made on the basis of election. According to them the first three Caliphs Abu Bakr, Omar and Usman were rightfully elected to the Caliphate. 'Accordingly, the Shias regard the first three Caliphs as usurpers. On the other hand, the Sunnis believe that the first three Caliphs were not usurpers but friends and companions of the Prophet who were democratically elected leaders of the faith.* 45

However, Shias and Sunnis recognize the fourth Caliph Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. This is how the difference between the two sections came into existence, which was political rather than religious.

Mahdavi Sect

Another sect among Muslims is Mahdavi. The Mahdavis believe that the promised Mahdi had come and gone. 'The doctrine of the expected Mahdi is based on certain alleged prophecies of the Prophet regarding the advent of a Mujaddid, or restorer of the faith. ' It was prophecised that the

• 65

Mahdi would be descendant of the Prophet and bear his name.

In India, in the latter part of fifteenth century A.D. the Mahdavi movement took on a definite form through the teachings of Mir Sayyid Muhammad of Jaunpur who said to have fulfilled the prophecy. This sect is also known as Ghayr Mhadavi (i.e., without a Mahdi), because of the fact that they regard the Mahdi as having come, and so do LA not look for another.

Sunni and Shia in Ahmadnagar

Majority of Muslim population in India belong to Sunni sect. Nevertheless, 'Shiah influence from Persia was at times very strong, and many Shiahs found their way into India, and established communities throughout the 49 land. * ' The foreign troops employed in South India for the establishment of the Bahamani kingdom in Deccan were mostly composed of Shias, whereas the native Deccanis and Abyssinians were Sunnis. The factional strife between the two led to the disruption of Bahamani kingdom into several states whose rulers were Shias.

One of the reasons instrumental for the rise of the kingdom of Ahmadnagar was the conflicting religious beliefs between Shias and Sunnis. From this it is clear that the existence of Sunnis and Shias in Ahmadnagar was prior to its foundation. Moreover, the second ruler of the Kingdom Burhan Nizam Shah I (1510 - 1553 A.D.) accepted the Shia faith and declared it to be the religion of the state. 66

The religion of the king became the religion of the masses.

Mahdavis in Ahmadnagar

After the death of Husain Nizam Shah II (15#9 A.D.) Jamal Khan, a military adventurer, practically gathered all power into his hands. Being himself a Mahdavi, he showed special favours to the followers of that faith. •Shiaism was abolished as the state religion and its place Mahdavi doctrines were openly propagated.'^ A large number of Mahdavis thronged to Ahmadnagar within a short span. It became one of the very important centres of their faith.

Thus it is apparent that the existence of Sunnis and Shias in Ahmadnagar was prior to its foundation whereas the existence of Mahdavis dates back to 15#9 A.D.

Section II

2.13 Socio-Economic Religious background of the Sample

The present study is confined to the Muslims in Ahmadnagar city and its cantonment. It is intended to explore and examine the major organizational aspects of Muslim communities. This section deals with the socio­ economic and religious background of the sample.

For the comprehensive study of any community, it is necessary to take into account its socio-economic and 67

religious settings. For they determine the behavioral pattern of its members, and play a dominent role in moulding its social structure.

Generally an Indian city physically can be divided into two sections, ancient and the new. The ancient section can be characterised by narrow streets and lanes, congested unplanned thickly populated houses. On the other hand as the city expands, the new sections develop according to town planning which can be characterised by well planned buildings, broad roads, with gardens and play-grounds. Ahmadnagar city can be divided into above-mentioned two divisions.

2.14 Population by Religion

The distribution of population by religion in Ahmadnagar 2.1 city is given in Table2.1. Table ^indicates religionwise population of Ahmadnagar city. According to 19#1 census report the total population of Ahmadnagar city is 1,43,937. The Muslims constitute 15.6 per cent of the total population, which forms the second largest religious community of the eity. The composition of other religious communities is Hindus 72.5 per cent, Christians 3.9 per cent, Sikhs .IS per cent, Buddhists 2.25 per cent and Jains 5.52 per cent. In the cantonment area also the Muslims constitute the second largest community.

The Muslim population of the city and its cantonment comprises of Sunni, Shia and Mahdavi sects. Sunnis constitute 93.7 per cent, Shias 2.B per cent and Mahdavis 3.5 per cent of the Muslim population. 63

Table 2.1: Population by Religion - 1931,52 Ahmadnagar City

Religion Male Female Total Per cent Persons

Hindus 55,020 49,434 104,454 72.5 Muslims 11,51$ 10,366 22,334 15.6 Christians 2,327 2,731 5,553 3.9 Sikhs 136 119 255 .13 Buddhi st 1,723 1,527 3,250 2.25 Jains 4,123 3,334 7,962 5.52 Other Religions and Persuations 32 24 56 .04 Religion not stated 10 3 13 .01

Total 75,394 63,543 143,937 100.00

Before analysing the collected data, it will be worth­ while to mention some of the general background characteris­ tics of the respondents.

2.15 The Four Categories

Sayyad, Shaikh, Mughal and Pathan constitute one of the four major groups among the Muslims - namely the Ashraf in India.

Sayyad

Literally means lord or king. The term is used for the descendants of Muhammad from his daughter Fatimah. Hughes 69 states that Sayyads 'are held in all Muhammadan countries in the highest respect, however poor or degraded their position may be'.5 ^3 In Indian Society too, Sayyads occupy the highest position in social hierarchy.

Shaikh

Literally means chief or leader and is used in its Arabic form as an honorific title for the head of a tribe, lineage 54 or family. In India the term is used 'to refer to persons who claim to have descended either from the Arab tribe of Koraish, the tribe to which Prophet Muhammad belonged, or from one of the close associates or friends of Muhammad.' Shaikh rank next to Sayyads in social hierarchy.

Mughal

Mughal is 'the Arabic form of the word 'Mongol'. The term is '... applied to the Turkish dynasty founded at Delhi by Babur.' It is used to denote those people who came with Mughal armies and settled down in India.

Pathans

Pathans are generally considered to have come from Afghanistan or from the tribes inhabiting the north-west frontiers of . They settled in the subcontinent during the reign of Afghan empire at Delhi. The Pathans rank rela­ tively equal to Mughals. But at times they are assigned position next to Mughals in social hierarchy. 70

In our purposive sample of 255, the analysis of data on four categories is given in Table 2.2. The data reveals that 7.06 per cent were Sayyads, 43.14 per cent were Shaikhs, 1.16 per cent were Mugnals and 5.10 per cent were Nathans. 43.14 per cent belonged to various occupational groups whereas only one respondent (0.39 per cent) did not answer about his category.

The above figures show that highest number of indi­ viduals are found in Shaikh category as against Sayyad, Mughal and Pathan because of 'the fact that the Shaikh category has always remained open and fluid...1 57 to the individuals wanting to claim their affinity to this category. Misra too observes that 'the term Shaikh can cover a community of no definite origin.'?

Table 2.2 : The Four Categories

Categories No.of Respondents Per cent

Sayyad 18 7.06 Shaikh 110 43.14 Mughal 3 1.18 Pathan 13 5.10 Occupational groups 110 43.14 Not answered 1 0.39

Total : 225 1Q0.00 71

2.16 Numerical Strength of Various Occupational Groups

Besides these four major groups, Ahmadnagar Muslims are also divided into several occupational groups. As shown in Table 2.3, further break down of various occupational groups reveal that 4.71 per cent were Tambatkars, 3.92 per cent were Gao-quasab, 4.31 per cent were Bagban, 3.92 per cent were Bakkar-quasab, 4.71 per cent were Momin, 4.31 per cent were Tamboli, 3.92 per cent were Pinjari, 3.92 per cent were Mahdavi, 2.35 per cent were Rangrez, 1.96 per cent were Shia Imami Ismaili, 3.92 per cent belonged to Bohra Sect and 1.18 per cent were Bawarchi. 56.66 per cent consti­ tutes the four categories of Muslims.

2.17 Occupation : The Classification of Occupation

We have classified those occupations as traditional occupations which were of hereditory nature in character and were related to commerce or other activities. Whereas we have classified those occupations as modern occupations which came into existence due to the advent of new technology, industrialization and introduction of rational administration of public affairs. Traditional Occupations

Copper-smith Beef-butcher Fruiterer Goat-butcher "l 72

Table 2.3 '> Various Occupational Groups

Occupational No.of Per cent Groups Respondents

Tambatkar 12 4.71 Gao-quasab 10 3.92 Bagban 11 4.31 Bakkar-quasab 10 3.92 Morain 12 4.71 Tamboli 11 4.31 Pinjari 10 3.92 Mahdavi 10 3.92 Rangrez 6 2.35 Shia Imami Ismaili 5 1.96 Bohra 10 3.92 Bawarchi 3 1.18 Four categories 145 56.36

Total : 255 100.00

Handloom weaver Betel-leaf seller Cotton-teaser Dyers Cooks

Modern Occupations

Unskilled manual work Semi-skilled manual work Skilled manual work Upper white-collar work 73

Lower white-collar work Professionals Small business Medium business Small scale manufacturers Apprentice/Trainee/Helper Unemployed Any other.

Occupations other than Traditional or Modern

Household work Agriculture Pensioner

Distribution of Occupations

Unskilled Manual Work : Labour, servant in hotel, cleaner, servant, Painter, Bidi-worker, servant in bakery.

Semi-skilled Manual Work : Bus driver, Conductor.

Skilled Manual Work : Mechanic, Tailor, Cycle repairing, Fitter, Rickshaw driver, Carpenter, Watch-repairing, Electrician, Tin-smith, Radiator shop, Electric work­ shop, Welding, Wireman, Instrument player in brass- band.

Upper White-collar Work : Clerk, Service, Sanitary Inspector.

Lower White-collar Work : Court peon, Peons, Services in low income group, Police, Postman. 74

Professionals : Lawyers, Doctor, School Teacher, College Teacher.

Small Business : Kirana Shop, Vegetable Shop, Mess, Flour mill, Pandal contractor, Hawker, Retail tea seller, Brass band, Agent, Cutlery shop, Bakery, Hardware shop, Pan shop, Cloth merchant, Paint shop, Motor owner, Landlord, Dealer in coal and fuel.

Medium Business : Builders and Promoters, Contractors, Ware­ house owner.

Income is also considered as criteria to determine the nature of small business and medium business.

Small Business : Whose income is less than Rs. 3,000/-.p.m.

Medium Business : Whose income is more than Rs. 3,000/- p.m.

Small Scale Manufacturer

Fabrication workshop. Furniture workshop. Machine workshop. Lathe machine workshop. Shoe manufacturing workshop. Soda water factory.

As shown in Table 2.4, the analysis of the data on occupation reveal that 13.33 per cent were engaged in tradi­ tional occupation whereas 68.62 per cent were engaged in modern occupation. 12.55 per cent were pensioners, 1.18 75 per cent were unemployed and 3.93 per cent were engaged in household work and agriculture. Detail analysis of data on traditional occupation show that 2.35 per cent were beef- butchers, 1.96 per cent were fruiterers, 3.53 per cent were goat-butchers, 3.53 per cent were betel-leaf sellers, 0.39 per cent were cotton teasers, 0.39 per cent dyers and 1.18 per cent were bawarchis.

Table 2.4 : Classification of Occupation

Occupation No.of Respondents Per cent

Traditional occupation 34 13.33 Unskilled manual work 27 10.59 Semi-skilled manual work 8 3.14 Skilled manual work 32 12.55 Upper white-collar work 25 9.80 Lower white-collar work 15 5.88 Professionals 19 7.45 Small business 39 15.29 Medium business 4 1.57 Small scale manufacturer 6 2.35 Household work 7 2.75 Agriculture 3 1.18 Pensioner 32 12.55 Unemployed 3 1.18 Any other 1 0.39

Total "i 255 100.00

From above figures it is obvious that only 7.45 per cent were engaged in professional occupation and 13.33 per 76 cent in upper and lower white-collar job as against 26.26 per cent in unskilled, semi-skilled and skilled manual work. It is also clear from the above figures that the respondents did not own any large scale industry or business. There were some petty businessman engaged in petty business like bakery, owning small kirana or pan shops, hawkers selling fruits, kulfi and peanuts on daily purchase-sale basis depending on the seasonal demand. There were some small scale manufacturers and few were engaged in medium business but by and large they had not displayed any features for high business enterprise.

To ascertain the economic status of the respondents their monthly income was taken into consideration. We had divided the respondents into five classes, viz., upper income class, upper middle, middle, lower middle and low income class. Whose income was nil to Rs. 200 were put into low income class, Rs. 201 - 500 into lower middle class, Rs. 501 - 1000 into middle class, Rs. 1001 - 2000 into upper middle class and Rs. 2001 and above into upper income class.

Table 2.5 indicates the analysis of data on monthly income of the respondents. It shows that 11.31 per cent respondents belonged to low income group, 29.02 per cent belonged to lower middle income group, 31.3^ per cent to the middle class, 25.49 per cent belonged to the upper middle income category and only 2.74 per cent belonged to the upper income group. From above figures it is clear that the 77

majority of respondents belonged to the low and lower middle income class.

Table 2.5 : Income

Income categories No.of respondents Per cent

Low Income Class (Rs. Nil - 200) 29 11.37 Lower Middle Class (Rs. 201 - 500) 74 29.02 Middle Class (Rs. 501 - 1000) SO 31.3S Upper Middle Class (Rs. 1001 - 2000) 65 25.49 Upper Class (Rs. 2001 and above) 7 2.74

Total : 255 100.00

One of the most important factors to mould and shape the views and opinions of the respondents is education. Also education is one of the effective means to bring about change in society. Hence it will be gainful to see the educational background of the respondents. The level of the education has been judged on the basis of the respondent's actual educational attainments. For the purpose of present study the following categories were used for classification. We have defined 'no education' as those who can not read or write, those who had education upto IV standard, those who had education upto VII standard, upto X standard, S.S.C., I.T.I, and other 7S diplomas, upto degree. We had put those who are graduates and more into degree plus and postgraduate and more into post­ graduate plus category. All those respondents who had some knowledge of their religious text or had attained Madrasa or could read or write Arabic or were also put into the category of who had education upto the IV standard. Figures in Table 2.6 show that 9.#0 per cent respondents had *no education'. 50.20 per cent studied upto VII standard, 11.37 per cent were S. S.C. , 4.71 per cent were I.T.I, and other diploma holders and only 10.20 per cent respondents had •higher education1, i.e., more than graduation. The above

Table 2.6 : Educational Attainment

Education No.of Respondents Per cent

No education 25 9.30 Upto Class IV 51 20.00 Upto Class VII 77 30.20 Upto Class I 2S 10.9S s. s. c« 29 11.37 I.T.I, and other diplomas 12 4.71 Upto degree 7 2.75 Degree + 21 g.24 Postgraduation + 5 1.96

Total : 255 100.00 79 figures show that in the field of professional, vocational and university education, the number of Muslim respondents appear to be far lower than their relative percentage in the total population. Our findings support this statement. We find that only 4.71 per cent were vocationally trained and had other professional diploma. 10.20 per cent were graduate and above, 11.37 per cent were matriculate as against 9.$0 per cent had 'no education* and 50.20 per cent studied only upto VII standard.

Urdu was reported to be mother-tongue of all the respondents except Shias, whose mothertongue was reported to be Gujarati. However, those who come from low and lower middle class, their language is heavily laden with Marathi words. Few Rangrez till recently used to speak Marwadi at home. Two Memon families which are not covered in this sample speak Cutchchi at home.

Thus to conclude, it can be said that the Sunnis constitute bulk of the Muslim population of the city. The percentage of Shaikh category among them is fairly high as compared to other categories.

From occupation point of view, majority of people were engaged in modern occupation. Those belonging to various occupational groups, bulk of them follow their traditional callings. This does not mean that occupational change has not taken place. From business point of view there were no so big business enterprisers. Those who were in business were engaged in petty business and few were engaged in small business. From economic point of view majority of them belonged to the low and lower middle income class. From educational point of view, in the fields of professional, vocational and university education their percentage seems to be far low. It appears that economic and educational standard is very low in this community. 81

REFERENCES AND NOTES

1 S.M. Ikram. Muslim Civilization in India. Columbia University Press, New York and London, 1964, p.v.

2 Ishwari Prasad. History of Mediaeval India. Third Edition. The Indian Press Limited, Allahabad, 1933, p. 58.

3 Ishtiaq Husain Qureshi. The Muslim Community of the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent (610-1947). Mouton and Co. 5-Graverhage, 1962, The Hague, p.11.

4 K.M. Panikkar. A History of Kerala. The Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, I960, p. 8.

5 Roland E. Miller. Mappila Muslims of Kerala. Orient Longman, Bombay, 1976, p.39.

6 Ishwari Prasad, Op. cit., p. 59.

7 C.S. Srinivasachari and M.S. Ramaswami Aiyangar. A History of India, Srinivasa Varadachari & Co., Madras, 1929,p.3.

8 Ibid., pp. 3-4.

9 Murray T. Titus. Indian Islam, Humphrey, Milford, Oxford University Press, Bombay, 1930, p.4.

10 Ibid, p. 4.

11 C.S. Srinivasachari and M.S. Ramaswami Aiyangar. Op.cit.,

p.d.

12 Ishwari Prasad, Op.cit., p.86.

13 Ibid, p. 110. 82

14 G.S. Srinivasachari and M.S. Ramaswami Aiyangar, Op.cit., P. 24.

15 Ibid, p. 24.

16 Ibid, p.30.

17 S.A.H. Blunt. The Caste System of Northern India. S.Chandk Co., New Delhi, 1969, p.165.

IB Ibid, p.165.

19 C.S. Srinivasachari and M.S. Ramaswami Aiyangar, Op.cit., P.175.

20 Ibid, p. 43.

21 Ishwari Prasad, Op.cit., p.257.

22 C.S. Srinivasachari and M.S. Ramaswami Aiyangar, Op.cit.,

p.119.

23. Ibid, pp. 63-78.

24 Ishwari Prasad, Op.cit., p. 4l4.

25 C.S. Srinivasachari and M.S. Ramaswami Aiyangar, Op.cit., p.121.

26 K.A. Nilakant Sastri, C. Srinivasachari. Advanced History of India, Allied Publishers, Bombay, 1970, p.4o4.

27 Dr. Radhey Shyam. The Kingdom of Ahmadnagar, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1966, p.6.

28 Ishwari Prasad, Op.cit., p. 447.

29 Dr. Radhey Shyam, Op.cit., pp. 10-14. 83

30 K.A. Nilakant Sastri, C. Srinivasachari, Op.cit., p.410.

31 Dr. Radhey Shyam, Op.cit., p.327.

32 Ibid, p.3fi.

33 Ibid, p.38.

34 Murray T. Titus. Op. cit., p.6.

35 Ibid, p. 17. For detail discussion on the methods used by the conquerors for spread of Islam in India, Ch.II, pp.15-35, and spread by other means, Ch. Ill, pp.36-53.

36 Ibid, p. 42.

37 Ishtiaq Husain Qureshi. Op.cit., p.1.

38 Brojendra Nath Banerjee. Religious Conversions in India, Harnam Publications, New Delhi, 1982, p.70.

39 Murray T. Titus. Op. cit., p. 51.

40 Asghar Ali Engineer. The Bohras. Vikas Publishing House Pvt.Ltd., New Delhi, 1980, p.l.

41 Ibid, p.l.

42 S.M. Ikram, Op. cit., p. 4.

43 Murray T. Titus, Op.cit., p.83.

44 Imtiaz Ahmad. 'The Shia-Sunni Dispute in Lucknow, 1905-1980', in Islamic Society and Culture, Milton Israel, N.K. Wagle (Ed.), Manohar, New Delhi, 1983, p.335.

45 Ibid, p.336.

46 Murray T. Titus. Op. cit., p,106. 84

47 Ibid, p.107.

48 Ibid, -p. 109.

49 Ibid, p.84.

50 Dr. Radhey Shyam, Op. cit., p.81.

51 Ibid, p. 206.

52 Figures in the table are based on 'Household population by religion of the head of the household', Series-1, Paper-4 of 1984, Census of India 1981, pp.410-15.

53 Thomas Patrick Hughes. Dictionary of Islam, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 1977, p.556.

54 Imtiaz Ahmad (Editor). 'Endogamy and Status Mobility among the Siddiqui Sheikhs of Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh', in Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India. Manohar, New Delhi, 197$, p.179.

55 Ibid, p.179.

56 Murray T. Titus. Op. cit., p. 270.

57 Imtiaz Ahmad. Op. cit., p. 184.

58 Satish C. Misra. Muslim Communities in Gujarat, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1964, p. 115.