Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in India: XIX. the Northwestern Deccan Plateau Region, the Leeward Side of the Western Ghats

Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 2, 2014 (101–122) 101

Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in India: XIX. The Northwestern Deccan Plateau Region, the Leeward Side of the Western Ghats

Anurudh K Singh

H.No. 2924, Sector-23, Gurgaon 122017, Haryana, India (email: [email protected])

Abstract Agriculture in the Northwestern Deccan Plateau region, the leeward side of northern Western Ghats, is quite ancient, involving the majority of the people. Being rich in granite, the region’s hills offered hospitable caves for the early settlers from the Harappan civilization moving further southward. The semi-arid climate of the region, with its erratic rainfall and prolonged dry spells and the variation in edaphic factors, resulted in the adoption of a large number of drought-tolerant crops such as sorghum and millets. Being the central part of the Indian subcontinent, the region has been the meeting point of north and south Indian cultures/ agriculture, and the center of exchange of knowledge and material, evolving a complex culture with components of North, South, and Central India. This is corroborated by the similarity recorded between this region and the Megalithic sites of the south-central region of the Eastern Ghats, and the remains discovered at various excavation sites of the region. The early use of cotton, fl ax, and goats suggests possible crop and animal domestication in the region. It is probable that the complex, north-south-central culture/agriculture of the subcontinent dispersed from here to other parts, particularly the southern regions of the continent with new settlements, leading to the region being termed Dakshinapatha (Dakshina = Deccan or Maharashtra and adjacent region) in Buddhist and Jain literature. This complexity led to the evolution and conservation of signifi cant genetic diversity, particularly for various types of droughts, in a large number of economically important crops. For these signifi cant contributions, the region is being proposed as another National Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site based on the indices proposed. This article discusses some of these contributions in brief.

The Northwestern Deccan Plateau, the Basically the region evolved as a southern leeward side of the northern Western Ghats expansion of the Harappan and Indus was one of the many regions in India that Valley culture, but with a difference. The offered favorable conditions for human evidences gathered from different lines of settlement in ancient times: the granite hills investigations about the origin and evolution of the Deccan Plateau provided perfect rock of agriculture in the region, suggest that the shelters and caves for human habitation. Northwestern Deccan Plateau subsequently 102 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites probably became the meeting point or for national and global agriculture and transitional zone or the center of exchange livelihood support, the region is being of products and technology of North proposed as another National Agricultural Indian (Indus Valley and Indo-Gangetic Biodiversity Heritage Site based on the Plains) and South Indian agriculture, from indices illustrated by Singh and Varaprasad where or through which the products and (2008). practices of distinct cultures/agriculture spread all over the Indian subcontinent, Location and extent particularly to southern India, promoting new settlements with components of North, The Northwestern Deccan Plateau, south South, and Central India. For these reasons, of the Tapti River Basin, is a part of the agriculture became the major profession of hot semi-arid ecoregion situated on the the local tribes and communities, involving leeward side of the Western Ghats. From more than 64 per cent of the population. In the Satpura-Mahadeo hills in the north, addition to the cultivation of crops that were the region extends up to Bellary-Dharwar brought and introduced by new settlers, new in the south, encompassing the leeward plant species – fi ber crops such as diploid districts of Maharashtra and the northern dry cotton and fl ax – were domesticated and districts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. spun into yarn (Gulati, 1961), and animals On the west of the region lie the hills and such as the Osmanabadi goat, suited to ranges of the Western Ghats, on the east, semi-arid conditions, were brought into the Bhamragad-Chiroli-Gaikhuri Ranges, domestication in the region. The diversity Chhattisgarh, and the northeastern districts in agroclimate and edaphic factors, with of Andhra Pradesh, and on the south, the soils from black basalt to saline and old dry districts of northern Karnataka. The crystalline rocks, resulted in dominance terrain is undulating and the soil is generally of diverse crops in the different areas of medium blackish. Administratively, the the region: for example, sugarcane in the region includes the semi-arid districts of northern high-rainfall areas; cotton in the Jalgaon, Dhule, Nandurbar, Aurangabad, central black soil areas; and sorghum in the Jalna, Hingoli, Parbhani, Beed, Nanded, southern semi-arid areas. The argoecological Latur, Osmanabad (Dharashiv), Solapur, diversity provided opportunities to local and parts of Pune, Nashik, Ahmednagar, tribes and communities to evolve and Akola, Amravati, Nagpur, Gondia, and conserve useful genetic diversity in almost Sangli, in Maharashtra; the districts of all crops and domesticated animals of Adilabad, Nizamabad, and Karimnagar in the region, along with practices for their Andhra Pradesh; and the districts of Bidar successful cultivation and rearing. For and Gulbarga in Karnataka (Fig. 1). these contributions and documentation of the knowledge generated (in Sanskrit) for Landscape improved management and use of natural resources, cultivation of crops and rearing The average elevation of the Deccan Plateau of animals that has been of signifi cance is about 600 m, sloping generally eastward. Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 2, 2014 103

Figure 1. Extent and location of the Northwestern Deccan Plateau region (the leeward side of the Western Ghats).

The northwestern part of the Deccan Plateau Western Ghats (saddle or hill), the river is typifi ed by stepped plateau denudational system of the region consists of the rivers structures in the relief. It houses a variety Godavari, Krishna, Bhima, Tapi-Purna and of habitats, with the Western Ghats forming Wardha-Wainganga, which fl ow towards the western boundary, while Chhattisgarh, the Bay of Bengal, cutting through the and in the larger sense, the Eastern Ghats plateau and converting it into a land of form the eastern boundary. The landscape well-defi ned river valleys, characterizing of the region consists of plateaus and hills the land scape into broad valleys divided formed as a result of volcanic activity and by flat-topped interfluves (higher lands the subsequent cooling down of the lava, between two rivers), mesas (tablelands), which resulted in the formation of a basaltic and rectilinear escarpments (steep slopes). base that is more than 2,000 m thick. The Further eastward, the reduction in the western margin of the plateau consists of amount of rainfall has caused aridity and the surfaces of erosion, called the Sahyadri develop ment of an inselberg (isolated hill) Hills (Western Ghats), whose peaks are type of landscape. Finally, the interfl uves covered with lateritic red soil with localized disappear giving rise to broad alluvial patches of dense forest. Eastward from the plains covered with the rigor sods (turf of 104 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites grass). In Maharashtra, the plateau can be plateau the average rainfall diminishes further subdivided into fi ve micro-units: to a meager 700 mm, because the region (i) the Ajanta Hills; (ii) the Godavari Valley; lies in the rainshadow zone of the Western (iii) the Ahmednagar-Balaghat Plateau; Ghats. Among the western plateau districts, (iv) the Bhima Basin; and (v) the Mahadeo Solapur and Ahmednagar are in the heart Upland. of the dry zone. The rainfall increases slightly, later in the season, eastwards in The main mountainous regions and hills the Marathwada and Vidarbha regions. are the Satpura Range and the Varandha, The moisture availability period for crop Sawantwadi, and Tamhini Ghats. The cultivation ranges from 90 to 150 days. Satpura and the Gaikhuri Bhamragad Chiroli However, the highly unpredictable character ranges are the chain of mountain ranges in of the monsoon, with short spells of rains, the eastern part of Maharashtra. The region fl oods, and long, dry breaks, as well as has a few lakes: the Ramkund Lake (Nashik), droughts, add much to the discomfort of the Lonar Lake (Buldhana), the Pashan Lake agriculture and the rural economy. (Pune), and the Ambazari Lake (Nagpur). The region is characterized by shallow and Agroclimate medium black soils, followed by lateritic soils. The common landscape of the region The climate of the region is characterized is moderate to gentle slopes. Most soils by hot summers and mild winters. The belong to the Pargaon, Sawargaon, and mean annual rainfall ranges from 600 to Barsi series. The Pargaon soils are shallow, 1,000 mm, which covers about 40 per cent loamy skeletal, and highly calcareous in of the annual potential evapotranspiration. nature. The Sawargaon and Barsi soils are The climate can be divided into three clayey, calcareous, and moderately alkaline, basic seasons: the dry and cool winter and show marked swell-shrink properties (November to February); the hot and dry (Sehgal et al., 1992). summer (March and May); and the hot rainy season (June to October). East of the Sahyadri (Western Ghats) in the Deccan Floristic diversity The region is not very rich in biological diversity, but being a contiguous land mass The Northwestern Deccan Plateau, the with the moist deciduous forests that lie leeward side of the northern Western along the foothills of the Western Ghats, Ghats was one of the many regions in the region does show the heterogeneous India that offered favorable conditions nature of diversity. Less than 500 species for human settlement in ancient times: of angiosperms have been recorded from the granite hills of the Deccan Plateau the region. As the Northwestern Deccan provided perfect rock shelters and caves Plateau lies in the rainshadow of the for human habitation. Western Ghats, it is a semi-arid region with vegetation consisting largely of the Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 2, 2014 105 dry thorn and deciduous forests, dominated pumila (Poiret) Roemer & Schultz., and by Acacia Mill., Anogeissus Wall., Tectona Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. L.f., Hardwickia Roxb. (anjan), and Albizia Benth. species. Thus, the main Agriculture and agrobiodiversity forest types in the region are dry deciduous forests, thorn forests, and scrub jungles. Around 64 per cent of the people are Certain hills associated with the plateau employed in agriculture and allied activities. to the east may have patches of moist Field crops include wheat, rice, sorghum, deciduous forest. The climax vegetation pearl millet, minor millets, pulses, and in the Deccan has almost completely oilseeds, while horticultural crops are disappeared. Nevertheless, the region dominated by tropical fruits such as mango, has a high diversity of grass fl ora. The grape, banana, orange, pomegranate, etc., dry deciduous forests are represented by and diverse vegetables. Cash crops include some of the following large evergreen to cotton, sugarcane, turmeric, groundnut, and medium-sized tree species: Aegle marmelos tobacco. The net irrigated area is 33,500 (L.) Correa ex Roxb., Anogeissus latifolia square kilometers. (Roxb.) Bedd, Boswellia serrata Roxb., Buchanania lanzan Spreng., Diospyros The farmers of the region traditionally melanoxylon Roxb., Madhuca longifolia practice rainfed farming (Fig. 2). The Macbride var. latifolia, Emblica offi cinalis major traditional crops are jowar (sorghum) Gaertn., Terminalia alata Herb. Madr. ex (Fig. 3), bajra (pearl millet), cotton, tur Wall, Tectona grandis L., etc., and small (pigeonpea), and anuvulu or fi eld beans stunted trees, shebrati (Acacia pennata (Dolichos lablab L.) in the Maharashtra Willd.), Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub., and Andhra Pradesh areas of the region, and Cassia fi stula L., Eriolaena hookeriana Wt. sorghum and pigeonpea in Karnataka. The & Arn., dhaula (Morinda pubescens J.E. major rainy season crops cultivated in the Smith), Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R.Br., area are sorghum, pigeonpea, pearl millet, Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. (syn. Z. jujuba and cotton. The postrainy season crops, Mill.), and Z. vulgaris Lam. The main scrub forest elements are Acacia catechu Brandis var. chundra (syn. A. chundra Willd), A. horrida (L.) Willd., babool [A. nilotica (L.) Delile var. indica (Benth.) A.F.Hill], A. leucophloea Willd., Limonia acidissima L., and pachunda (Capparis divaricata Lam.). The common grasses of fodder value are Andropogon pumilus Roxb., Chloris dolichostachya Lag., Cynodon dactylon Pers., Eleusine indica Steud., Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv., Figure 2. A farmer toiling the soil for Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin., Setaria cultivation. 106 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

In Maharashtra, the plateau can be further subdivided into ﬁ ve micro-units: (i) the Ajanta Hills; (ii) the Godavari Valley; (iii) the Ahmednagar-Balaghat Plateau; (iv) the Bhima Basin; and (v) the Mahadeo Upland.

Karnataka and eastern Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 5). In this area, the alternative crops Figure 3. Harvest of sorghum, the staple food are sorghum (kharif and rabi), groundnut, of the region (Source: www.cgiar.org). and small millets. grown on soils with residual moisture, are sorghum, safflower, and sunflower. The prolonged dry spells adversely affect the crop growth leading to frequent crop failures. The kharif sorghum is cultivated in the semi-arid districts, while cotton, pulses, groundnut, and small millets are sown as alternate crops. Sugarcane is an important crop in the Deccan Plateau areas of Maharashtra and northern Karnataka, where irrigation facilities are available Figure 4. Sugarcane, the cash crop of the through tube wells and irrigation canals. region (Source: www.civilsprep.in). Sugarcane is planted during December– February, as a 12-month crop, which is referred as eksali (Fig. 4). In the extremely dry area of the Deccan in Andhra Pradesh, which is again a rainshadow region, bajra is cultivated. In the groundnut-based cultivated areas, the alternate crops are sorghum and small millets. In the dry districts of the Deccan plateau in northern Karnataka, the groundnut-based cropping system has sorghum as an alternate crop. Cotton, suited to dry climate and black soil is an important crop in the rainfed areas of the Deccan plateau, which includes the Figure 5. Cotton, the other cash crop of the semi-arid districts in Maharashtra, northern region (Source: www.indianetzone.com). Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 2, 2014 107

The cropping patterns in different areas of such as sorghum, grain legumes such as the region are as follows: (i) Vertisols and pigeonpea, oilseeds, and other minor crops, related black soil zone, Solapur dryland following organic farming methods on their region: green gram–sorghum, cowpea– small landholdings, methods that constitute sorghum; green gram–saffl ower, cotton– a blend of ethics, traditional experience, sorghum; and (ii) Akola dryland region: scientifi c knowledge, and pragmatism. In green gram/groundnut/sorghum–saffl ower these combinations, the legume components (Rathore and Gupta, 1991). On the basis of enhance the soil fertility by symbiotic annual rainfall (500 mm), the rabi crops are nitrogen fixation, while heavy leaf fall sorghum, saffl ower, and grain crops that are works as mulch and green manure, and tall, sown in September. Besides, the following but short-duration cereals act as barriers to other cropping patterns are followed: initial infestation of companion crops. sorghum–saffl ower/sunfl ower/groundnut, soybean–safflower, soybean–chickpea, Horticulture is an important component cotton–sunfl ower, cotton–groundnut, and of agriculture in the region, as the unique pigeonpea–sesame. Sorghum, cotton, and microclimatic conditions of the leeward side pigeonpea are intercropped with soybean, are suitable for raising tropical fruit crops sesame, and groundnut. The dominant during summer, kharif, and the sun-bathed intercropping systems in different areas are cool climate of rabi. The latter climate sorghum + pigeonpea in Akola, chickpea + supports quality production of grapes, saffl ower in Solapur, etc. pomegranate, ber, oranges, and guava in addition to mango, jackfruit, etc., fruiting Rice, too, is grown in the Marathwada from April to June. region, but it is a non-traditional area. Due to the erratic and low rainfall, the average Because of the low and erratic rainfall, productivity of rice crop is extremely rearing of animals in pastorals is another low: 0.41 t ha-1 (0.59 t ha-1 for rough rice). major agricultural activity of most farmers. It The rice-based cropping systems are: is refl ected by the evolution and conservation (i) rice–fi nger millet (ragi); (ii) rice–pulses; of certain animal breeds, for example, (iii) rice–sorghum; (iv) rice–groundnut; the name Osmanabadi goat is derived (v) rice–sugarcane; and (vi) rice-oilseeds.

Traditional eco-farming or mixed cropping Most soils belong to the Pargaon, systems are still prevalent in the dryland Sawargaon, and Barsi series. The soils of the Deccan Plateau, as the crop Pargaon soils are shallow, loamy failures are quite common due to aberrant skeletal, and highly calcareous in weather conditions, such as excessive rains, nature. The Sawargaon and Barsi soils prolonged dry spells, rains at harvest, etc. are clayey, calcareous, and moderately To overcome these vagaries, small farmers alkaline, and show marked swell-shrink practice a system of agriculture with 12 or properties. more traditional crops, including cereals 108 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites from their distribution area Osmanabad (Dharashiv) of Maharashtra. It covers Around 64 per cent of the people are the major part of southern Maharashtra employed in agriculture and allied (especially Osmanabad, Beed, Solapur, activities. Field crops include wheat, Latur, Parbhani, and Ahmednagar districts), rice, sorghum, pearl millet, minor western Andhra Pradesh, and northeastern millets, pulses, and oilseeds, while Karnataka. Osmanabadi goats are mostly horticultural crops are dominated by medium-sized animals usually black in tropical fruits such as mango, grape, color, but in some areas of Maharashtra and banana, orange, pomegranate, etc., and western Andhra Pradesh, brown or spotted diverse vegetables. Cash crops include ones can also be seen. Mostly the males cotton, sugarcane, turmeric, groundnut, are horned and the females may be horned and tobacco. The net irrigated area is or polled. 33,500 square kilometers.

Representative species in various crop groups bicolor (L.) Moench], thipa ragi [Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn.], and wheat (Triticum Cereals, pseudocereals, and millets. Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus aestivum L. and T. dicoccum Schubl.). L.), arika or argulu or proso millet (Panicum Legumes and oilseeds. Ambadi or Deccan miliaeceum L.), bajra or sajja or pearl millet hemp (Hibiscus cannabinus L.), anuvulu or [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.], barley fi eld beans [Dolichos lablab; syn. Lablab (Hordeum vulgare L.), barnyard millet purpureus (L.) Sweet], black mustard [Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.], [Brassica nigra (L.) Koch.], bebbarlu or dhane (Eragrostis tenella), kodi sama or cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.), black gram little millet (Panicum sumatrense Roth; [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper; syn. Phaseolus syn. P. miliare), kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), korra or foxtail millet mungo L.], castor (Ricinus communis L.), (Setaria italica), maize (Zea mays L.), chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) (light brown, makra [Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) black, and white seeded), gaddi nuvvulu or Beauv.] a famine food, ragi or fi nger millet niger [Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.], grass (Eleusine coracana Gaertn.), rice (Oryza pea (Lathyrus sativus L.), green gram [Vigna sativa L.), sawa millet (Echinochloa radiata (L.) R. Wilczek; syn. Phaseolus frumentacea Link), sorghum [Sorghum aureus Roxb.], groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.), manchi nuvvulu The climax vegetation in the Deccan or sesame (Sesamum indicum L.; syn. S. has almost completely disappeared. orientale L.), mustard [Brassica juncea Nevertheless, the region has a high (L.) Hook.f. & Thomson], rice bean [Vigna diversity of grass fl ora. umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H. Ohashi], saffl ower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), teega Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 2, 2014 109

Vegetables. Bamboo [Dendrocalamus Traditional eco-farming or mixed strictus (Roxb.) Nees] (young shoots are cropping systems are still prevalent in eaten), bhindi [Abelmoschus esculentus the dryland soils of the Deccan Plateau, (L.) Moench], bitter gourd (Momordica as the crop failures are quite common charantia L.), brinjal (Solanum melongena), due to aberrant weather conditions, chili (Capsicum annuum L.), kharbuj such as excessive rains, prolonged or muskmelon (C. melo L.), khira or dry spells, rains at harvest, etc. To cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), kundri overcome these vagaries, small farmers (Coccinia indica Wight & Arn.; syn. C. practice a system of agriculture with 12 grandis Voigt), pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo or more traditional crops. L.), ridged gourd [Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.], sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica Roxb.; syn. L. aegyptiaca Mill.), and tomato pesari or creeper gram [Vigna angularis (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). (Willd.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi], togari or red gram or pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Leafy vegetables. Adavi gogu (Hibiscus Millsp.], and white sweet clover (Melilotus aculeatus) (leaves used as pot herb), albus Medik.). amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L., A. polygamus L., A. viridis L.), chamkas Fodder and fiber crops. Fodder grasses: [Corchorus depressus (L.) Stocks] (leaves Andropogon pumilus Roxb., Brachiaria used as pot herb), Deccan hemp (Hibiscus ramosa (L.) Stapf., Bermuda grass (Cynodon cannabinus), panivel (Cissus repanda dactylon), Chloris dolichostachya Lag., Vahl.), purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.), Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Dichanthium and greens such as atakamamidi (Boerhavia annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf., Eleusine indica, diffusa L.), doggali kura (Amaranthus Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E.Hubb., viridis), gunugu/kodijuttu kura (Celosia Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult., Ischaemum rugosum Salisb., Panicum psilopodium Trin., Pennisetum Horticulture is an important component pedicellatum, Perotis indica (L.) Kuntze. Rev., of agriculture in the region, as the pillipesara [Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc.; syn. unique microclimatic conditions Phaseolus trilobus (L.) Aiton] a dual-purpose of the leeward side are suitable for crop yielding fodder and green manure, raising tropical fruit crops during Sehima nervosum (Rottl.) Stapf., Setaria summer, kharif, and the sun-bathed pumila, and Urochloa panicoides. Fiber: cool climate of rabi. The latter climate ambadi (Hibiscus cannabinus), American supports quality production of grapes, cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), levant cotton pomegranate, ber, oranges, and guava (Gossypium herbaceum L.), red ambadi or in addition to mango, jackfruit, etc., roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.), and tula or fruiting from April to June. tree cotton (Gossypium arboreum L.). 110 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Indian cherry (Cordia myxa Roxb.; syn. Because of the low and erratic rainfall, C. dichotoma Forst.), jackfruit (Artocarpus rearing of animals in pastorals is heterophyllus Lam.), jamun [Syzygium another major agricultural activity cuminii (L.) Skeels], kondai [Flacourtia of most farmers. It is refl ected by the indica (Burm.f.) Merr.], lovi-lovi (Flacourtia evolution and conservation of certain inermis Roxb.), mandarin orange (Citrus animal breeds, for example, the name reticulata Blanco), mango (Mangifera Osmanabadi goat is derived from indica L.), pomegranate (Punica granatum their distribution area Osmanabad L.), sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L. (Dharashiv) of Maharashtra. Osbeck), wild date [Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb.], wood apple (Limonia acidissima L.), and watermelon [Citrullus lanatus argentia L.), mulludoggali (Amaranthus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai]. spinosus L.), etc. are eaten in the Andhra Pradesh area. Other economic crops. Bamboo [Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees.], Root, tuber, and bulbous crops. Dkaval kodi indigo (Indigofera tinctoria L.), sugarcane (Dioscorea pentaphylla L.), elephant yam (Saccharum offi cinarum L.), and tobacco [Amorphophallus campanulatus (Roxb.) Bl.], (Nicotiana tabacum L.). garlic (Allium sativum L.), mahakizhangu Gums, resins, and tannins. These are being (Decalepis hamiltonii Wight. & Arn.) (roots obtained from babool [Acacia leucophloea are edible and pickled), onion (Allium cepa Willd., A. arabica (Lam.) Willd.; syn. A. L.), yams [Dioscorea bulbifera L. (syn. D. nilotica (L.) Delile subsp. indica], Acacia sativa L.), D. intermedia Thw., D. wallichii farnesiana (L.) Willd., shebrati (Acacia Hook. f., D. wattii Prain & Burkill], etc. pennata), Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth., Spices. Black mustard [Brassica nigra (L.) Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.) Bedd, Boswellia Koch.], chili (Capsicum annuum), chironji serrata Roxb. (syn. B. glabra Roxb.), karanj (Buchanania lanzan Spreng.), coriander [Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre] (oilseed), (Coriandrum sativum L.) (small-seeded Terminalia arjuna, and T. bellirica, as non- variety), ginger (Zingiber offi cinale Rosc.), timber products collected from forest or curry-leaf tree [Murraya koenigii (L.) even cultivated. The tribal communities Spreng.], niger (Guizotia abyssinica), and of Gadchiroli and around are specifically turmeric (Curcuma domestica Valet.; syn. associated with the five species, dhavda C. longa L.). (Anogeissus latifolia), satawari (Asparagus racemosus Willd.), chironji (Buchanania Fruits. Acid lime [Citrus aurantifolia lanzan), mahua (Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel.; (Christm.) Sw.; syn. C. medica L.], ber syn. M. longifolia Macbride), and toddy palm (Ziziphus mauritiana.; syn. Z. jujuba), (Borassus fl abellifer L.), and are economically banana [Musa acuminata Colla (Cavendish dependent on, as they are part of the existing Group)], grape (Vitis vinifera L.), forests and accessed by tribal communities. Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 2, 2014 111

Medicinal and aromatic plants. The local Cichorium intybus Linn., Coffea bengalensis communities have developed signifi cant Heyne & Willd. [syn. Psilanthus bengalensis knowledge about the medicinal properties (Roxb. ex Schult.) J.-F.Leroy], Corchorus of plants as refl ected by some of the recent antichorus Raeuch. [syn. C. depressus (L.) publications. Mali and Bhadane (2008) C. Chr.], Grewia tenax (Forsk.) Aschers & reported medicinal properties of 226 plant Schwl., G. villosa Willd., Linum mysorense species collected from Jalgaon district Heyne ex Wall., Malva rotundifolia Linn., alone. Survase and Raut (2011) reported 50 M. subangulata Blume, M. sylvestris tree species belonging to 30 families used Linn., Momordica cymbalaria Fenzl. ex for medicinal treatment in the Marathwada Hook.f., Panicum hippothrix K. Schum. area. Some other commonly used or (grains are cooked like rice), P. trypheron researched plants for medicinal purposes Schult., Phoenix robusta Hook.f., Sesamum are: Agave vera-cruz Mill., aghada or laciniatum Klein., Setaria glauca (Linn.) uttareni (Achyranthes aspera Linn.), ambadi P. Beauv., and S. pallidefusca (Sch.) Stapf. (Hibiscus cannabinus), Blumea eriantha et C.E. Hubb. (variability in infl orescence DC, Blumea lacera L., Boerhaavia diffusa, type), as the wild relatives of cultivated Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker, species from the region. Later, Abelmoschus Cissus quadrangularis Linn., Corchorus manihot (L.) Medik. ssp. tetraphyllus depressus, Eriolaena hookeriana, garika (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Borss.Waalk. var. (Cynodon dactylon), guntakalagara megaspermum Hemadri, Eleusine indica, [Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.], nattu [Imperata borpudi (Indigofera glandulosa Wendl. cylindrica (L.) Beauv.], red ambadi or var. sykesii), I. deccanensis, Corchorus roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa), tagarancha urticaefolius Wight et Arnott, Phoenix (Cassia tora L.), tummi (Leucas aspersa), sylvestris, pillipesara (Vigna trilobata; and Wrightia tinctoria. In addition, V. trilobata var. pusilla), Setaria pumila, ait (Phaseolus trilobus), Cymbopogon Solanum nigrum Linn., Sorghum deccanense martinii (Roxb.) Wats, and Santalum Stapf. ex Raizada, S. stapfi i C.E.C. Fischer, album L. are commonly used medicinally, and Vigna hainiana Babu, Gopinathan & while Hemidesmus indicus, Canthium Sharma have also been recorded from the parviflorum, and Canavalia gladiata region. are being investigated for compounds responsible for various biological activities Endemic species. As the region is not very (Pasumarthi et al., 2011). rich in species diversity, the endemism of species is limited. Nevertheless, a few Wild relatives of crop species. Arora and species or varieties (ecotypes) of economic Nayar (1984) recorded Abelmoschus fi culneus signifi cance have been reported endemic to Wight & Arn., Boehmeria platyphylla the region, such as: Abutilon ranadei Wooder. D.Don., Canavalia stocksii Dalz. a variant ex Stapf., lal aghada (Achyranthes coynei of C. ensiformis (L.) DC (endemic and Santapau), Alysicarpus luteovexillatus Naik rare), Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew, & Pokle, girnul [Cissus woodrowii (Stapf. ex Chionachne koenigii (Spreng.) Thw., Cooke) Santapau], Crotalaria decasperma 112 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Naik (syn. C. mysorensis Roth), Panicum the availability of suitable caves or rock paianum Naik & Patunkar, P. phoiniclados shelters. The evidences found suggest Naik & Patunkar, Phyllanthus scabrifolius that this region, like Kathiawar, is a Hook.f., Tripogon polyanthus Naik & further southern expansion/extension of Patunkar, Urochloa panicoides P.Beavu Harappan culture. It appeared to be the var. marathensis (Henr.) Bor (grasses), etc. part of the peripheral zone, but with an (indiabiodiversity.org/content/checklist- independent regional style of local hunters endemic-plants-maharashtra; Nayar et and food gathering tribes/communities. al., 2009). Table 1 lists some of the The Chalcolithic cultural remains agriculturally important endemic species characterized by the use of copper in the from the region. region, as is evidenced by the excavations at Savalda, on the banks of the river Threatened species. The Red Data Book Tapti in West Khandesh of Maharashtra (Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988, 1990) has listed (characterized by different ceramics). Achyranthes coynei, Asparagus jacquemonti From the deposits of Savalda culture Baker (syn. A. racemosus Willd.), Ceropegia at Daimabad in Ahmednagar, grains of maccannii Ansari, Euphorbia katrajensis dwarf wheat (Triticum sphaerococcum) Gage, son ghanta (Abutilon ranadei), etc. to and barley (Hordeum vulgare) were found be under various levels of threats. Nayar et al. (Kajale, 1977a; Vishnu Mittre et al., 1986). (2009) have further listed Acacia campbellii Also were found Acacia wood charcoals Arn. (in Andhra Pradesh), Aegle marmelos (Sharma, 1984). Later, presumably under var. mahurensis Zate, Asparagus rottleri the inﬂ uence of Malwa culture, the cereals Baker (in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka), might have been followed by grain Brachystelma volubile Hook.f. (in Andhra legumes, and Malwa culture was followed Pradesh and Karnataka), Ceropegia intermedia Wight., Ceropegia odorata Hook. by Jorwe culture (ca. 1,400–900 BCE), f., Erythrina variegata L. forma mysorensis known to be initiated from the bank of Maheshwari, Jasminum wightii C.B.Clarke, the Pravara river in district Ahmednagar and Madhuca diplostemon (C.B.Clarke) P. and represented by more than 200 sites Royen to be under threat. Representative spread over the semi-arid zone of the agriculturally important plant species under Deccan Plateau, including Inamgaon, threat are presented in Table 2. Theur, Sonegaon, and Chandoli in the district of Pune, Bhal in Jalgoan, Prakashe in Dhulia district and Jorwe and Nevasa Associated culture and tribes in Ahmednagar district. Importantly, As evidenced by the archeological the presence of elements of substances remains, agriculture appears to have like ivory in some of these remains, been practiced in the region from ancient suggests introduction and integration time, starting from Neolithic culture. The of materials from southern culture of Deccan Plateau region with granite hills India, a development strengthened in the attracted human settlements because of subsequent period. Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 2, 2014 113

Table 1. Representative economic plant species endemic to the Northwestern Deccan Plateau Region.1 Species Family Habit Distribution Remark Abutilon ranadei Malvaceae Undershrub Maharashtra Ornamental Achyranthes coynei Amaranthaceae Herb Pune to Karnataka Fodder, medicinal Cissus woodrowii Vitaceae Woody shrub Andhra Pradesh Genetic resource Crotalaria decasperma Fabaceae Erect herb South India Genetic resource Panicum paianum Poaceae Annual grass Maharashtra Feedstock Panicum phoiniclados Poaceae Annual grass Maharashtra Feedstock Phyllanthus scabrifolius Euphorbiaceae Shrub or tree Madhya Pradesh, Medicinal, used to Maharashtra, treat inﬂ ammation Karnataka of urinary passage 1. Source: www.indiabiodiversity.org/content/checklist-endemic-plants-maharashtra; Nayar et al. (2009).

Table 2. Representative economic plant species under threat in the Northwestern Deccan Plateau Region1. Species Family Habit Threat level2 Remark Abutilon ranadei3 Malvaceae Undershrub EN Ornamental, genetic resource Acacia campbellii3 Mimosaceae Tree VU Wood, Andhra Pradesh Achyranthes coynei3 Amaranthaceae Herb EN/R Fodder Aegle marmelos var. Rutaceae Tree R Fruit, wild relative mahurensis Asparagus jacquemonti3 Asparagaceae Undershrub I or DD Young shoots edible Asparagus rottleri3 Asparagaceae Undershrub I or DD Young shoots vegetable Brachystelma volubile Apocynaceae Tree I or DD Attractive foliage Ceropegia intermedia Asclepiadaceae Twiner I or DD Tuber edible Ceropegia maccannii3 Asclepiadaceae Herb R Tuber edible Ceropegia odorata3 Asclepiadaceae Twiner EN Medicinal, ceropegine Erythrina variegata Fabaceae Tree I or DD Wood forma mysorensis Jasminum wightii3 Oleaceae Climber R Ornamental Madhuca diplostemon3 Sapotaceae Tree EN Wild relative 1. Source: Nayar and Sastry (1987, 1988, 1990); Nayar et al. (2009). 2. EN = Endangered; I or DD = Indeterminate or Data deﬁ cient; R = Rare; and VU = Vulnerable. 3. Listed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. 114 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

The evidences collected from various sites fi nds of these remains also suggest that of the region give us a fair idea about the probably this region was the meeting point crops cultivated in the olden times, which of exchange of knowledge and materials included wheat (Triticum aestivum, T. between North Indian, Harappan Indus compactum, T. sphaerococcum), barley Valley, and Indo-Gangetic cultures, and (Hordeum vulgare), rice (Oryza sativa), the South Indian culture, which evolved jowar (Sorghum bicolor), kodo millet distinctly with primary domestication (Paspalum scrobiculatum), ragi (Eleusine of plants and animals respectively. Such coracana), foxtail millet (Setaria italica), presumption is further corroborated by the green gram (Vigna radiata), black gram similarity of food remains discovered for (V. mungo), lentil (Lens culinaris), grass Megalithic sites at Veerapuram in Andhra pea (Lathyrus sativus), fi eld pea (Pisum Pradesh and at Vidarbha in Maharashtra. arvense), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), The fi nds of medicinal plants also support chickpea (Cicer aretinum), horse gram such proposition and the interactions (Dolichos bifl orus), kidney bean (Phaseolus between North and South Indian cultures, vulgaris), hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus), including the northwestern Indian region. saffl ower (Carthamus tinctorius), linseed It appears that sandalwood was brought (Linus ussitatissimum) in fi eld crops, and from South India, chironji from Central baheda/myrobalan (Terminalia bellirica), India, and grapes and dates from Northwest jambo or jamoon (Syzygium cumini), Indian India into the region. For these reasons, in cherry (Cordia myxa), chironji (Buchanania ancient literature, it has been suggested that lanzan), ber (Ziziphus jujube), wild date the innovations from the north arrived into (Phoenix sylvestris), karanj (Pongamia the south through this southern corridor, pinnata), sugandhabala (Pavonia referred as the ‘Dakshinapatha’, i.e., odorata Willd.), and tarla (Heteropanax the Northwestern Deccan Plateau, in fragrans), in horticultural crops (Kajale, conjunction with the south-central Eastern 1977a, 1977b, 1988; Vishnu Mittre et Ghats. The evidences of plant remains al., 1986). The discovery of cotton beads belonging to the Iron Age collected from strung upon silk threads from the Jorwe various parts of the Indian subcontinent period remains at Nevasa and those of fl ax indicate that by the fi rst millennium BCE, at Chandoli are unique fi ndings, indicating products of North Indian and South Indian production and spinning of cotton and fl ax cultures dispersed all over the subcontinent in the region (Gulati, 1961), and might (Saraswat, 1992). even be proof of domestication of diploid cotton (Gossypium arboreum) in the region. The first important reign to arise on The fi nding of bones of cattle, sheep, goat, the Deccan Plateau was the Satavahana and buffalo reflects the domestication dynasty (230 BCE). During the Satavahana of animals during Jorwe culture. The period, extensive land and sea trade routes Megalithic activities in Maharashtra were developed, further linking northern and corroborated by the fi nds of agricultural southern India, making the region a cultural tools at certain sites in Nagpur district. The bridge, playing a great role in the exchange Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 2, 2014 115 of ideas and culture between the northern groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) and chickpea Indo-Gangetic Plain and South India. The (Cicer arietinum). On the farmers’ festival rule of the Satavahana kingdom lasted from day “Erokku Ponnami”, all the bullocks in the second century BCE to the third century the farming community of the village are CE. It then split into smaller kingdoms that decorated and taken out in a procession were ruled by families who had been feudal (Sateesh, 2002). During the “Bhootalli” vassals of the Satavahanas. festival for worshiping Mother Earth, songs mentioning and encouraging farmers to Tribals in the region are mostly confi ned to grow sagam (sorghum) are chanted, i.e., the hilly areas. As per the 1991 census, the “Olega sagam olega beliya jolave” (Grow tribal population in Maharashtra was second sorghum, grow prosperous). During the only to that of Madhya Pradesh, containing festive days farmers cook “Bajikoora” 47 scheduled tribes. The major tribes of which includes all the vegetables, leafy and Maharashtra, including the Konkan region tender stems, pulses (pigeonpea, chickpea, are Gond-Madia, Bhil, Pavra, Mahadeo, green peas, amaranths, chilies), grown in Koli, Warli, Kokna, Thakur, Halba, Andh, the village as a ritual symbol, meant for the Katkari, Oraon, etc. Many tribes have conservation of the life-supporting fl ora of ancestral land which they still cultivate. the village (Sateesh, 2002). Some of these tribes had their own rules and administration. With the new land reforms and Acts, especially in Maharashtra, the Technology and products tribals now have access to good education Having to subsist in the parts of the semi- and political power. Some of them are doing arid tropics that are characterized by general progressive farming, while others have rainfall below potential evapotranspiration taken jobs in the cities. Many tribals have and of an unpredictable nature, which migrated to the plains and work as farm leads to moisture defi cit in most years and laborers. However, the most commendable fl ooding in some, the local people have job tribal farmers have done is preserving developed some traditional water harvesting the important genetic diversity in millets, technologies in the region. These are kohli pulses, vegetables, etc., in the form of tanks, bhanadaras, and phad. The kohli precious landraces, and medicinal plants. tank system built in the Bhandara district The greater part of the tribes still follows by a small group of cultivators, consists of the primitive traditions. They live in groups a number of water tanks of different sizes and still lead a nomadic life moving from used for irrigation of sugarcane and rice, one place to another in caravans in search often with the provision of bringing water of livelihood. In the Andhra area, the to the doorstep of their village farms. The major tribes associated with agriculture bhanadaras are check dams built across are Adivasi, Girijan and Vanya Jati, Maria rivers, raising the water level and forcing Gond, Katkari, and Kolam. Culturally, it to fl ow into the channels. They are also during the festival days of Ugadi and used to impound water from reservoirs. Diwali, sweetmeats are prepared using Usually villagers or individuals who built 116 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites such structures receive rent-free land in sacred groves attaching signifi cant sanctity return. The phad is a community-managed to plants, which have been venerated from irrigation system prevalent in northwestern ancient times. The existence of sacred Maharashtra in the Tapti River basin. The groves or “Deva vanas” has helped facilitate system starts with a bhanadara (check the conservation of local biodiversity dam) built across the river. From here it including components of agrobiodiversity. is branched out into kalvas (canals) with a As the semi-arid regions are known for a discharge capacity of about 450 liters per relatively dry climate, the drought-resistant second. The lengths of these canals may crops, such as sorghum and millets, are the vary from 2 to 12 km. From kalvas, charis dominant crops of the region. Over time (distributaries) are built for feeding water to they have become the staple food of the different areas of the phad. Phad sarangs local population. The diverse landscape (fi eld channels) channelize the water to and ecological conditions have provided individual fi elds. The sandams (escapes) are opportunities to the local tribes and built along these structures to drain away the communities to select traditional varieties excess water. The phad system may extend suited to diverse ecological conditions, from 10 to 200 ha, and is a community based including the seasons, and with various effort, managed by the villagers, who decide desirable traits. In the case of sorghum, on the area to be covered and the usage, which is the dominant cereal crop (Fig. ensuring healthy crop rotation, maintaining 3), variability with desirable features has soil fertility, avoiding waterlogging and evolved in the form of local landraces such salinity of the soil. as Alluna jola, Dadar, Badi jowar, Dagadi jowar, Gulbendi, Harni jowar, Hulgi jola, The people of the region have great Kavaali, Maldandi, Pandhari, etc., from respect for forest and vegetation under the the Maharhastra area, and Chiruthalavalu, concept of “Deva vanas” (divine forests). Dhani jowar, Gingri jowar, Pandimutte Consequently, the region is also known for jonna, Sadguru jonna, Tekdari jonna, and Vani jowar from the Andhra Pradesh area. Most traditional varieties are associated The fi rst important reign to arise on the with specifi c features: for example from Deccan Plateau was the Satavahana Andhra Pradesh, the Patcha Jonna has dynasty (230 BCE). During the yellow grain with excellent roti-making Satavahana period, extensive land and quality, keeps well and is grown in kharif; sea trade routes developed, further Tella Malle Jonna has white grain and is linking northern and southern India, grown in kharif; Yerra Jonna has red grains making the region a cultural bridge, and is grown in kharif; Atta kodalla Jonna playing a great role in the exchange of has dull white grains often used for roti; ideas and culture between the northern Maldandu sorghum has white grain and is Indo-Gangetic Plain and South India. grown in rabi; Pelala Jonna has grains with good popping quality; Kakimuttani Jonna Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 2, 2014 117

from Gujarat. CSV216R is a selection from The major tribes of Maharashtra, a landrace collected from Maharashtra. including the Konkan region are Gond- Most landraces of the region have the Madia, Bhil, Pavra, Mahadeo, Koli, ability to survive under stress conditions Warli, Kokna, Thakur, Halba, Andh, (Elangovan et al., 2006). Additionally, Katkari, Oraon, etc. Many tribes have several sources of resistance to important ancestral land which they still cultivate. pests and diseases have also been identifi ed Some of these tribes had their own from the region: for example, IS1044 from rules and administration. Parbhani, IS1054 and IS1055 from Pune, and IS1151 from Khandesh for stem borer resistance; IS14332 for anthracnose, and has spotted grains and early maturity (3 IS18758 for grain mold, sugary disease, months) and is often grown by small farmers rust, charcoal rot, zenate leaf spot, and because of early maturity, and is also called anthracnose from Akola. the poor people’s food (Gharib Jonna); Sai In minor millets, the variability of various Jonna has white grain and is a rabi variety, species is refl ected by the diverse landraces while Thoka Jonna has loose heads having with different seed coat color. For example, good fodder yield and resistance to smuts. A foxtail millet (Setaria italica) has white, rainy season variety from the Maharashtra red, and black grain; fi nger millet (Eleusine area, Ambemohor, ripening in 4.5 months coracana) has white and common red was reported to contain a special fl avor grain; little millet (Panicum sumatrense; like that of Ambernohor rice (Arnbernohor syn. P. miliare) has black and common – mango infl orescence). This variety was white grain, while proso millet (Panicum specially cultivated by the farmers as a miliaeceum) also express significant delicacy (Prasada Rao and Murty, 1983). variability. In finger millet, sources of The women farmers know the weakness useful genes for physiological traits have and strength of each of these varieties. For been identifi ed, such as GE325 with low example, Gundo Jonna is good yielder stomata number, high photosynthetic with round head (Fig. 3), but sensitive to effi ciency and low leaf area and GE717 even drizzle, Thoka jonna is a dual type with higher biomass and high harvest index with good fodder yield, insensitive to rain (>35%) from Akola. and storage pests, and can be grown on any soil. Several of these landraces are being South Maharashtra is known for dicoccum used in breeding programs: for example, wheat. Khapli dicoccum of the region is well the seed parent of hybrid CHS 4 was a cross known for quality and stem rust resistance between CK60A and PJ8K, a local landrace and is being widely used in the breeding from Maharashtra. SPV-462, a very popular programs (Singh et al., 2006). From the variety has been developed through a cross Andhra Pradesh area, wheat varieties such between an American introduction and local as Mullu godhumalu, Katte godhumalu, cultivar IS1151 from Maharashtra and BP53 and Budda godhumalu are known. In rice, 118 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites both aromatic and non-aromatic traditional been used in the development of the variety varieties are known from the region, such as Abhaya (ICPL 332), while ICPL 161 is a Bhura rata, Chimansel, Kala rata, Kolam, short-duration landrace (Remanandan and Kolamba 184, Kolipi, Zinya 149 among Singh, 1997). In cowpea, variability exists non-aromatic, and Ambemohar 102, 157, in habit, fl ower color, coloration of plants, 159, Jirasel, Sathi, Kamod, Krishansal, including pod and seed, and their size. Pankhari 203, etc., among aromatic. Other traditional extant varieties and landraces Among oilseeds, signifi cant variability has known from the region are Panvel, Jalgaon, been recorded in the case of black mustard Gangasagar, Bobbili gantalu, Chalka buchi (Brassica nigra), and the variety Surya has vadlu, Cheruku luchchalu, Chinna sindhu been developed through selection from a bayalu, Chinna vodlu, Duppi tokalu, Erra local landrace. In groundnut, which is a th vadlu, Goranka mukkulu, Kare budamalu, 17 century introduction, the region has Kattakichidi, Nalla vadlu, Roti singaralu, evolved signifi cant genetic variability and Sudi vanja, Vulliguththulu, etc. (Nayar et local landraces such as Kadari-3 (naturalized al., 2009). Prabhavati, an aromatic, iron- Robut from Israel) in Andhra Pradesh and chlorosis tolerant and semi-dwarf rice Jalgaon local in Maharashtra have been variety was developed from the tall landrace used in the development of varieties such as Jalgaon 5 through mutation breeding Robut 33-1 and JL 24, which are nationally (Nerkar and Misal, 1987). the most stable high-yielding varieties till date in Virginia and Spanish cultivar groups The grain legumes of the region show respectively, and figure the maximum signifi cant variability in grain characteristics, number of times in the parentage of nationally for example, green gram (Vigna radiata) has released varieties (Radhamani and Singh, variation in seed size, color, and surface 2008). Similarly in sesame, several varieties texture; and black gram (Vigna mungo) have been developed through selection from has differences in pod length. There is also local landraces; for example, N58-2 from a bold-seeded type in the case of green a landrace of Nashik, D-77-11-1 from a gram, and a good plant type in the case of landrace of Dhule, Madhavi (SP1181) and black gram. Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) has TM6 from landraces of Andhra Pradesh, diverse seed coat colors, white, spotted, Gouri from a landrace of Kakkirapalli, and black, and red; horsegram (Dolichos N-8 and N-128 from Nagpur local (Duhoon bifl orus) has white, black, and common red et al., 2004). In niger, No.5, N-12-3, N-87, seed coat color; cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and Ootacamund have been developed from has white, black, and red seed, and fi eld bean landraces of Nagpur since the inception of (Dolichos lablab var. lignosus) has white, the All-India Coordinated Research Project black, and red seeds. A signifi cant amount in 1967. In safflower, some of the early of variability in pigeonpea is noticed in varieties, N-630, Nagpur-7, and N-62-8 the Deccan region. Here, ICR1093, a local released for cultivation in the region were landrace from the Andhra Pradesh area, selected from local landraces. Cotton, which is a source of pod borer tolerance and has requires high temperature, light rainfall Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 2, 2014 119 or irrigation, and bright sunshine, is well Baswant-780 from collection of Pimpalgaon, suited to the region, and presents signifi cant Maharashtra. In garlic, the variety Godavari variability. The Central Institute for Cotton has been developed through mass selection Research (CICR), Nagpur has collected a in a collection from Maharashtra (Pandey et large number of distinct accessions from the al., 2005). region both in diploid and tetraploid cotton (Fig. 5). During collection in the Melghat Among spices, the region is known for area, although nine samples were collected, variability in turmeric, where a variety such it was observed that tribal cultivation as Krishna has been developed through had created signifi cant variability for leaf clonal selection from Tekurpeta collections lobe shape, capsule size, etc., in diploid with plump rhizome and resistance to pests Gossypium arboreum (Singh et al., 2013). and diseases. In the Chandrapur district, The Melghat forest area is also considered turmeric landraces are being grown as a to be the reservoir of variability for diploid rainfed crop. G. herbaceum and for wild relatives of The region is known for traditional varieties cotton, needing further exploration. of mango, such as Alphonso (long shelf life, In vegetable crops, the region presents good for processing for pulp/juice/nectar), signifi cant variability for Solanum melongena Mankurad, Muloga, Pairi (high pulp and chili for plant type and fruit characteristics. content), Banganpalli (large fruit size), and In several other crops the local cultivars/ Totapari (regular bearing). In the foothills landraces have been used in the development of the Satpura ranges, wide variability of varietal products: for example, in the case is observed in the local mangoes in the of Cucumis sativus, Phule Shubangi has Dhule and Nandurbar districts. Among been developed through selection from a Citrus, the region is known for varieties local landrace. In okra, the Red Wonder of such as Nagpuri santra in mandarin (Citrus Hyderabad has contributed to development reticulata); Mosambi, Sathagudi, Malta, of Co1. The wild relatives like Abelmoschus Blood Red in sweet lime (Citrus sinensis); manihot ssp. tetraphyllus var. megaspermum and Kagzi lime, PKM-1, Vikram, Baramasi, and A. fi culneus provide additional genetic Sai Sarbati, seedless lime, etc., in acid lime resource. The okra variety Parbhani Kranti (Citrus aurantifolia) (Karihaloo et al., was developed from the crossing of the extant 2005). In fact, the color, sweetness, and variety Pusa Savani with the wild species fl avor of the world-famous Nagpuri santra Abelmoschus manihot ssp. manihot (Nerkar (mandarin) is geographically associated and Jambhale, 1985). While in onion, N53, with the cool dry winter conditions of the Akra Pragati, Akra Kalyan, and Agrifound Satpura hills (Vidarbha region), and is Dark Red were developed through mass suitable for protection under Geographical selection in collections from Nashik; Akra Indication of Goods Act, 1999. Besides, Niketan from collections from Dubera; N-2-4-1 the region has large variability in the case from a collection from Pune; Agrifound White of custard apple (Annona squamosa) and Red from collections from Maharashtra; and Tamarindus indica. 120 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

producing various types of droughts, South Maharashtra is known for adversely affecting the crop growth dicoccum wheat. Khapli dicoccum of leading to lower yield and crop failures in the region is well known for quality and some years. At other times, stormy cloud stem rust resistance and is being widely bursts causing heavy rainfall result in high used in the breeding programs. runoff and soil erosion. Therefore, greater research is needed for effective water management using traditional watershed The local tribes have also developed several technological approach, and development practices for sustainability and increased of appropriate practices for effi cient use productivity. For example, eco-farming or of water and for supportive irrigation, mixed cropping involving more than 12 which can be the key to further progress crops is practiced in the Andhra Pradesh of agriculture in the region. area. Mixed cropping is also used as a strategy for crop protection. Many farmers A large area of the region is adversely who grow ginger or turmeric as cash crops affected due to salinity, alkalinity, and maintain castor plants along the borders of waterlogging. Also, the soils of the region their fi elds in order to check the spread of are deficient in major nutrients such as diseases and provide shade. In the wheat– nitrogen and phosphorus and micronutrients chickpea association, chickpea serves to such as zinc, iron, manganese, boron, and divert rats from the wheat crop. molybdenum, needing greater research for In most parts of the region, traditional removal of nutritional imbalances. farmers use the rhizosphere soil beneath the The dry climate of the region is highly banyan tree for improving the soil fertility, suitable for tropical horticultural fruit and Amritpani (special bio-inoculant crops such as mango, grape, orange, lemon, prepared from cow dung, cow ghee, cow banana, pomegranate, etc., and fl oriculture. urine, and honey) is being used for treating Therefore, integration of technologies of seeds and seedlings and for enrichment of drip irrigation, protective cultivation, cold soil for better germination and nutrition. These practices are now being popularized storage, and transportation can help improve as part of organic agriculture programs. production and increase farmers’ incomes.

Future perspective Acknowledgment Agroclimatically, the region has high The author is thankful to Dr Yogendra productivity potential. However, the Shankar Nerkar, former Vice-Chancellor, major constraint restricting agricultural Mahatma Phule Agricultural University, productivity is the erratic rainfall and high Rahuri, Maharashtra for perusing evapotranspiration rate, which result in the manuscript and sharing valuable frequent water deﬁ cit for prolonged periods, information. Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 2, 2014 121

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