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Contests Over Pastoralism in the Southern Sahara and Northern Sahel

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Contests Over Pastoralism in the Southern Sahara and Northern Sahel Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2011 Contests over pastoralism in the southern Sahara and northern Sahel Franklin Charles Graham IV West Virginia University Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Recommended Citation Graham, Franklin Charles IV, "Contests over pastoralism in the southern Sahara and northern Sahel" (2011). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 3363. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/3363 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Contests over pastoralism in the southern Sahara and northern Sahel Franklin Charles Graham IV Dissertation submitted to the Eberly College of Arts and Sciences In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography Brent McCusker, Ph.D., Chair Jennifer Miller, Ph.D. Jeremy Njeru, Ph.D. Timothy Warner, Ph.D. Daniel Weiner, Ph.D. Department of Geology and Geography Morgantown, West Virginia 2011 Keywords: Pastoral Groups; Fragmentation; Development; Arab; Tuareg (Kel Tamasheq); Toubou Copywright 2011 Franklin Charles Graham IV ABSTRACT Contests over Pastoralism in the southern Sahara and northern Sahel Franklin Charles Graham IV West African pastoral groups (Arab, Tuareg, Toubou, and Fulani) experience contests both within their society, and, with outside agents regarding state integration, land use and development. Pastoral leadership, neighboring sedentary groups, national governments, multinational corporations, aid organizations, and academia all influence the paths pastoralists take in their relationship with the environment, the markets they return to, the animals the shepherd, and the non-pastoral opportunities they pursue, to name a few. The social relations that exist between pastoralists and outsiders can essentially coalesce or break apart pastoral society, depending on the actions taken by the various actors mentioned. The outcomes of pastoral fragmentation have various consequences on the region‟s ecology, economy and security. The conflicts that fragment pastoralists and the actions they take to reconfigure their society are the central themes of this dissertation. The interplay between climatic crises, the increasing imposition of external controls, and a constant shrinking of a disputed commons brings pastoralists into conflict with outsiders and, with each other. The first part of this dissertation outlines, from colonial times to present, the relations pastoral groups have experienced with colonial powers, African independence leaders, aid workers, and now Western militaries and terrorists. The second part looks within Arab, Tuareg, Toubou, and Fulani society to understand the fluidity in which pastoralists move back and forth between herding and non-herding activities to maintain social cohesion and identity as pastoralists. The final part is an exploratory remote sensing investigation of the customary pastures of the Tuareg groups in north-eastern Mali. Observations in this vegetation change detection study indicate a spatial differentiation between resources near the Niger River and those in more remote, drier regions of the study area. The changing relations of outside actors, the strategies taken by pastoralists to maintain their identity, and the changing dynamics of natural resources sometimes subtly, other times dramatically, fragments pastoral society. Yet, pastoralists continue to reconfigure, rebound and maintain resilience despite the changes among and, around them. DEDICATION This work is dedicated to the nomadic and sedentary communities of Iferouāne, Assodé, Gougaram, Tîmia, Aguelal, Nguigmi, Ngourti, Agadem, and others in the northern and eastern regions of Niger who I met but was not allowed to interview because of the 2007-2009 Rebellion. Your stories, though unheard for the moment, are worth telling and will be sought out by other researchers and myself when the situation resolves. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the local Arab and Kel Tamasheq (Tuareg) communities of Gao and Ménaka, Mali for their willingness to share their challenges and hospitality bestowed to me during my visits in 2006-2008. Financial support comes from the National Science Foundation‟s DDRI grant (No. 0622892). Other support comes from the Eberly Arts and Sciences College and the Department of Geology and Geography both at West Virginia University. I would also like to thank the West Virginia GIS Tech Center for their technical support in 2006-2009. Finally, much thanks must be given to Dr. Brent McCusker and Dr. Timothy Warner at West Virginia University, and my father, Frank Graham of Mendocino County, California, for their editing help during the dissertation process. Any errors or oversights are strictly my own. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ii List of Figures …………………………………………………………...………………………...………………… vi Chapter 1: Introduction, Finding Honorable Paths for Customary Pastoral Groups in the Sahara and Sahel …..…… 2 Chapter 2: The Bowl is Broken, Pastoral Resilience to Development and State Integration in West Africa ….…….. 6 Chapter 3: We Eat with Different Spoons These Days, The Maintenance of Pastoralism as a Social Formation in the Sahara and Sahel …………………………………………………………………………….……………………… 21 Chapter 4: Quantitative vegetation changes in north-eastern Mali Using Local Knowledge and Landsat TM Imagery, 1986-2007 …………………………………………………………………………………..………………………. 38 Chapter 5: Conclusion, No Direction is Certain until the Path is Walked, Pastoralists and their future in the Sahara and Sahel ……………….……….……………………………………………………………...…………………… 60 Sources Cited ………………………………………….………………………………..………...………………… 62 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 01: Photo of Two Kel Tamasheq Men Crouching at Encampment .…………………………………….……. 1 Figure 02: Map of Places and Customary Pastoral Groups ………………………...……………...………………… 8 Figure 02: Postcard of „Touareg sur son méhari‟ ………………………..................…………….....……………… 10 Figure 03: Photo of Ex-Pastoral Dahuasahaq Family ………………………...………...………...………………… 24 Figure 04: Photo of Possessions at Pastoral Encampment ………………………...……………...………………… 32 Figure 05: Table of Vegetation and Kel Tamasheq Corresponding Place Names …………………….……………. 41 Figure 06: Table of IGN Maps Used in Study ………………………...………………..………...………………… 43 Figure 07: Map of Landsat TM Mosaic for north-eastern Mali ………………………...………...………………… 45 Figure 08: Table of 4 Meteorological Stations in north-eastern Mali ………………………...…………..………… 46 Figure 09: Comparison Map for Seasonal Change, Gao Est ………………………...…………...………………… 50 Figure 10: Comparison Map for Twenty Year Change, Gao Est ………………………...………………….……… 51 Figure 11: Comparison Map for Seasonal Change, Telataï and Tidarmène ………………………...……………… 55 Figure 12: Comparison Map for Twenty Year Change, Telataï and Tidarmène …………………………………… 56 vi Figure 01 : Photo of Two Kel Tamasheq Men Crouching at an Encampment Source: Taken by author in January 2007 at Sosso Koïra quarter of Gao, Mali. 1 Chapter 1: Introduction Finding Honorable Paths for Customary Pastoral Groups in the Sahara and Sahel In December 2007 during the approaching Islamic festival of Eid al-Adha in Niger, it was difficult for recent arrivals to know the abundance of pasture in the northern Aïr Region (CILSS, Juin/Juillet 2007; FEWS, August 2007). Local pastoralists knew. Those possessing sheep and goats did their best to fatten their animals through grazing and sell them, profiting from the holiday‟s high demand and return for ruminants. They were, however, disappointed to see prices reduced due to the influx of many seeking to liquefy stocks. Others who chose not to sell their animals moved either to urban centers or South, bypassing the exploitation of the abundant pastures surrounding them. The imaginary administrative boundary that separates the Agadez and Zinder Regions became a physical one as Tuareg tents and Fulani huts lined the northern limit of Zinder‟s administrative zone. Agadez and Arlit swelled with villagers from Goûgaram, El Méki and Assodé. Generally speaking, Aïr‟s countryside was abandoned. When Boubaker Ag Ghali, a middle-aged Kel Tamasheq man from Iferouâne and member of a local NGO (non-governmental organization) is asked about his village he sharply replies, “They are here in Arlit! Iferouâne is occupied only by the military these days.”1 Since February 2007, the Niger government increased military operations around Agadez in opposition to the politico-military group, Le Mouvement des Nigériens pour la Justice, or MNJ. The MNJ has engaged in combat with the Nigérien army, attacked infrastructure related to uranium mines in the region, and abducted local authorities and mine employees (African Research Bulletin, 2008; Polgreen, 14 December 2008). The reasons for the revolt are complex (see Guichaoua, 2009) but the overall
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