Nuclear India in the Twenty-First Century This Page Intentionally Left Blank Nuclear India in the Twenty-First Century

Nuclear India in the Twenty-First Century This page intentionally left blank Nuclear India in the Twenty-First Century

Edited by D. R. SarDesai and Raju G. C. Thomas NUCLEAR INDIA IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Copyright © D. R. SarDesai and Raju G. C. Thomas, 2002. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2002 978-0-312-29459-5 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner in critical articles or reviews.

First published 2002 by PALGRAVE-MACMILLAN™, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, and representatives throughout the world.

PALGRAVE-MACMILLAN is the new global publishing imprint of St. Martin’s Press LLC Scholarly and Reference Division and Palgrave-Macmillan Publishers Ltd. (formerly Macmillan Press Ltd.). ISBN 978-1-349-38779-3 ISBN 978-0-230-10923-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230109230

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Nuclear weapons—India. 2. India—Military policy. 3. World politics—21st century. I. SarDesai, D. R. II. Thomas, Raju G. C.

UA840 .N827 2001 355.02'17'09540905—dc21 200153134

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Composition by autobookcomp

First edition: May, 2002 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 CONTENTS

Preface vii Contributors xi

PART I: GENERAL DIMENSIONS

1. Whither Nuclear India? 3 Raju G.C. Thomas 2. What Makes the Indian Bomb Tick? 25 George Perkovich

PART II: STRATEGIC DIMENSIONS

3. India and the International Nuclear Order 63 K. Subrahmanyam 4. India, the International System and Nuclear Weapons 85 T. V. Paul 5. India’s Force Planning Imperative: The Thermonuclear Option 105 Bharat Karnad 6. Why Do States Acquire Nuclear Weapons? Comparing the Cases of India and France 139 Jacques E. C. Hymans 7. The International Dynamics of a Nuclear India 161 Siddharth Varadarajan PART III: TECHNOLOGICAL AND MILITARY DIMENSIONS

8. India’s Nuclear Technology Policy: Capabilities and the Aftermath of Testing 179 Rajendran Raja 9. Ballistic Missiles: Complicating the Nuclear Quagmire 189 Ben Sheppard 10. Nuclear Weapons and the Indian Armed Forces 211 Rajesh Kadian

PART IV: ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS

11. The Economic Costs and Benefits of Nuclear Weapons 231 Deepak Lal 12. The Domestic Consequences of India’s Nuclear Tests 239 Devesh Kapur 13. The Costs of Nuclear Weapons in South Asia 259 Peter R. Lavoy 14. India’s Energy Policy and Nuclear Weapons Program 277 Raju G. C. Thomas

PART V: PROLIFERATION LESSONS AND SECURITY PROSPECTS

15. On the “Lessons” of South Asian Proliferation 299 George H. Quester

Index 309 PREFACE

In October 1998, a symposium was held at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), a few months after the Indian and Pakistani nuclear tests were conducted in May 1998. The symposium was organized and sponsored by Professor Damodar SarDesai under his Navin and Pratima Doshi Chair in Indian History at UCLA. The conference was then appropriately called “India and the Nuclear Question.” India’s security directions at the time remained ambiguous and there were serious questions about the Indian nuclear decision and the possibility that India may revert back to a nonnuclear status as it did in 1974 under pressure from the West. Apart from some of the contributing authors in this book, the participants at the conference included the nuclear weapons specialists and notable scientists, Chancellor Albert Carnesale and Vice Chancellor Kumar Patel of UCLA, and the strategic nuclear analyst and Director of the Burkle Center for International Relations, Professor Michael Intriligator of UCLA. Other participants included Indian security specialists Ashley Tellis of the RAND cor- poration (now special advisor to the U.S. ambassador in New Delhi); Neil Joeck of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (now on the Policy Planning Staff of the U.S. State Department); K. Subrahmanyam, former Defense Production Secretary and Chairman of the National Security Advisory Board in India; and P. R. Chari , Director of the Institute for Peace and Conflict Studies in New Delhi. Presentations were also made by Ambassador T. P. Sreenivsan, Deputy Chief of Mission at the Indian Embassy in Washington (now India’s ambassador to Austria and the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna); the noted Indian historian, Professor Stanley Wolpert of viii PREFACE

UCLA; and Gary Larsen, Executive Director of the Asia Society California Center. They provided a variety of assessments, some supporting the Indian nuclear decision, and others opposing it. A year later, Professor Raju Thomas, the Allis Chalmers Professor of International Affairs at Marquette University, in cooperation with Professor SarDesai of UCLA, decided to put together a volume based on the UCLA conference. The participants at the 1998 UCLA conference, together with other experts, were invited to submit chapters for a volume based on the theme of the conference. At the turn of the century, based on some feedback from the poten- tial contributors, the editors felt that as long as India showed no signs of doing what it did in 1974, that is, reverting back to a nonnuclear position, it would be best to recognize what India is today while allowing for the same assessments for or against India as a nuclear weapons state. Thus the emphasis shifted from whether India should have gone nuclear, to an assessment of the strategic, political, technological, economic, and military dimensions of a nuclear India. The contributors represent a mix of pro-bomb and anti-bomb observers of varying degrees. Raju Thomas explores the various strategic motivations and domestic compulsions underlying India’s nuclear policy over the last 4 decades. These include changing perceptions of regional and global nuclear threats, pressures arising from inter-party politics and coalition governments within India, and the search for great power status. In the aftermath of the terrorist attack on the United States on September 11, 2001, he raises the question whether India’s nuclear capability is relevant when faced with transnational terrorism by nonstate actors. George Perkovich traces the origins of the Indian momentum towards a nuclear weapons capability, examining especially the domestic politics, strategic thought, and technological factors surrounding India’s nuclear decisions. T. V. Paul adopts a more theoretical-strategic analytical scheme in explaining the Indian decision. He examines the relationship between great powers and rising powers determined to challenge the prevailing world order. Foremost among those supporting a major nuclear program by India are K. Subrahmanyam and Bharat Karnad, two members of India’s National Security Advisory Board (NSAB) who drew up India’s draft nuclear doctrine in 1999. In many ways, they provide justifications for their advisory decisions on the NSAB. While Subrahmanyam takes a minimalist approach to deterrence, Karnad takes a maximalist approach. Subrahmanyam criticizes the world order of nuclear apartheid especially in the post-Cold War era of Western dominance and an unrivaled NATO alliance willing to use force to resolve the internal affairs of sovereign states. Karnad argues that India’s nuclear policy should be based on national interests and not be subject to Western pressures. Taking such an approach will compel the West to treat India on par with China as a great power. On the other hand, the main opponent of India’s nuclear decision in 1998 in this volume is the Indian-American scientist, Rajendran Raja, who consid- ers India’s actions as incongruent with Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy, and a demonstration of irresponsibility by the Indian scientific community which he PREFACE ix believes should be using its talents to reduce economic poverty and social ills. He suggests that in the context of the infinite universe of billions of galaxies, the acquisition of nuclear weapons that may destroy the tiny third planet from the sun in this solar system constitute the height of irresponsibility by world leaders who have now been joined by India and Pakistan. Siddharth Varadarajan takes a more middle ground between hawks and doves among the contributing Indian and Indian-American analysts. He argues that going nuclear has not advanced India’s security. All that India has done is emulate blindly the folly of the formal nuclear powers merely to show that this can be done. Nobody appears to be more secure. Jacques Hymans compares the political motivations in France and India in their decisions to go nuclear, much of which he argues revolved around both strategic considerations and prestige factors. Benjamin Sheppard focuses on the missile programs in and around the subcontinent, and Rajesh Kadian explores the role (or non-role) of the Indian armed services in the Indian nuclear decision. Chapters by Deepak Lal, Devesh Kapur, and Peter Lavoy examine the economic aspects of the decision, with Lal focusing on the economics of nuclear weapons, and Kapur and Lavoy on the impact of international sanctions on the Indian economy. Kapur claims little or bearable economic impact, while Lavoy claims substantial adverse impact. Raju Thomas explores the links between India’s nuclear energy program and its nuclear weapons capabilities. He argues that the U.S. nonproliferation policy that imposed economic and technological sanctions on India after its 1974 atomic test did not stem the advances in India’s nuclear weapons capabilities but instead stymied its nuclear energy program and overall energy goals with adverse opportunity costs on its economic growth. In the final section, George Quester draws on the lessons for the region and the world from the failure to stem the proliferation tide in South Asia. The editors would like to thank Anthony Wahl, Roee Raz, Donna Cherry, Sara Safransky, and Aimee Hartmann (editors, copy, and production editors at Palgrave) for their cooperation and assistance in bringing this book project to fruition. Lisa Rivero in Milwaukee complied the index. Buddhika Jayamaha, a graduate Research Assistant at Marquette University, helped in finalizing the manuscripts for the publisher.

D. R. SarDesai Navin and Pratima Doshi Professor of Indian History, UCLA Los Angeles, California

Raju G. C. Thomas Allis Chalmers Professor of International Affairs, Marquette University Milwaukee, Wisconsin This page intentionally left blank CONTRIBUTORS

Jacques E. C. Hymans is a postdoctoral fellow at the Olin Institute for Strategic Studies, Harvard University, 2001–2002. Earlier, he was a predoctoral fellow at the Center for International Security and Cooperation, Stanford University. In September 2001, he defended his doctoral dissertation in the Department of Government at Harvard University. In his doctoral dissertation, “Pride, Prejudice, and Plutonium: Explaining Decisions to Acquire Nuclear Weapons,” Jacques Hymans develops a theory of national identity and emotional decision- making in order to explain global patterns of nuclear proliferation and nonproliferation. His analysis focuses on the nuclear weapons decisions of India, France, Argentina, and Australia, countries in which he conducted extensive field research. He has published articles on nuclear issues in the Non- proliferation Review, the Journal of East Asian Studies, and the Cahiers du Centre d’Etudes d’Histoire de la Defense, as well as in the Hindustan Times and the Telegraph (India). Hymans’ article on Argentine nuclear history, enti- tled “Of Gauchos and Gringos: Why Argentina Never Wanted the Bomb, and Why America Thought it Did,” is forthcoming in Security Studies. He has given numerous conference papers at the American Political Science Association, the International Political Science Association, and other professional meetings, and he also has given lectures on nuclear weapons at the French Ecole Militaire, the Pugwash Association, and the University of London. Hymans’ bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees are all from Harvard University.

Rajesh Kadian is a physician, author, and consulting editor. Between 1978 and 1990, he was a practicing gastroenterologist in Kansas City, and the assistant xii CONTRIBUTORS clinical professor of Medicine at the University of Missouri at Kansas City. He has been an adjunct associate professor for the School of Medicine at Annandale Campus in Fairfax, Virginia. He is the author of India And Its Army (Vision Books, 1990); India’s Sri Lanka Fiasco: Peacekeepers At War (New Delhi: Vision, 1990); The Kashmir Tangle: Issues and Options (Westview Press, 1993); and Tibet, India & China: Critical Choices, Uncertain Future (Vision Books, 1999). He contributed four entries on the Indian military to Reader’s Guide to Military History (Fitzroy Dearborn, 2001), and has published in newspapers such as the Washington Post and the Wall Street Journal. He is the recipient of a U.S. Institute of Peace grant to undertake research on the Tibetan question. He has lectured widely on geostrategic issues at numerous forums including those held at the American University, the College of William and Mary, Georgetown University, the Henry L. Stimson Center, the University of California, Los Angeles, and the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Kadian has testified on Kashmir before the Human Rights Caucus of US House of Representatives; and has appeared on National Public Radio, The News Hour, and numerous Indian-American TV and radio programs. He has published numerous articles in medical journals in the field of gastroenterology, received the Vita and Clarence Goppert Award for Outstanding Work in Gastroenterology in 1975, and was elected a Fellow of the American College of Gastroenterology. Kadian received his M.D. from the Armed Forces Medical College in Poona, India in 1971, and his American Board of Internal Medicine Certification in 1976.

Devesh Kapur is Associate Professor in the Department of Government at Harvard University, Director of Graduate Student Affairs and a faculty associate at the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, and a faculty associate at the Center for International Development at the JFK School of Government at Harvard University. Earlier, he was a program associate at the Brookings Institution in Washington, D.C. His research examines local-global linkages in political and economic change in developing countries, particularly India, focusing especially on the role of international institutions and diaspo- ras. He is the coauthor of The World Bank: Its First Half Century (Brookings, YEAR/) and the author of The Reverse Midas Touch? The Indian State and Economic Development: Lessons from the Indian Petrochemical Industry (Oxford University Press, forthcoming). He has been a consultant for the G- 24 and the UNDP. He received a B.Tech. in chemical engineering from the Institute of Technology, Banaras, India; an M.S. in chemical engineering from the University of Minnesota; and a Ph.D. from the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University.

Bharat Karnad is a Senior Fellow in National Security Studies, Center for Policy Research, New Delhi (since 1996). He was a member of the first National Security Advisory Board (specifically a member of its Nuclear Doctrine Drafting Group, and of the Strategic Defense Review of the External CONTRIBUTORS xiii

Security and Technology Security Groups), and of the National Security Council, Government of India (1998–1999). He was Adviser on Defense Expenditure to the Tenth Finance Commission, Government of India. He also has been consultant on foreign/military affairs and a speechwriter (1990–97) for Jaswant Singh who presently holds the portfolios of both Minister for Defense and External Affairs, and to K. C. Pant, currently Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission. Karnad was the editor of India Week, occasional op/ed page columnist for The Asian Wall Street Journal, Hong Kong (1988–1991), Washington correspondent of The Hindustan Times, New Delhi (1984–1987); assistant editor and roving foreign/war correspondent of The Hindustan Times (1980–1983); and special correspondent in South and Southwest Asia for the Field/World News Service/The Chicago Sun-Times, and The Atlanta Constitution (1979–1983). He has been a visiting fellow, Henry L. Stimson Center in Washington, D.C., and a Ford Senior visiting Scholar in the Arms Control, Disarmament and International Security Program, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign (1995). His publications include Nuclear Weapons and Indian Security (Macmillan, forthcoming); editor and contributor of Future Imperilled: India’s Security in the 1990s and Beyond (Viking, 1994); chapters in several books; and numerous articles in professional/academic journals. He received his B.A. from the University of California, Santa Barbara, and his M.A. in Political Science from the University of California, Los Angeles.

Deepak Lal is the James S. Coleman Professor of Development Studies at UCLA. From 1984-1993, he was a professor of political economics at the University of London, where he became an emeritus. Professor Lal is the author of several books, including Wells and Welfare (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1972), Methods of Project Analysis (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), Appraising Foreign Investment in Developing Countries (Heinemann, 1975), Men or Machines (International Labor Organization, 1978), Prices for Planning (Heinemann, 1980), The Poverty of Development Economics (Harvard University Press, 1983, MIT Press, 2nd edition, 2001), Labor and Poverty in Kenya (Oxford University Press, 1986), The Hindu Equilibrium (Oxford University Press, 1988), Public Policy and Economic Development (Oxford University Press, 1990), Development Economics (Elgar, 1992), The Repressed Economy (Elgar, 1993), The Political Economy of Poverty, Equity and Growth (Oxford University Press, 1996), and Unintended Consequences (MIT Press, 1998). He was educated at Stephen’s College in Delhi and Oxford University.

Peter R. Lavoy is Assistant Professor of National Security Affairs, Associate Chair for Research, and Director of the newly formed Center for the Study of Asymmetric Conflict at the Naval Postgraduate School. He has published numerous articles and book chapters on weapons proliferation and on South Asian security issues. He coedited, with Scott Sagan and James Wirtz, Planning the Unthinkable: How New Powers Will Use Nuclear, Biological and Chemical xiv CONTRIBUTORS

Weapons (Cornell University Press, 2000). His next book is Learning to Live with the Bomb: India and Nuclear Weapons, 1947–2000 (forthcoming). During 1998–2000, Lavoy served in the U.S. Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Strategy and Threat Reduction, most recently acting as Principal Director for Requirements, Plans and Counterproliferation Policy. From June 1998 to June 2000, Lavoy served as Director for Counterproliferation Policy in the Office of the Secretary of Defense, a position he occupied as an International Affairs Fellow of the Council on Foreign Relations. At the Pentagon, Lavoy oversaw a staff that was responsible for developing policies to improve U.S. military capabilities to successfully deter, combat, and defend against the use of nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) weapons and missiles, and to help allies and coalition partners to prepare their armed forces and populations to counter NBC threats. Lavoy received a Ph.D. in Political Science from the University of California, Berkeley and a B.A. in Government from Oberlin College. He has held research positions at the Center for Security and Technology Studies at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and at the Center for International Security and Cooperation at Stanford University.

T. V. Paul is Professor of Political Science at McGill University, Montreal, Canada and Director of the University of Montreal-McGill Research Program in International Security (REGIS). From 1997 to 1998, he was a visiting scholar at Harvard University’s Center for International Affairs (CFIA) and the Olin Institute for Strategic Studies. He served as the assistant editor of Canadian Journal of Political Science from 1995 to 1999. Paul is the author of the books: The World Power and India: Challenge and Integration in the Major Power System (with Baldev Raj Nayar, Cambridge University Press, forthcoming); Power versus Prudence: Why Nations Forgo Nuclear Weapons (McGill-Queens University Press, 2000); Asymmetric Conflicts: War Initiation by Weaker Powers (Cambridge University Press, 1994); and coeditor and contributor to the volumes: International Order and the Future of World Politics (with John A. Hall, Cambridge University Press, 2000); The Absolute Weapon Revisited: Nuclear Arms and the Emerging International Order (with Richard Harknett and James Wirtz (University of Michigan Press, 2000); and The Nation-State in Question (with G. John Ikenberry and John A. Hall, forthcoming). He is currently working on the book projects: The World Order and India: Challenge and Integration in the Major Power System (with Baldev Raj Nayar), and Transitions without War. He received his B.A. from Kerala University, his M.Phil. from Jawaharlal Nehru University in India, and his M.A. and Ph.D. in Political Science from the University of California, Los Angeles.

George Perkovich is a Senior Associate at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and a consultant to the Nuclear Threat Initiative. From 1990 to 2001, he directed the Secure World Program of the W. Alton Jones Foundation. He is the author of India’s Nuclear Bomb (University of California Press), which received the Herbert Feis Award from the American Historical CONTRIBUTORS xv

Association, for outstanding work by an independent scholar, and the A. K. Coomaraswamy Prize from the Association for Asian Studies, for the outstanding book on South Asia. Perkovich’s writing also has appeared in Foreign Affairs, Foreign Policy, the Atlantic Monthly, World Policy Journal, The Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, the New York Times, the Washington Post, the Los Angeles Times, and other publications. He has served on various advisory panels and tasks forces related to South Asian security issues, including the 1997 Council on Foreign Relations Task Force that published “A New U.S. Policy Toward India and Pakistan.” Perkovich received his Ph.D. in Foreign Affairs from the University of Virginia in 1997, his M.A. in Soviet Studies from Harvard University in 1986, and his B.A. in Politics from the University of California at Santa Cruz in 1980.

George H. Quester is Professor of Government and Politics at the University of Maryland, where he teaches courses on International Relations, United States Foreign Policy, and International Military Security. He has taught previously at Harvard and Cornell Universities, at UCLA, and in the Department of Military Strategy at the National War College. From 1991 to 1993, he served as the Olin Visiting Professor at the United States Naval Academy. Quester is the author of nine books and numerous articles on international security issues, and on broader questions of international relations, including The Politics of Nuclear Proliferation (Johns Hopkins University Press, YEAR) and Nuclear Monopoly (Transaction Books, YEAR), and he is a member of the International Institute for Strategic Studies and the Council on Foreign Relations.

Rajendran Raja was educated at Cambridge University, England where he was successively elected Exhibitioner and Senior Scholar and awarded a Prize Fellowship of the college in 1973. In 1969, he was elected President of the Cambridge University India Society and organized the Gandhi Centenary Debate in Cambridge that year. He got his Ph.D in particle physics from Cambridge University’s Cavendish Laboratory in 1975, during which time, he shared an office with Professor Otto Frisch, the father of atomic fission. Partly as a result of a suggestion by Frisch, he sought work at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), where he is currently Senior Scientist. Since 1985, he has played a major role in the D-Zero experiment at Fermilab, which resulted in the discovery of the top quark in 1995. He is currently heavily involved in the Neutrino Factory/Muon Collider collaboration which attempts to invent a new form of particle accelerator using Muons, a heavy version of electrons, to study neutrino oscillations. He is the author of over 200 articles in leading physics journals and has edited several conference proceedings.

Damodar R. Sardesai is the Navin and Pratima Doshi Professor of Indian History at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA). He has been on the faculty of UCLA since 1966. He was the Department of History’s Vice-Chair and Chair and has also served as Director of the University of xvi CONTRIBUTORS

California’s Education Abroad Program in New Delhi. He was invited to be the visiting Chairman of the Department of History of the University of Bombay from 1971 to 1973, to reorganize the university’s History Department. The recipient of many academic awards, SarDesai was elected President of the prestigious (formerly Royal) Asiatic Society of Bombay (1989–99), and Fellow of the Royal Historical Society, Great Britain in 1979. SarDesai has authored and edited a dozen books on history and international studies. These include: Indian Foreign Policy in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, 1947–1964 (University of California Press, 1968); British Trade and Expansion in Southeast Asia, 1870–1914 (South Asia Books, 1977); Southeast Asia, Past and Present, Fourth Edition (Westview Press, 1997); Vietnam, Trials and Tribulations of a Nation (Promilla, 1989); and Vietnam, Past and Present, Third Edition, (Westview Press, 1998). He was educated at Bombay University and UCLA. from where he received his Ph.D. in History.

Ben Sheppard is Defense Analyst at Jane’s Information Group and a regular contributor for various Jane s publications, writing on ballistic missile proliferation. Publications Sheppard has written for include Jane s Defence Weekly, Jane s Intelligence Review, The Bulletin on Arms Control, and The War Studies Journal. In addition Sheppard contributed a chapter on missile proliferation in India and Pakistan to India’s Nuclear Security, and authored and coedited a Jane’s Special Report titled “Ballistic Missile Proliferation: Identifying the Real Threats”. Sheppard also organizes the annual Jane’s Missile Proliferation conference. He received his M.Sc.Econ. in Strategic Studies at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth in 1996, after concluding a B.Sc.Econ (Honours) in International Politics at the same institution. During this time he spent a year as an exchange student at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. He is working currently on his Ph.D. thesis at Kings College, University of London, dealing with ballistic missile proliferation.

K. Subrahmanyam joined the Indian Administrative Service in 1951. He served as the Home Secretary for Tamil Nadu from 1975 to 1976. From 1968 to 1975 and from 1980 to 1987, he served as the Director for the Institute for Defense Studies & Analysis, New Delhi. Mr. Subrahmanyam was also a Rockefeller Fellow at the London School of Economics, a past Visiting Professor and Nehru Fellow at St. John’s College, Cambridge University. He has published over a dozen books, including India and the Nuclear Challenge, Nuclear Proliferation and International Security, and Indian Security Perspectives. He is now the Consulting Editor (Foreign Affairs) for the Times of India and the Economic Times.

Raju G. C. Thomas is the Allis Chalmers Professor of International Affairs at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He was a Visiting Fellow at Harvard University (1980–1981 and 1988–1989), UCLA (1982–1983), the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1988–1989), the International Institute CONTRIBUTORS xvii for Strategic Studies in London (1991–1992), and the University of Wisconsin- Madison (1994). Between 1992 and 1997, he was the Co-director of the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee and Marquette University’s Joint Center for International Studies. Thomas’ dozen books and edited/coedited books include The Defence of India: A Budgetary Perspective (Macmillan-India, 1978); Indian Security Policy (Princeton University Press, 1986); South Asian Security in the 1990s (IISS-London/Brasseys, 1993); Democracy Security and Development in India (St. Martin’s Press/Macmillan, 1996); The Great Power Triangle and Asian Security (Lexington Books, 1982); Energy and Security in the Industrializing World (University Press of Kentucky, 1990); Perspectives on Kashmir (Westview Press, 1992); The South Slav Conflict: Religion, Nationalism and War (Garland Publishing, 1996); The Nuclear Non- Proliferation Regime (Macmillan & St. Martin’s Press, 1998); and India’s Nuclear Security (Lynne Rienner/Sage, 2000). Between 1997 and 2001, he wrote most of the sections on India for Jane’s Sentinel/Jane’s Information of Great Britain. Thomas has published over 35 book chapters and 30 articles in academic journals. He has delivered numerous overseas lectures in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Britain, Canada, Australia, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, Sweden, France, and Germany. Between 1965 and 1969, he worked for British multinational corporations in India. Thomas was educated in economics at Bombay University and the London School of Economics, in international relations at the University of Southern California, and in political science at UCLA from where he obtained his Ph.D.

Siddharth Varadarajan is a senior editor and Deputy Chief of the National Bureau of The Times of India. He has been one of the main foreign correspon- dents for the Times of India having reported extensively from the war zones in Iraq, the former Yugoslavia (the only Indian journalist to report out of Belgrade as NATO bombs fell in 1999), and from Afghanistan during the civil war there. He has covered Pakistan and Bangladesh frequently on special reporting assignments. Apart from writing regularly on international affairs and Indian politics, he is the author of a major study on the Indian media and communalism, published as “The Ink Link Media, Communalism and the Evasion of Politics,” in K. N. Pannikar, The Concerned Indian’s Guide to Communalism (Viking, 1999). He is currently writing a book on Indian foreign policy. He stud- ied at the London School of Economics and Columbia University, and taught at New York University before returning to India in 1995.