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UNIVERSITY of WATERLOO Faculty of Arts Cold War Kids UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO Faculty of Arts Cold War Kids: The Space Race, Cold War and Video Games HIST 491 Waterloo, Ontario Prepared by David Hussey ID 20332825 December 20, 2013 Contents List of Abbreviations ii Introduction 1 The Space Race and Spacewar! 3 Détente and Echoes of the Space Race 7 The Cold War Heats Up and Missile Command 11 The Rise of Nintendo and Fall of the Cold War 16 Conclusion 20 Appendix A: Doomsday Clock Timeline 22 Appendix B: Atari 2600 manual for Missile Command (1980) 25 Appendix C: Atari 5200 manual for Missile Command (1982) 29 Bibliography 34 i List of Abbreviations ABM Anti-ballistic missile ICBM Intercontinental ballistic missile MIRV Multiple independently targetable reentry veHicle MIT MassacHusetts Institute of TecHnology NATO NortH Atlantic Treaty Organization USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ii Introduction The sky is falling, literally. ICBMs are raining from above onto the cities below. Anti-missile batteries desperately try and stop the hellfire but there are too many targets. To make matters worse, the missiles split into multiple warHeads and now there are tHree times as many incoming tHreats. A city below is Hit, incinerated instantly in a brigHt musHroom cloud. One after anotHer, eacH city is destroyed by one of the seemingly endless Hail of nukes until all tHat remains is a desolate wasteland. A brigHt ligHt flasHes and the words “The End” write across the screen. You have lost but are free to put another quarter into tHe macHine and defend tHe world again. This scene is from the arcade game Missile Command (1980) in which tHe player must defend six cities from endless waves of smart bombs, ICBMs and MIRVs.1 WHile a source of entertainment in Missile Command, the threat of nuclear war was terrifyingly real for tHe average American citizen during the Cold War. The Cold War was arguably tHe most important event of tHe second Half of the twentieth century. In particular, people of the United States were heavily influenced by the state of the Cold War. Lasting from 1945 to approximately 1991, its impact was felt across multiple generations. Throughout this 46-year period, popular culture reflected tHe mindset of tHe public in regards to the conflict. While film and music are incredibly important for the social history of this period, video games sHared a special relationship with the Cold War. Video games were born in tHe late 50’s. THis new media was a cHild of tHe Space Race and the Cold War. The intimate relationsHip between tHe Cold War and 1 Missile Command, developed by Atari Inc. (United States: Atari Inc., 1980). 1 video games can be seen witH tHe different types of games tHat come out during tHe highs and lows of Soviet-American relations. This paper will investigate tHe impact of Cold War events on video games from tHe early 60’s until tHe fall of tHe Berlin Wall in 1989. Close reading of video games is a relatively new practice in tHe Humanities. It is rare to find Historical researcH tHat looks at video games as a primary source but that is exactly what this paper will do. Video games became multi-billion dollar industry in the U.S. in the late 1970’s and Have become an even bigger part of American culture since tHen.2 While the storyline and gameplay provides tHe most information about a video game, otHer material like manuals and contemporary reviews in video game magazines can be valuable. This paper will use video games to explore tHe impact of tHe Cold War on American society. There are four main eras to consider wHen writing about video games and the Cold War: the 60’s and the space race, détente and echoes of space during the 1970’s, the Cold War revival in the early 1980’s, and its conclusion in the second half of the decade. In the 1960’s, video games were in their infancy. Spacewar! (1962) was one of tHe only video games of note but its influence from tHe Space Race is evident.3 Moving into the 1970’s, the Space Race’s impact can be seen on all sorts of media, including video games. During tHis time of détente, tHe Cold War is seen less in games but changed drastically after Ronald Reagan took office in 1981. During the revival of tHe Cold War in tHe early to mid 80’s, video games focused mucH more on 2 “Video game industry,” Video Game Sales Wiki, accessed December 12, 2013, http://vgsales.wikia.com/wiki/Video_game_industry. 3 Spacewar!, developed by Steve Russell et al (Cambridge, MA: unpublished, 1962). 2 Cold War content. However, in tHe time leading rigHt up to tHe fall of the Berlin Wall, games stepped back from tHe Cold War entirely as it deescalated. During this approximately tHirty-year period, video game content was influenced by the rise and fall of hostilities between the USSR and the United States. The Space Race and Spacewar! 1962 was an important year for the United States of America. The Cuban Missile Crisis was one of tHe most anxious events of the Cold War and was arguably the closest tHat botH nations came to nuclear war. It was a trying time in American history but there were still signs of hope for tHe American people. After falling beHind the Soviets in the Space Race, in 1962 the US began to the retake the lead. The Soviets had been the first to test an ICBM, and were first to put a satellite and Human into orbit. However, in early 1962, JoHn Glenn became tHe first American to orbit the earth during the Mercury-Atlas 6 mission. Later that year, on September 12, 1962, President John F. Kennedy declared, while speaking at Rice University, made His famous proclamation tHat tHe United States would, “go to tHe moon in tHis decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard.”4 This reaffirmed His reasons for going to tHe moon, wHicH he outlined in an address to congress on May 25, 1961.5 THe Apollo program Had begun and its impact would be felt across popular culture for decades. 4 JoHn F. Kennedy, “Address at Rice University on tHe Nation’s Space Program” (speecH, Houston TX, September 12, 1962), American RHetoric, http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkriceuniversity.Htm. 5 JoHn F. Kennedy, “SpeecH to Congress on Urgent National Needs” (speecH, WasHington DC, May 25, 1961), American Rhetoric, http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkjointsessionurgentnationalneeds.htm. 3 Science fiction movies and books had already gained popularity by the 1950’s. The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951)6, The War of the Worlds (1953)7, Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956)8 and Plan 9 From Outer Space (1959)9 are only a small sample of some of tHe space related movies tHat were released during tHis time. THe Space Race Had already left an impact on popular culture by tHe late 50’s but would only continue and expand into tHe 1960’s. It was in tHe atmospHere tHat video games were conceived. In 1962, a Handful of tHe earliest programmers at MIT created one the first computer video game, Spacewar!. THe team of Wayne Witanen, Alan Kotok, Dan Edwards, Peter Samson, J. Martin Graetz and Steve “Slug” Russell began working on Spacewar! after they gained access to a PDP-1, a brand new microcomputer.10 These students wanted to create an interactive program tHat made people excited about tHe power of computers. In the early 60’s, computers were tHe newest in technology but they did not do anything interesting. Graetz Himself in a Creative ComputinG article from 1981 said tHat computers of tHe time, “just did tHe same dull thing over and over.”11 It was this simple notion that led to the creation of Spacewar! Completed in early 1962, Spacewar! let two players take control of spaceships as they flew around and attempted destroy eacH otHer witH missiles. To add more 6 The Day the Earth Stood Still, directed by Robert Wise (Hollywood, CA: 20th Century Fox, 1951). 7 The War of the Worlds, directed by Byron Haskin (Hollywood, CA: Paramount Pictures, 1953). 8 Invasion of the Body Snatchers, directed by Don Siegel (Hollywood, CA: Allied Artists Pictures Corporation, 1956). 9 Plan 9 from Out Space, directed by Ed Wood (Hollywood, CA: Valiant Pictures, 1959). 10 JoHn Markoff, “A Long Time Ago, in a Lab Far Away…,” New York Times, last modified MarcH 1, 2002, accessed December 6, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/28/technology/a-long-time-ago-in- a-lab-far-away.Html?src=pm. 11 J.M. Graetz, “THe Origin of Spacewar,” Creative ComputinG 7, no. 8 (1981): 60, accessed from the Internet Archive, https://archive.org/details/creativecomputing-1981-08. 4 challenge, the players needed to avoid a star that pulled at both sHips with its gravity. The gameplay of Spacewar! is simple by today’s standards but at tHe time this was revolutionary. Places like MIT were tHe perfect incubators for tHe first video games. MucH of the researcH for the Space Race was done on tHe first computers, most of which were located at universities. THe culture of tHe Space Race also impacted tHe programmers tHat made Spacewar!. Steve Russell in an interview with Stewart Brand for Rolling Stone magazine said tHat His inspiration to design a game based in space came from reading Doc SmitH’s Lensman series, wHicH was released from 1948 to 1954.12 Spacewar! was a, “direct expression of the Space Race and the global fear of space war.”13 At a time wHen America’s space program was constantly in tHe news and in public eye, Spacewar! reflected tHe times.
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