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January 2009 "Some Satisfactory Way": Lincoln and Black Freedom in the District of Columbia Edna Greene Medford Howard University, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Medford, Edna Greene, ""Some Satisfactory Way": Lincoln and Black Freedom in the District of Columbia" (2009). History Department Faculty Publications. Paper 58. http://dh.howard.edu/hist_fac/58

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Lincolnand BlackFreedom in theDistrict ofColumbia

byEdna GreeneMedford

OnApril 16, 1862, sixty-one-year-old of $800 for the "excellent carpenter and fair Nicholas became a freeman. Prior to blacksmith."1 But the three-man commis

his emancipation, Nicholas had lived sion charged with reviewing such claims of as a a assessment and labored slave in the nations capital, fered painfully modest ofNicho men to a mere where free professed honor the princi las's worth; Hill received $21.90 for was more ples espoused in the Declaration of Indepen the loss of his slave.2 Yet that far as dence. Itwould take congressional action and than Nicholas himself received compensa concurrence to a the president's elevate Nich tion for lifetime of labor. As emancipated was to a olas and his fellow African Americans from "property," he entitled nothing but to was chattel humankind. Even then, his worth certificate of freedom?which he required more cents. and that of the than 3,000 other men, to purchase for 25 ex women, and children who gained their free The bill that brought about Nicholas's statute was dom by the measured in strictly traordinary legal transformation reached Pres economic terms. Nicholas's it owner, ident Abraham Lincoln three days after a was on resident Clement Hill, had claimed value passed by Congress. It then sat lifeless the president's desk for nearly two additional PresidentLincoln theDistrict Columbia signed of days.3 Orville Browning, Illinois senator and Act into law on 16, 1862, a Emancipation April long-time Lincoln friend, suggested motive more than3,000 enslaved in . . . me therebyfreeing people for the president's delay. "He told that the nations National Archives. not capital he would sign the bill beforeWednesday," wrote in on Browning his diary Monday, April Edna Greene Medford isAssociate Lyrofessorof 14: at History Howard University. ProfessorMed in a ford specializes the history of the nineteenth that old Gov Wickliffe [at the time century South, Civil War and Reconstruction. congressman from Kentucky] had two a servants were She is co-author ofThe Emancipation Proc family with him who sick lamation: Three Views. ly, and who would not be benefited by

5 6 WashingtonHistory 2009

not freedom, and wanted time to remove dent-elect that "Upon my word I have giv en a them, but would not get them out of the the subject thought."7 He had been famil in City untilWednesday, and that the Gov iarwith bondage the nations capital early to on in career it had come frankly him and asked for his political and had observed as a one-term Il time. He added tome that thiswas told firsthand congressman from in the strictest confidence.4 linois in the late 1840s. District slavery during was Lincoln's congressional years characterized While Lincoln delayed, anxious supporters primarily by domestic work and the usual la an and opponents lobbied the president. Charac bor associated with urban-based economy. own Americans in some teristically, he kept his counsel, refusing Enslaved African labored to reveal his decision to either group. When of the most prominent homes ofWashington into on as cham he signed the bill law themorning of City and Georgetown, housekeepers, a let April 16, he simultaneously submitted bermaids, seamstresses, body servants, cooks, them ter in which he expressed certain unrealized and launderers. Various businesses held in com to service as and semi-skilled laborers: as preferences but remained steadfast his skilled to mitment ending slavery in the city. "I have blacksmiths, bricklayers, carpenters, upholster not ers, and doubted the Constitutional authority of draymen, teamsters, waiters, porters. to in The areas of the Congress abolish slavery this District," outlying District?Washing ever to see ton where slaves he began, "and I have desired the County?supported farms, in in a manner consistent with the uti national Capital freed from the institution worked on tracts of some satisfactoryway."5 lization of unfree labor moderate on rest In the last few years, Lincoln's position land in the of the South.8 re of District slavery and abolition has been thoroughly Another key feature slavery one institution searched, but his boldness in issuing the Eman (and that characterized the inmost was the of hir cipation Proclamation of 1863 has under urban areas) practice most out. an owner leased standably received the attention. From ing Under this system, to to a or Lerone Bennett's observation that Lincoln was his slave the government, business, to a to a District residents and a white supremacist committed continu private individual. to as counties in ation of black bondage Allen Guelzo's slaveholders from neighboring a in this sertion that prudent and cautious Lincoln Maryland and engaged prac secured the freedom of the slaves, historians tice, which scattered the black population Scholars have and often families. have generated spirited debate.6 separated Nevertheless, some a certain directed far less attention to Lincoln's earlier, hiring out could afford slaves es of and the more conservative, plan of emancipation, degree independence opportunity as in to earn a little Slaves who were pecially reflected his support for freedom money. per mitted to hire their own time selected where in the nation's capital. A review of his ideas for se abolition in the District reveals a more com and forwhom theywould work and often the chal cured for with plex emancipator who struggled with lodging themselves, frequently as with free black households. were allowed lenges presented natural rights clashed Many as to to retain a small of their as what many perceived the right property portion earnings as an incentive behavior."9 Over the and which slaveholders claimed their legal for "good entitlement. course of years, they might accumulate suf to own As his letter accompanying the signed Dis ficient funds purchase their freedom, trict in owner Emancipation Bill revealed, slavery the if the consented. A degree of relative federal enclave had engaged Lincoln's think independence distinguished District slav ing for a while, his claim as from themore restrictive and good despite presi ery controlling Lincoln and Black Freedom in theDistrict ofColumbia 7

Washington, 1850. By mid-century,the majority ofAfrican Americans in theDistrict ofColumbia werefree. A few operated theirown businesses.Water color byMontgomery C. Meigs. Library ofCongress. environment endured by enslaved people in fairman," believed that he had the capacity for care to neighboring rural counties. taking of himself, "and "decided let [his same Despite these seeming advantages, enslaved owner] have the chance."11 people in the District of Columbia longed Fear of being sold away from family and overcame to for freedom, and when the desire friends prompted others flee the District. en them they took leave of their place of bond Abolition of the transatlantic trade made was case age. Such the with twenty-four-year slaved people in the Upper South especial owner old George, who stole away from his in ly valuable, given the market for labor in the so 1857, and, like many of his fellow bonds expanding Cotton Kingdom. Susan Stewart, a men and women, made his way to Canada. who had been "held to labor" by series of to a to run A "convert the doctrine that he had right owners, decided away upon learning man was cur to himself," the young had tried to pur that she about to be sold again. Her chase his freedom on five separate occasions, rent owner, a man of moderate means, "fol owner but his had refused his offers.10Similar lowed droving." His need formoney increased to a ly, thirty-one-year-old Randolph, anguished her chance of being added slave coffle des to no serve an by his bondage, resolved longer tined for the .12 Georges motiva owner master not owner. "without privileges." His did tion for flight had been the death of his use estate him harshly, Randolph admitted; his fail He feared that in settling the his young ure was that where slaves were concerned, he mistress would sell him, as she had his broth "didn't believe in freedom." For his part,Wil ers and a cousin the year before.13 owner liam, who considered his "a tolerable This domestic slave trade had always been 8 * WashingtonHistory 2009

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a a source a com topic of considerable interest and The Pearl incident further polarized over of great consternation. Slave markets operated munity already divided the issue of black openly and notoriously within blocks of the freedom. The flight of enslaved people, pre assis Capitol, embarrassing those who recognized sumably with the encouragement and tance the hypocrisy of trafficking in human beings of abolitionists, enraged proslavery forc es in The of the within sight of Americas symbol of liberty.14 the city. plight Pearls passen to a movement to Throughout the antebellum period, attempts gers helped spawn prohibit at had been made to abolish slavery or, the the slave trade in the District.19 In Decem very least, halt the trade thatmade theDistrict ber, congressman Daniel Gott in "one of the greatest and most cruel slave mar troduced a resolution that declared the slave to kets in theworld," but proslavery forces always trade in theDistrict of Columbia "contrary thwarted such attempts.15 Lincoln himself ob natural justice and the fundamental principles our . . . a served that "in full view from thewindows of of political system and serious hin a sort to the capitol, of negro livery stable, where derance the progress of republican liberty to droves of negroes were collected, temporarily among the nations of the earth."20A bill end to was kept, and finally taken southern markets, the trade introduced in theHouse of Rep precisely like droves of horses, had been open resentatives in January 1849 but died amid in tense lymaintained for fiftyyears."16 opposition by proslavery congressmen.21 over con The controversy slavery and the slave As Congress debated the bill's merits and term a trade intensified during Lincoln's inCon stitutionality, Lincoln chose different path. as a or gress, primarily consequence of the Pearl Instead of supporting Gott's resolution the incident, so named for the ill-fated schooner slave trade measure, he offered a resolution of as a own in that served would-be escape vessel for 77 his which he encouraged the Commit mostly enslaved men, women, and children tee on theDistrict of Columbia to submit a bill to who attempted to flee the city inApril 1848.17 end not just the District's slave trade, but a man The escapees included free black who slavery itself in the jurisdiction. The proposal to avert was as sought the sale of his enslaved wife intended a compromise towin support on were and their eight children. Also board from both the pro- and antislavery factions. It six members of the Edmonson family?sis forbade the enslavement of any person "not tersMary and Emily and four of their broth now within theDistrict of Columbia, nor now ers. a man Their parents, free and his enslaved owned by any person or persons now resident wife, resided inMaryland and doubtless fret within it, nor hereafter born within it." Simi over ted the circumscribed lives of their bond larly, it stipulated that anyone currentlywithin children.18Apprehended after becalmed winds theDistrict, hereafter born within it or owned stayed the ship's sails, the "freedom seekers" by someone in residence there, could not be were to returned theDistrict where they await transported and held as a slave outside of its ed to the South. boundaries. was to accom transport Deep Exception made on modate those "public business" from the states. Slaves in Slave Market of America, 1836. Visitors to and res slaveholding currently residing the or owned District residents identsof theDistrict ofColumbia were accustomed jurisdiction by to would be freed "at the will of their seeingvisible evidence of slaveryand the slave respective auctions owners, their heirs and trade, including and prisons where human legal representatives" was from the federal 'property" keptwhile awaiting sale. This broad upon receipt government of was for their side issuedby moderate abolitionists in a petition payment full value. Lincoln's propos at al campaign aimed abolishing slaveryin thenations further provided for apprenticeship of all capital Library ofCongress. children born to women still enslaved "on or 10 * WashingtonHistory 2009

1849 resolution offered an indication of what come would later. It postulated three of the four elements that would shape his thinking on as emancipation it developed during the first two years of the Civil War?that slave holders should be compensated, that emanci must re pation should be gradual, and that it flect thewill of the electorate. Lincolns position on slavery and its eradi cation was based on his assessment of certain guarantees and constraints either stated or im in con plied the Constitution. Although he sidered slavery morally wrong, he acknowl to states edged its importance the slaveholding as and accepted the notion of slaves legally was held property that lawfully protected like any other. So, not only would owners have to to be economically motivated give up their property, they were also entitled to compen sation for their losses. In effect, he proposed that the federal serve as Abraham Lincoln government purchaser Congressman-elect ofLllinois, of human before itwas released from in1846. Near the end ofhis single term in the property saw as Lincoln a resolution to end and he House, proposed slavery bondage, gradual emancipation a between and in theDistrict ofColumbia. This is the onlyknown compromise perpetual slavery immediate freedom. He claimed that daguerreotypeof Lincoln. Library ofCongress. gradu alism would benefit not just slaveholders but slaves themselves, by saving them "from the must after the 1st day of January, 1850." Children vagrant destitution which largely attend would be born free but required to labor for immediate emancipation in localities where owner are the mother's until they reached an age their numbers very great."23 to owners even yet be determined. In return, would Finally, though Congress had jurisdic to ensure were over be obliged that the apprentices tion the affairs of the District of Colum "reasonably supported and educated." Lest bia, Lincoln believed that its residents?the slaves from the neighboring counties inMary white men, that is?should be given the op to on land and Virginia seek freedom in the nation's portunity exercise their political voice au capital, Lincoln called for the municipal the issue of emancipation within their bor to thorities ofWashington and Georgetown ders. InMarch 1837, while serving his second arrest return to own term ex fugitives and them their in the Illinois legislature, Lincoln had ers. Finally, District residents would be given pressed support for the right of District resi to or was to the opportunity voice their approval re dents to decide what become of slavery jection of any emancipation bill.22 there. He and fellow legislator, Daniel Stone, was never to out a Lincoln's proposal adopted; he had felt compelled stake moderate po on as later complained that support he had been sition the issue of slavery other legisla promised was withdrawn. (A year later the tors supported proslavery resolutions. Lincoln no con abolished the slave trade, and Stone argued that Congress had not to but slavery, in the District.) Yet Lincoln's stitutional authority interferewith slavery Lincoln and Black Freedom in theDistrict ofColumbia ^ 11

new Lincolnsfirst inaugural ceremony,March 4, 1861. The president signaledhis intentionnot to interfere with theSouths "peculiar institution"by pledging to enforceall laws, including theFugitive Slave Act. Library ofCongress.

in even it one term the states, and though did have the Lincoln spent only in Congress; to as legal right abolish the institution in theDis his return to the capital would be the na trict not to most of Columbia, "that power ought tions president in its challenging time. at on be exercised unless the request of the people In the interim, he had honed his views not retreat a of said District."24 Lincoln would slavery and had become key figure in the over from that position until disunion compelled debate its extension. After the Kansas to on him drop his insistence public accep Nebraska Act polarized and destroyed the tance of as a to emancipation. Whig Party political entity and helped 12 *i WashingtonHistory 2009

to launch the Republican Party, Lincoln became Congress possesses the constitutional power to a passionate critic of attempts expand the abolish it."Yet, he continued, institution where itdid not currently exist. In as a I his 1854 address in Peoria, Illinois, given in member of Congress, should not, in favor of en response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act's repeal with my present views, be to in Dis of the Missouri Compromise, he declared deavoring abolish slavery the in its let trict of unless it would be the legislation "wrong direct effect, Columbia, ? these conditions. that the ab ting slavery into Kansas and Nebraska and upon First, that it wrong in its prospective principle, allowing olition should be gradual; second, to on a vote of the of it to spread every other part of the wide should be majority voters world, where men can be found inclined to qualified in theDistrict; and third, that should be made to take it."25Lincoln argued that the fathers of compensation to owners.28 the republic intended contain slavery, that unwilling in" they "hedged and hemmed it by refusing Lin to mention the institution or its victims by Borrowing the language of Henry Clay, to from our name in the Constitution, by prohibiting the coln expressed his desire "sweep our international slave trade after 1808, and by capital that 'foul blot' upon nation."29 measures he lost the Illinois senato passing other that proved hostile Although 1858 to to return to the rial race to his Democratic he went it.He urged his audience opponent, on to the standard bearer spirit of 1776. "Our republican robe is soiled, become Republican us two His and trailed in the dust," he declared. "Let in the presidential election years later. so the slavehold turn and wash itwhite in the spirit... of the victory angered and alarmed states seceded from the Revolution."26 ing that eleven of them Union rather than trust his pledge of non-in that southern slaveholders terferencewith slavery. to Lincoln's second of residence in the Acknowledginghad Constitutional rights their human period exi property, he wondered what he would do, had District would be largely consumed by the to war: to itwith he the power. "My first impulse would be gencies of civil how prosecute out how to free all the slaves, and send them to Liberia alienating the loyal border states, ? to their own native land," he declared. But preserve theUnion without trampling civil lib that "If were all and how to the he rejected this, noting they erties, manage problem posed who were them landed there in a day, theywould all perish in by enslaved people availing created the chaos the next ten days." Freeing the slaves and keep selves of the opportunity by was around them to secure their freedom. Attract ing them inAmerica equally problematic, not to the District because itwas the of he felt, since they could be made equal, ed capital was not the nation and the center of the Union, and having them remain dependent they a burden on limited resources and elic satisfactory.27 placed a was not In the next few years, Lincoln continued ited response from authorities that the refrain of slavery's containment, sharpen always humane. in his de When Lincoln took the oath of office as ing his argument, especially 1858 States bates with Illinois senatorial incumbent Ste the sixteenth president of the United In he also inMarch the of the Dis phen A. Douglas. those exchanges, 1861, population trict of numbered reiterated his position on District emancipa Columbia approximately over of them of tion. At Freeport, he declared that he "should 75,000, just 14,000 people to see abolished African descent. the vast be exceedingly glad slavery Interestingly, major ... in the District of Columbia I believe that ityof blacks?more than 11,000?were free.30 Lincoln and Black Freedom in theDistrict ofColumbia Y> 13

states. In The lopsided demographic reflected the Dis the border November 1861 he pro two a tricts tendency to attract free blacks from the posed plans of abolition for Delaware, state even surrounding slaveholding jurisdictions, where with fewer slaves than the District. an entrenched system of slavery challenged the Consistent with his earlier stance, both called status ability of the free to sustain their and for gradual, compensated emancipation. One provide for themselves and their families. Al plan would have ended slavery by 1867, while it though they still suffered under theweight of the other could have extended for another black codes adopted fromMaryland and Vir generation. Despite this conservative approach to never ginia, they enjoyed opportunities unavailable abolition, Lincoln's proposals reached two states. as in the rural communities of those theDelaware legislature, slaveholding inter ests Despite these advantages, the overall black rejected both.34 not to population did change significantly be While Lincoln sought convince Dela war ware tween 1850 and 1860. But during the politicians of the wisdom of emancipa more moment. than 40,000 fugitives sought asylum in tion, Congress seized the Members or the capital.31 The inability disinclination of of the Committee for the District of Colum to status in District officials ascertain the legal of bia had become involved investigating the in at blacks sometimes resulted the illegal detain abuses the city jail, which Lincoln's close men women as ing of free and and the incarcera friend,Ward Hill Lamon, controlled Dis run tion of slaves who had away from rebel trictmarshal. Lincoln had appointed Lamon masters (not to mention runaways from loy to the position, but his old friend came under an to to al Unionists). In fact, in effort appease attack for failure properly supervise person to restore at to southern slaveholders and theUnion nel the jail.When Congress attempted re quickly, Lincoln himself encouraged the investigate the charges leveled against him and turn to owners to access to of runaways theirVirginia in the jailors, Lamon tried block their summer to the first of the war.32 But the presi the facility by requiring visitors secure spe to com dents hands-off policy did nothing deter cial permits.35 Despite such tactics, the to enslaved people. They continued pour into mittee vigorously pursued the investigation. some were in the District, where incarcerated Its findings confirmed widespread physical notorious some were the "Blue Jug," the city jail. Oth abuse of inmates, of whom fugi ers owners. suffered from squalor and overcrowding tives from rebel The committee also in one were of the several contraband camps that found evidence that persons being held a as dotted the District after Congress enacted fugitives after it had been determined that law that confiscated the slaves of Confederates they were actually free. The intense scrutiny to war to who used their property wage against convinced Lamon tender his resignation, the Union.33 but Lincoln refused to accept it.36 Despite his contention that the sole aim of In the midst of the Lamon affair,Congress war was the preservation of the Union, Lin pressed forward in its campaign against slav was cause coln recognized that slavery the of ery in theDistrict. In December 1861, Massa not senator the conflict. Although he did sign the First chusetts Henry Wilson, a stalwart ad Confiscation Act with any great enthusiasm, vocate of freedom, introduced a bill "for the he believed that if slaveholders who had re mained in the Union took the lead in abol From Secrets Overleaf: of the Prison-House, 1861. the resolve of the as was ishing slavery, Confederacy The cityjail, known locally the "bluejug," the to weaken. Rather than scene might begin pressing ofmuch sufferingand abuse of enslavedpeople for in theDistrict of run owners. emancipation Columbia, who had awayfrom their Library of he a action one sought solution through by of Congress. Pro. 88 2?, i8

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property. In order to receive such compensa an tion, they had to provide oath of loyalty to con theUnion and descriptive information act cerning each slave they held. The charged the president with appointing three commis sioners who "shall investigate and determine the validity and value of the claims therein . . . presented and appraise and apportion" the amount of compensation. The commissioners were to on no more authorized award, average, than $300 for each slave emancipated. Those owners to to found be disloyal the government would have their claims denied.38 Congress al located one million dollars for its emancipa tion plan and another hundred thousand for the voluntary colonization of the freed people outside of the United States. Finally, the Dis trict Emancipation Bill repealed those laws that had supported the institution of slavery.39 to Opposition this perceived radical legis lation had been fierce. Although the absence Illinois senatorand and long-timefriend confidant of representatives from the Confederate states the Orville recalledLincolns of president Browning facilitated its passage, anti-abolition elements that theDistrict Bill to disappointment Emancipation still remained shape congressional debate. did notprovide for emancipation. Library of state were vo gradual Border representatives especially Congress. ciferous in their objections, but certain north ern even more mem congressmen, moderate to or Release of certain Persons held Service bers of the Republican Party, questioned the in concerns Labor the District of Columbia." The final merit of freeingDistrict slaves. Their were bill, aftermodification, stipulated, manifold. Some challenged the idea that to Congress had any constitutional right abol to or That all persons held service labor ish slavery anywhere in the country, even the rea within the District of Columbia by District or thewestern territories. Border state son are of African descent hereby dis representatives imagined (correctly, it turned charged and freed of and from all claim out) that abolition in theDistrict would signal to or own such service labor; and from and the death knell of slavery in their states. act to after the passage of this neither slav Maryland's proximity the nation's capital nor to ery involuntary servitude, except for led its representatives believe (also correctly) crime, whereof the party shall be duly that a freeDistrict of Columbia would prove to convicted, shall hereafter exist in said be an irresistible draw to the state's own slaves. District.37 Northern Democrats and Republicans alike were concerned that abolition would lead to a to a The emancipated person would receive certifi greater emigration their states, possibility cate a of freedom upon payment of small fee. that even some proponents of emancipation to a Slaveholders had ninety days submit ap anticipated with degree of trepidation.40 concerns plications for compensation for loss of their The of congressional representa Lincoln and Black Freedom in theDistrict ofColumbia i+ 17

matters tives matched the worries voiced by the local acknowledged Congress's authority in to population. Despite slavery's steady decline pertaining the nation's capital, his fierce de to not over the years, white District residents general votion constitutional guarantees would not to ly could be counted among the abolition permit him fully accept congressional action no consent ist ranks. Since they had political voice in without the of the local population. news Congress, they protested through their Yet Lincoln could take pleasure in certain measures papers and town council representatives. They outlined in the bill.45 It provided for were to even especially troubled by the effort "de compensation, if slaveholders considered a prive them of their property without fair the amount unsatisfactory, and its provision av was equivalent," since they viewed the $300 for voluntary colonization consistent with as a amount. erage compensation paltry Dis the president's long-held opinion that whites to trict residents also objected being burdened and blacks both would be better off if the lat ter with the support of freed people who, they be found homes elsewhere. Successful imple a lieved, would become indigent and incapable mentation of such plan by Congress would to of caring for themselves. They argued that the strengthen his ongoing effort get the bor to a states to resulting tensions would lead worsening der emancipate. He believed that if race of relations in the District.41 he could assure them that they could solve any to was Opposition the bill strong enough potential racial problems attending emancipa to an to garner considerable support for amend tion by simply encouraging black people ment to to start over a or compelling those freed by it consent in society that accepted them, one colonization outside of theUnited States. The that they could shape and control them was states more ame proposed amendment introduced by Ken selves, the border might be senator to to a tucky Garrett Davis, who sought nable striking blow against slavery.To that use defeat the bill by presenting its advocates with end, Lincoln urged of the appropriation an was unsupportable stipulation. The ploy de for black removal that Congress had approved feated, but only afterVice President Hannibal in the District Emancipation Bill. The money a was Hamlin broke nineteen-to-nineteen tie.42 to defray the cost of "settlement of such The on was now bill Lincoln signed April 16 free persons of African descent residing not ... as the emancipating document forwhich he in said District may desire to emigrate were to had hoped. There "matters within and the Republics of Hayti or Liberia, or such above this act," he wrote, "which might have other country beyond the limits of theUnited taken a course or more to as shape, satisfactory States the President may determine."46 to out was my judgment."43 Although he declined By this time Lincoln already working to on line his objections in his letter Congress, he the question of emancipation in the Con concerns in states. shared his with Orville Browning federate In August, Lincoln met with a the two-day period that the unsigned bill lay committee of five black men, all but one of on his desk. to was According Browning, Lincoln whom newly emancipated. They had come said that he the bill to to to "regretted had been passed theWhite House listen the president's in its present form?that it should have been argument for colonization. Lincoln deemed for now two races gradual emancipation?that families the incompatible and blamed "the at once would be deprived of cooks, stable institution of Slavery and the colored race as &c and of their without a boys, they protectors basis" for the war.47 Moreover, he sought to any provision for them."44 persuade themen that therewas no future for Doubtless, Lincoln chafed at the idea that them in America. "Even when you cease to District residents were denied the be are opportuni slaves, you yet far removed from being to vote or on an ty the idea up down. Although he placed equality with thewhite race," he 18 * WashingtonHistory 2009

use After theEmancipation Proclamation authorized the of black men as soldiers,units suchas the4th U.S. Colored win thewar secure Infantryhelped for theUnion and blackfreedom. Library ofCongress.

"Not a man race is union to argued. single of your made had compelled him modify the accept the of a man of ours."48 equal single able "conditions" under which black people Some have encour argued that Lincoln's would be freed. "Military necessity" dictated of blacks to was agement accept colonization that he abandon gradual abolition. Gone, too, more an was nothing than attempt to prepare the insistence on local support of emanci white Americans for broader, more revolu pation. Confederate owners, whose slaves the action. while the main now tionary Indeed, thrust president freed through theWar Powers was to an to issue ultimatum the Confeder clause of the Constitution (which grant the ate states?return to or as the Union face loss of president commander-in-chief in time of slave to or property?his preliminary proclamation, rebellion the authority seize and destroy to on unveiled the public September 22, 1862, the property of enemy or friendwhen such ac stated his intention to recommend that Con tion helped the cause), had by their own hands aid to state to gress provide any wishing adopt simultaneously empowered Lincoln to take either immediate or action to gradual emancipation. and abrogated their right be heard. was a as Colonization feature of his plan well. Loyal border state owners, whose property he the time not By Lincoln issued his final Eman could touch legally, had refused his over Proclamation a tures. cipation hundred days later, Lincoln had dropped the idea of "volun war the undeniable realities attending and dis tarydeportation" as well. Most African Ameri Lincoln and Black Freedom in theDistrict ofColumbia i* 19

AfricanAmericans in the citycelebrate theirfreedom inFranklin Square four years after theDistrict of Columbia Emancipation Act ended slaveryin the nations capital. Library ofCongress.

cans none to would have of it. Black support of District of Columbia encouraged Lincoln move a the Union in the form of service rendered by forward with bolder plan for the Con men nearly 200,000 in uniform strengthened federacy. The Emancipation Proclamation, in the belief among the former slaves and the turn, provided themomentum that ultimately free-born that African Americans had earned secured black freedom throughout the South. to the indisputable right remain in the country By the end of the war, nearly four million as to of their birth. joined Nicholas human beings entitled men women Although it fell short of his definition of take their place among free and across "some satisfactory way," emancipation in the the land. 20 ^ WashingtonHistory 2009

I NOTES I

1. 14. Ernest B. Freedom Wash Dorothy S. Provine, Compensated Emancipa Furgurson, Rising: tion in theDistrict ofColumbia, PetitionsUnder the ingtonin theCivil War (New York: AlfredA. Knopf, Act ofApril 16, 1862 (Westminster,Md.: Heritage 2004), 100. Books, 2005), 112. 15. Ibid, quoting a broadside titled "Slavery and 2. Ibid. the Slave Trade in theDistrict ofColumbia. 3. See Allen C. Guelzo, Lincoln's Emancipation 16. "The Repeal of theMissouri Compromise Proclamation: The End of Slavery inAmerica (New and thePropriety of ItsRestoration: Speech at Peo York: Simon and Schuster, 2004), 282, n53. ria, Illinois, inReply to Senator Douglas, October 4. Orville Hickman Browning, TheDiary ofOr 16, 1854," inAbraham Lincoln: His Speeches and villeHickman Browning, edited with introduction Writings, 289. and notes by Theodore Calvin Pease and JamesG. 17.Washington became the focus of abolition ist because it was the nations Randall, 2 vols., Volume 1, 1850-1864 (Spring agitation capital? seat field: The Trustees of the Illinois State Historical the of freedom and democracy?and because over Library, 1925-33), 541. Microfiche. Congress had authority the city; hence, it to and House of it so 5. "Letter the Senate Represen could abolish slavery there if chose. tatives,April 16, 1862," inRoy P. Basler, ed.,Abra 18. Stanley Harrold, Subversives: Antislavery ham Lincoln: His Speeches andWritings (New York: Community inWashington, D.C, 1828?1865 (Ba Da Capo Press, 1990), 640. tonRouge: StateUniversity Press, 2003), 6. For a discussion of recent studies on Lincoln 118-21. see Lerone Forced into thePearl: TheHe and emancipation, Bennett, 19.Mary Kay Ricks, Escape of Abraham Lincolns White Dream on Glory: (Chicago: roic Bid for Freedom theUnderground Railroad Johnson, 2000); Guelzo, Lincolns Emancipation (New York:William Morrow, 2007), 201. Proclamation; Harold Holzer, Edna Greene Med 20. Quoted inDavid Herbert Donald, Lincoln ford and FrankWilliams, TheEmancipation Procla (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 135. mation: ThreeViews (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State 21. Ibid., 135-36. Burrus in University Press, 2006); and Carnahan, 22. "Remarks and Resolution Introduced the of Concern Act ofJustice: Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation United States House Representatives in theDistrict of Colum and theLaw ofWar (Lexington:University Press of ingAbolition of Slavery in The Kentucky, 2007). bia," January 10, 1849, Roy P. Basler, ed., com Abraham 8 vols. 7. RecollectedWords ofAbraham Lincoln, CollectedWorks of Lincoln, (New piled by Don E. and Virginia Fehrenbacher (Palo Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1953), Alto: StanfordUniversity Press, 1996), 7. 2:20. 8. 3. 23. "Remarks to Border-State Provine, Compensated Emancipation, Representatives 9. Ibid., 3-4. Asking Approval of Compensated Emancipation, in Abraham Lincoln: 10., The : A July 12, 1862," TheWords of Authentic Etc. and Our Record of Facts, Narratives, Letters, Speeches, Letters,Proclamations, Papers of Most ed. Marin Lubin (: Porter and Coates, 1872), 391. Eloquent President, (New 11. Ibid., 391-92. York: Leventhal Publishers, Inc., 2005), 340-42. to 12. Ibid., 509. See also, "Second Annual Message Congress, 13. Ibid., 413. December 1, 1862," 380-81. 21 Lincoln and Black Freedom in theDistrict ofColumbia Y>

24. CollectedWorks, 1:74-75. 36.Ward Hill Lamon, Recollections ofAbraham A. C. 25. Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings, Lincoln, 1847-1865 (Chicago: McClurg, 291. 1895), 252. 26. Ibid. 315. 37. "The District of Columbia Emancipation 27. Ibid. 292. Act," National Archives and Records Administra www./ archives, 28. Rodney O. Davis and Douglas L. Wilson, tion, http: / gov/ exhibits/featured_ The Debates Univer Section 1. eds., Lincoln-Douglas (Urbana: documents/dc_emancipation_act, Section 2 and 3. sityof Illinois Press, 2008), 48. 38. Ibid, 29. Ibid. 39. Ibid, Section 12. Proclama 30. Edna Greene Medford, "Abraham Lincoln 40. Guelzo, Lincoln's Emancipation See also "The Eman and Black Wartime Washington," Annual Lincoln tion, 85-86. Page Milburn, and Four of the Slaves in the District of Colum Colloquium: Papers from the Thirteenth cipation Records theColumbia Historical 16 teenthAnnual Lincoln Colloquia (Springfield, 111.: bia," of Society Lincoln Home Historic Site, 2000), 119. See also, (1913): 103-5. Melvin R. Williams, "A Blueprint forChange: The 41. Ibid. Proclama Black Community inWashington, D.C., 1860 42. Guelzo, Lincoln's Emancipation 48 tion, 85. 1870," Records of theColumbia Historical Society (1972): 370-71. 43. "Letter to the Senate and theHouse ofRep Abraham Lincoln:His 31. Margaret Leech, Reveille in Washington: resentatives,"April 16, 1862, Conn.: Greenwood and 640. 1860-1865 (Westport, Press, Speeches Writings, 1941), 249. 44. Orville H. Browning, Diary, 541. to and theHouse of 32. Lieutenant Colonel Schuyler Hamilton to 45. Letter the Senate Rep Abraham Lincoln;His Brigadier General IrvinMcDowell, Washington, resentatives,"April 16, 1862, A Com and 640. July 16, 1861, in TheWar of theRebellion: Speeches Writings, theUnion and Con 46. "The District of Columbia pilation of theOfficial Records of Emancipation 1 Gov Section 1862. federateArmies, Series II,Vol. (Washington: Act," 11,April 16, on to a ernment PrintingOffice, 1894), 760. 47. "Address Colonization Deputation 33. Medford, "Abraham Lincoln and Black of Negroes," August 14, 1862, CollectedWorks, 5: 120-21. 371-72. Wartime Washington," 34. See Holzer, Medford, and Williams, The 48. Ibid., 5:372. 14. Emancipation Proclamation, 35. House Committee for the District of Co lumbia, Visitors to thejail in theDistrict ofColum H. 11. bia, 37th Cong., 2d sess., 1862, Rep.