Women of the World Social Education 67(1), pp. 38-43 © 2003 National Council for the Social Studies Teaching about Women in China and Japan: A Thematic Approach By Lyn Reese

ne way for teachers to include topics in philosophy and religion, and a few became Tao- and women had distinct social roles was based their curriculum pertaining to women ist adepts. on Confucian hierarchical precepts. Prescriptive is to identify significant themes that Ancient China’s highest goddess, Hsi Huang advice manuals like Lessons for Girls reinforced O 1 3 appear with some regularity throughout history. Mu (Queen Mother of the West) , depicted in the these lessons. Written by the female historian The use of overarching themes helps illustrate the classic tale “Journey to the West,” also expresses Ban Zhoa (Han Dynasty, ca. 45-120 C.E.), Les- effect that major forces—such as beliefs, political aspects of yin/yang beliefs. As yin, this goddess is sons became one of China’s most durable sources events, and economic events—have on women’s compassionate, promising immortality; as yang, of advice about female behavior. One nugget tells lives, and demonstrates how gender expectations she is a force that had the power to disrupt the women to “yield to others; let her put others first, change over time. I have selected three themes cosmic yin/yang harmony. This pervasive fear herself last.” because of their strong links to commonly taught that women could bring chaos by upsetting the In the Song Dynasty (960-1279 C.E), a East Asian history topics: beliefs about gender cosmic harmony was an obstacle for women who reinterpretation of Confucian teaching called difference, the legacy of real and mythical women, aspired to political leadership. Those who suc- NeoConfucianism further stratified the position and women’s economic contributions. ceeded were accused of breaking one of nature’s of women. NeoConfucian beliefs, infuenced by laws, of becoming “like a hen crowing.” Years after Mongolian ideas on wife fidelity and husband Beliefs Support Gender Difference the reign of Wu Zetian (Tang Dynasty, 625-705 worship, led to the egregious practices of foot- Many cultures maintain the belief that, beyond C.E.), China’s only female emperor, this deroga- binding, insistence on widow chastity, and the biology, women and men possess essentially dif- tory phrase was applied to her reign. selling of unwanted daughters. Although teachers ferent capacities and functions. Understanding Buddhism as practiced in Japan and China may use the example of foot-binding to illustrate this conviction helps explain the perpetuation of also granted women areas of empowerment while limits on female mobility, it should not be taught the male/female difference with regard to behav- at the same time treating them as subordinates, and exclusively. The practice did not appear until the ior expectations, position within the family, legal portraying them as deceitful in much of the lit- Song Dynasty and was not universally followed. rights, public status, education, and work. Because erature. Women went on pilgrimages to Buddhist Women of most ethnic minorities, including American students usually view such culturally temples, retreated to nunneries, sometimes gave Hakka and Manchu women, did not practice it, transmitted beliefs negatively, it is important to public lectures, and led temple groups. Chinese nor did peasants who had to work in the fields, highlight the spheres where women’s contribu- Buddhism was at its height during the reign of nor did women in Japan. tions were positively acknowledged, when and Wu Zetian, who promoted the religion and even In Japan, the infuence of Shintoism less- where they held power, and the times women justified her rule by claiming she was a reincarna- ened the initial impact of NeoConfucianism on overcame gender oppression. tion of a previous female Buddhist saint. During women’s lives. Within Shintoism, women held When studying China, the concept of gender Wu’s reign, and throughout the early to mid Tang power as mikos, a type of shaman with divination difference might be introduced by first exploring period, women enjoyed relatively high status and abilities. There were at least eight known ruling the male/female aspects of the yin/yang Taoist freedom. Lovely Tang Era paintings and statues empresses of Japan from the early eras through symbol. The dark swirl within the symbol’s circle depict women on horseback, and as administra- the eighth century who, even when supporting represents the passive, yielding, feminine yin; the tors, dancers, and musicians. Stories and poems, Buddhism, identified themselves with Japan’s light swirl represents the active, aggressive, male like those by the female poet Yu Xuanji, also attest shamatic traditions. The shamatic powers of two, yang. What is significant is that neither principle to the openness of the period.2 Himiko and the popular empress Jingu, were well is considered subordinate; each complements In contrast, Confucianism became the most known. Japan’s sun goddess, Amaterasu, to whom the other and is capable of expressing both pervasive doctrine to promote a belief in women’s every emperor has had to claim direct descen- “female” and “male” characteristics. Within “natural place.” Confucius himself did not direct- dancy, was also worshiped as a symbol of female Taoism, women were able to seek spiritual ful- ly denigrate women, although he placed them at mystical power.4 Her Great Shrine at Ise, cared for fillment beyond their family duties. Some joined the lower end of the patriarchal family structure. by high priestesses, still plays an important role in convents, others gathered with men to discuss Through the ages, however, the belief that men the lives of Japanese today.

Social Education 38 Gradually, samurai culture and the spread of called Greater Learning for Women, illustrates be good citizens, women had to become educated Confucianism and Buddhism in Japan weakened this NeoConfucian ideal of proper female behav- and take part in public affairs. The drive to encour- the more positive infuences of Shintoism. In the ior.6 age women to adopt new “modern” ways was Heian Era (950-1050 C.E.), however, women still pervasive. Woodblock prints circulated showing held relative equity in marriage, education, and The Impact of Modernization on Beliefs previously forbidden images of women in the property rights. Gender differences in this period About Gender imperial family attending public events adorned favored literate women who were free to write By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centu- in western Victorian Era clothes.8 To counter in the expressive, popular vernacular language, ries, serious challenges to accepted beliefs about these efforts, however, conservative legislators while Japanese men most often wrote in the more gender were mounted in both Japan and China. reasserted NeoConfucian family values by pass- formal, inaccessible, classical Chinese. Heian Although concerns about women’s position had ing restrictive laws, codes, and a new constitution. female writers such as Murasaki Shikibu and Sei been expressed earlier, the concept of women’s Women were denied political participation; they Shogonon illustrate in lively, gossipy writings the liberation became a major motivating force within were not even allowed to take political science independence and gender constraints that women the era’s nationalist, reform, and revolution move- courses, and married women lost some of the legal of the pampered elite experienced.5 ments.7 Male nationalists argued that improving rights they had gained. The phrase “good wife, Women’s independence was increasingly the status of women was essential if other techno- wise mother” was reinterpreted to mean a woman limited during the long centuries of shogunate logically advanced nations were to accept Japan who sacrificed herself for her family’s welfare, an rule. In the early feudal period, samurai women and China. A core of educated women in both ideal that still finds some resonance today. took a considerable role in household manage- Japan and China joined the call by speaking and The challenge to gender discrimination was ment and even in household defense. They were writing in public for the first time. Conservative mounted anew in the early twentieth century, trained to handle certain weapons, such as the nationalists in Japan and China at different times when women in Japan’s “second wave feminism” pole arm (the naginata), a sickle with a chain, reacted by mounting long campaigns against any set out to oppose the NeoConfucian ideology short swords, and knives so as to defend the home change in gender roles. Ultimately, female activ- of “good wife, wise mother.” In 1911, Hiratsuka in the absence of their husbands. Stories about ists were labeled unseemly, unfeminine, and too Haruko (pen name Raicho) founded the feminist women who accompanied their husbands on western. magazine Seito (Bluestocking); the magazine’s the battlefield were common and, like their hus- Japan. An ideal case study of this action/ contributors considered broad social issues bands, women were expected to commit suicide if reaction phenomenon is Japan’s Meiji Restoration such as freedom of love and marriage. Not sur- the family was dishonored in any way. But by the (1868-1912), when the nation’s rapid transforma- prisingly, the magazine was often censored and time of the Tokugawa Shogunate (1600-1868), tion from a feudal shogunate to modern nation banned.9 women’s rights within the samurai family were opened the door for female public participation. After Seito was shut down, women activists practically nonexistent. The often quoted Three Through speeches and magazines, and within sought reformist goals more quietly. A suffrage Obediences dictated their lives: “When she is newly formed political parties, a small group movement rapidly grew, and at a 1932 conference, young, she obeys her father; when she is married, labeled Japan’s “first wave feminists” tried to raise members passed resolutions opposing war and she obeys her husband; when she is widowed, women’s consciousness. The phrase “good wife, fascism. Japan’s growing nationalistic militarism, she obeys her son.” A widely read 1762 treatise, wise mother” was coined, meaning that in order to however, proved to be too strong a force. The ©2003 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Arts, Fine of Museum ©2003 Utagawa Kumaki II, Japanese, 1835-1888. Illustration of the Silk Reeling Machine at the Japanese National Industrial Exposition Meiji Era, registered October 12, 1877. Woodblock triptych; ink and color on paper. 37.2 x 75cm. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Jean S. and Frederic A. Sharf Collection, 2000. 2000.515

January/February 2003 39 Conservatives within the Guomindang also became deeply opposed to what they saw as the promotion of women’s rights in ways that attacked traditional family values. They turned against prominent advocates of the principle of women’s equality, many of whom were Communists. The seemingly gradual rise in women’s status was abruptly halted by Jiang Jieshi, after he assumed the leadership of the Guomindang. In 1927, troops under Jiang’s orders moved on workers engaged in destabilizing general strikes, and began a relent- less hunt, called the “White Terror,” for Com- munists, who had made “family revolution” a Photo/Greg Baker Photo/Greg

AP central tenet of their policies. In 1928, 330,000 Chinese women plant rice in their village revolutionaries inside and outside the Chinese near Wuhan, in central China’s Hubei prov- in the traditional authoritarian family system.10 Communist Party were executed. A thousand of ince. Women are playing an increasingly important role in agriculture, as millions Using the slogan “Down with Confucius and his them were women, many of whom were raped and of men leave their farms in search of better disciples,” they fought for substantial changes in then murdered.12 The alleged justification for the paying work in the cities. women’s legal status. Throughout the 1920s and appalling violence against women was that they early 1930s, familial conficts raged over issues were “bad”; in reality, it was also because they from bobbed hair and coeducation, to freedom were on the political left. slogan “good wife, wise mother” resurfaced again, in love and marriage. During this period, Henrik After 1927, women were no longer a vital urging women to preserve the Japanese family sys- Ibsen’s A Doll’s House was popular reading as part of the Guomindang. The Women’s Suffrage tem by bearing more children and joining patriotic young people connected the struggles of its pro- Alliance had already been disbanded in 1913; associations. The old NeoConfucian, Buddhist, tagonist, Nora, who rejected her marriage and the now, women’s admission into political associa- and samurai virtues of female sacrifice for the burden of motherhood, to their own lives. tions and their participation in political campaign larger good of the family now were used to place In the political sphere, differing views on the meetings were forbidden. The concept of equal women at the service of the national family, head- rights of women were expressed by the Guomin- legal rights for men and women gave way instead ed symbolically by the emperor. Women’s only dang (Kuomintang), founded by Sun Yat Sen in to pressure to cultivate the knowledge and skills safe political public role was to engage in char- 1912 and later led by Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kaishek), appropriate to becoming good wives and patriot- ity work in support of war efforts. Birth control and by the Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong ic mothers, working in welfare activities, hygiene, became illegal, and women’s “traditional” dress (Mao Tse Tung), which emerged victorious over child care, and relief efforts. was encouraged. Women’s education, mandatory the Guomindang in 1949 after a long civil war. Women who believed in revolutionary at the elementary level, was geared toward creating During the period of the rise of both the reform turned to the Communist Party for sup- future mothers who would educate their children Guomindang and the Communist movements, port. Forced out of the cities, the Communists in the moral duties of modern citizenship. women from diverse classes worked on many of had separated themselves from the Guomindang In the post-war period, women’s status changed the same problems. In attempts to demonstrate nationalists with their decision to concentrate on significantly. The 1947 Constitution guaranteed that now there was no need for “political women” mobilizing the peasants in rural areas. Women women’s right to vote and the equality of women in to battle against the members of the opposite sex, who joined the Communist Party in epic events marriage, education, and work. Old values still per- the Guomindang issued major decrees and codes such as the Long March, and were mobilized sist, however. Divorce among the Japanese remains which gave important legal rights to women in into the Red Army, were held up as role models the lowest in the world, and women generally face the family. Footbinding was outlawed, and laws of China’s new women. pressures to marry, drop out of the work force, regarding equality between the sexes, and the right The Communists at first placed great and assume the major role in raising children. The of women to inherit property, and to engage in emphasis on the need to emancipate women numerous women’s organizations that sprouted up a marriage of their choice, were passed. It was from the “feudal” family system. Thus freed, during the 1960s and 1970s continue to address the expected that women, at last, would be real par- women would help spearhead the “new soci- need for change in the traditional roles of men and ticipants in this post 1911 Revolution age. ety,” and serve as a bulwark in the war against women at work and within the family. Women in urban areas made considerable the Guomindang. Marriage reform was key to China. The 1911 Revolution in China led by progress. But outside the educated class, the legal this emancipation. The Marriage Regulations of Sun Yat Sen launched a new era that had significant changes and increased freedom for women had 1931 and the official state Marriage Law of 1950 implications for the status of women. Between limited impact, and no campaign was undertaken thus allowed women to divorce, and forbade 1915 and 1925, a type of women’s emancipation to ensure that they learned of their rights. For exam- the old customs of bigamy, concubinage, child movement emerged in China. As young people ple, education for urban women moved ahead rap- betrothal, and rejection of widow remarriage. joined the struggle against imperialism and tradi- idly in the 1920s. But a survey conducted of rural In household status and choice of occupation, tional Chinese society, women in the 1919 May households in the 1930s found out that fewer than husbands and wives were to be equal. Yet, in the Fourth movement (also called the New Cultural 2 percent of the women were literate, compared to countryside, these measures were seen as punitive Movement) accelerated demands for their own 30 percent of the men.11 efforts to force change. A man who beat his wife, liberation and wrote about social restraints with- for instance, would be criticized for the “Confu-

Social Education 40 cian way of thinking,” rather than for being cruel. egregious has been the renewed buying and sell- extracted the silk thread from the cocoons, and He might be denounced at a mass meeting and ing of women as wives or into forced prostitu- spun and wove the cloth. Legends, such as that even sent to labor camp for re-education. The tion; in 1989 and 1990, more than 65,000 people of Lady Hsi-Ling-Shih, credited with the intro- Marriage Law also became negatively known as were arrested for abducting or selling women and duction of silkworm rearing and invention of the “Divorce Law”; indeed, during the first five children.13 And some 5 percent of female babies the loom, are useful here, as are poems such as years of the new law, several million marriages who should be born every year are “missing,” due the one by eleventh-century female poet Ch’ien were dissolved, most at the request of the wife. to infanticide, sex-selective abortion, neglect, or T’ao, which laments that upper class, silken clad Mao Zedong began to draw back as resistance abandonment.14 “beauties” knew or cared little “of a weaving girl,/ to women’s new freedoms developed. Women’s Sitting cold by her window/Endlessly throwing groups came increasingly under male control, and Legendary and Real Heroes her shuttle to and fro.”18 were told that agitation on behalf of women was The cultural veneration of powerful, albeit During the expansion of trade under the seen as compromising the party’s ability to build a exceptional, women in the history of China and Song Dynasty, women were recruited to work peasant base. As family reform regulations turned Japan has served to counterbalance the ideal of in cotton and silk mills as spinners and weavers. out to be unenforceable, arranged marriages and female submission. Stories of warrior women In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the costs of weddings rose, and it became difficult such as Hua Mulan or the various Ninja types it was women’s work in the textile industries that to obtain divorce. that appear regularly in classical Chinese fiction proved to be the key to industrial success for both By the late 1970s, it was clear that women have helped justify the actions of women who China and Japan. had gained only partial accomplishments. Agrar- have defied traditional roles. Japanese legends By 1890, women had become the ian reform certainly gave women power through recount the exploits of samurai women, such as backbone of the developing Japanese land redistribution, as laws stipulated that both Tomoe Gozen, who supposedly rode into battle industrial economy. Female workers sexes should receive equal shares of the land and alongside her husband during the Gempei Wars, outnumbered males ... especially in were entitled to full participation, including deci- or Hojo Masako (1157-1225), wife of Japan’s first textiles, where a work force that was 60 sion making, in collective farming. Women also shogun, who directed armies and effectively to 90 percent female produced 40 per- were trained for industrial work. China’s literacy ruled the Shogunate from the convent where cent of the gross national product and 60 campaign directed at illiterate women, and the she “retired” after her husband’s death. Later, percent of the foreign exchange during opening up of women’s colleges free of charge, bands of women, armed with the exclusively the late nineteenth century.19 also helped raise women’s material standards. female sword called naginata, were called upon Even though 70 percent of women worked at to defend their towns or castles. Japanese girls As China industrialized, women played a least part-time, however, most women’s jobs were today still learn to use this long sword.15 similar role. In 1929, the percentage of women in low paying, without chances for advancement, In more recent times, women have partici- the industries of Shanghai was 61 percent, com- and the leadership of the party remained over- pated in civil wars and struggles against invaders. pared to 30 percent of workers who were male, whelmingly male. In the Taiping Rebellion of 1851-1864, women and 9 percent who were children.20 In 1979, the option of motherhood was (who were mostly Hakka with unbound feet) Many of the mill workers in both countries restricted by the government’s population-con- fought against the Manchu government. The were girls who left poor rural homes to work and trol policy permitting the birth of only one child Taiping vision of egalitarianism encompassed live in dorms. Short diary excerpts, songs, work to each family, which led to female infanticide, or gender equality, and the rebel forces included contracts, and charts dramatically describe the concealed female births, illustrating the enduring all-female battalions led by women generals, such mill workers’ hard labor, low wages, and attempts power of the ancient Confucian joy in the birth as Su Sanniang. Women took up arms again in the to improve their working conditions. Accounts of sons. Boxer Rebellion, when young women organized also reveal that with an independent income, During China’s recent open modernization themselves into militant “Red Lantern” groups. some women began to lead a more self-sufficient policy, the joining of the seemingly conficting Young female Red Guards also played an impor- life. The unusual marriage resistance movement ideologies of Commercialism, Confucianism, tant role during China’s Cultural Revolution.16 among some silk workers in South China, who and Communism have negatively affected wom- Individual revolutionary female icons include lived together in groups, and refused to get mar- en’s image and role. In periods when production China’s Chiu Chin (Qiu Jin), who, in 1907, was ried for fear that it would rob them of their free- is down, employers disproportionately lay off executed by the Manchu government; Soong-li dom, was a particularly intriguing outcome of this women, who are told that they can best serve the Ching (Soong Ching-ling), wife of the infuential independence.21 state by tending to the needs of their families at revolutionary figure Dr. Sun Yat Sent and cham- The notion that women “have their place” home. Conversely they have lost many of their pion of social justice and women’s liberation; and in textile production persists today. Women are advancements in education as parents pull girls out Deng Yingchao, an advocate of women’s rights the major workforce in the South China mills, in of school to put them to work. As before, women and wife of the leader of a moderate communist globalized textile factories, and in clothing sweat- continue to be discriminated against when it comes faction, Zhou Enlai.17 shops worldwide. The question of whether this to pay and holding important jobs. While the Women’s Work sexual division of work marginalizes women, or Women’s Federation, created by the government, In China, the Zhou period phrase “Men plow offers them expanded opportunities, is still being has made some progress in getting the Communist and women weave” highlights the historic sexual debated. Party to pass laws addressing the lower status of division of labor. When studying the importance rural women, the lack of adequate apparatus to of silk to Chinese culture, trade, and diplomacy, Conclusion enforce such laws has left their enforcement to teachers might note that it was women who cul- Much is being done today by Chinese and the selective whims of individual officials. Most tivated the mulberry trees, raised the worms, Japanese female scholars who are increasingly

January/February 2003 41 uncovering new information on the previously 9. Biographies and short selections can be found in Issue on China (Winter 1997). Articles on foot- ignored history of women in their countries. Using Yukiko Tanaka, To Live and To Write: Selections binding, songs, women’s studies, and poetry. by Japanese Women Writers, 1913-1938 (Seattle, themes such as these offers social studies teachers Mann, Susan. Women’s and Gender History in Global Wash.: The Seal Press, 1987). Perspective: East Asia. Washington, D.C.: American a structure for managing the vast and emerging 10. Jennifer Anderson and Theresa Munford, Chinese Historical Association, 1990. Short chronological new scholarship on China and Japan. Integrating Women Writers, A Collection of Short Stories by survey and recent reinterpretations. them chronologically into one’s course further Chinese Women Writers in the 1920s & 30s (San Ramusack, Barbara, and Sharon Sievers. Women in Francisco, Calif.: China Books and Periodicals, ensures that students examine infuential aspects Asia: Restoring Women to History. Bloomington: 1985). This publication includes a selection by Ding Indiana University Press, 1999. Indispensable of women’s experiences across historical periods Ling. Kay Ann Johnson, Women, the Family and teacher/student background text. and make connections with the history of women Peasant Revolution in China (Chicago, Ill.: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1983), 27-35; and Janet Ng Rexroth, Kenneth, and Ikuko Satsumi, eds. The Burning worldwide. G and Janice Wickeri, May Fourth Women Writers: Heart: Women Poets of Japan. New York: Seabury Memoirs (Hong Kong: Renditions Press, 1997). Press, 1977. Fourteen centuries of women poets. Notes 11. Patricia Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of Sievers, Sharon. Flowers in Salt: The Beginnings of Feminist Consciousness in Modern Japan. Stan- 1. Find Hsi Huang Mu in Cai Zhuozhi, 100 Cel- China (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 280. dord, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1983. Meiji ebrated Chinese Women, on the web at www.span. Era feminists and “second wave feminists.” com.au/100women, 5, 6. 12. Ono Kazuko, Chinese Women in a Century of 2. Find a biography on Wu Zetian on the web at wom- Revolution, 1850-1950 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford eninworldhistory.com/heroine6.html; images of University Press, 1989), 137. Curriculum Tang Dynasty women at www. 13. Patricia Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of Reese, Lyn. Samurai Women: Early Feudal Japan; Eyes chinavoc.com/history/tang/women.htm; and a China, 325. of the Empress; Women in Tang Dynasty China; biography and story based on the life of Yu Xuanji 14. Human Rights in China (HRIC on the web at iso. I Will Not Bow My Head, Documenting Political (Yu Hsuan-Chi) in a curriculum unit by Lyn Reese, hrichina.org/iso/), “Caught Between Tradition and Women. (www.womeninworldhistory.com). Eyes of the Empress: Women in China’s Tang the State,” 1995. Dynasty (Berkeley, Calif.: Women in World His- tory, 1996). 15. Find Chinese heroines at www.span.com.au/ Website 100women; the historical Mulan at www.suite101. 3. Selections from Lessons For Women can be found at List of annotated links on history topics mentioned in com/article/chm/women’s_ this article plus contemporary Asian women’s issues www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents history/7868; an essay and illustrations on women’s /banzhao.htm. sites, womeninworldhistory use of the naginata at www.scnf.org/history2. .com/asianlinks.html. 4. Find information about Empress Jingu, Tomoe html; an essay on women warriors of Japan at www. Gozen, and Hojo Masako, among others in Chieko koryubooks.com/library/wwj1.html; and a biogra- Irie Mulhern, ed., Heroic With Grace: Legend- phy and lesson on Tomoe Gozen in Lyn Reese, Bow Lyn Reese is director of Women in World History ary Women of Japan (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharp, My Head, 13-18. Curriculum, Berkeley, California; a workshop 1991). 16. Find descriptions of women combatants in the presenter; and an author of numerous teaching 5. Find a web lesson on Murasaki Shikibu at www. young adult novel by Katherine Paterson, Rebels units on women’s contemporary global curriculum.edu.au/accessasia/anthol/ of the Heavenly Kingdom (Lodestar Books, E.P. issues and history. She can be reached at reflect/refstud1.htm; a biography and selections at Dutton, 1983); background information on female [email protected]. womeninworldhistory.com/ soldiers in Ono Kazuko, Chinese Women in a heroine9.html; selections from the Pillow-Book of Century of Revolution, 1850-1950 (Stanford, Calif.: Sei Shonagon at www.barnard.columbia Stanford University Press, 1989), 73-80; a personal .edu/english/reinventingliteraryhistory/women/ account from the Northern Expeditionary Army in genji/pillowbook.htm; and an essay on women in Hsieh Ping-Ying, Autobiography of a Chinese Girl the Heian period at www.wsu.edu:8080/ (Boston, Mass.: Pandora, 1986); and one of many ~dee/ANCJAPAN/WOMEN.HTM. accounts of female red guards in Zhai Zhenjua, Red 6. The treatise is thought to have been based on the Flower of China (Soho Press, 1993). work of the Confucian scholar Kaibara Ekken 17. Jung Chang, Mme Sun Yat-Sen (Soong Ching-ling) (1652-1713). Some believe that it is an adaptation of (New York: Penguin Books, 1986); and a biography the ideas of his wife, Kaibara Token, who was also a and lesson on Qiu Jin in Lyn Reese, Bow My Head, scholar. Find a selection from the treatise on women 63-68. at www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_read- 18. Find Ch’ien T’ao poem in Kenneth Rexroth and er/ Ling Chung, Women Poets of China (New York: world_civ_reader_2/kaibara.html; an essay on New Directions Book, 1972), 34. women in Tokugawa Japan at home.austin.rr.com/ scajapan/HISTORY.HTM; and a story and lessons 19. Sharon Nolte and Sally Hasting, “The Meiji State’s in Lyn Reese, Samurai Sisters: Women in Early Policy toward Women,” 153. Feudal Japan (Berkeley, Calif.: Women in World 20. Emily Hong, Sisters and Strangers: Women in the History Curriculum, 1991). Shanghai Cotton Mills (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford 7. Barbara Ramusack and Sharon Sievers, Women in University Press, 1986), 24. Asia: Restoring Women to History (Bloomington: 21. Find first person selections and charts in E. Patricia Indiana University Press, 1999), 197-198, 202. Tsurumi, Factory Girls: Women in the Thread Mills 8. Louise Virgin, Japan at the Dawn of the Modern of Meiji Japan (Princeton, N.J.: University Press, Age: Woodblock Prints from the Meiji Era, 1868- 1990); Mikiso Hane, Peasants, Rebels, & Out- 1912 (Boston, Mass.: Museum of Fine Arts, 2001); castes: The Underside of Modern Japan (New York: Sharon Nolte and Sally Hastings, “The Meiji State’s Pantheon Books, 1982); Emily Hong, Sisters and Policy toward Women,” in Gail Bernstein, ed., Strangers: Women in the Shanghai Cotton Mills Recreating Japanese Women, 1600-1945 (Berkeley: (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1986); University of California Press, 1991); and lessons and marriage resistance in Gail Tsukiyama, Women on Meiji feminists and textile workers in Anna of the Silk: A Novel (New York: St. Martin’s Press, Sproule, Solidarity: Women History Makers (Lon- 1991). don, England: Macdonald, 1987) and in Lyn Reese, I Will Not Bow My Head: Documenting Political Other References Women in World History (Berkeley, Calif.: Women in World History Curriculum, 1995). Honig, Emily, ed. Journal of Women’s History: Special

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