An Analysis of Chinese Women in Taoism Tessa Fleming
62 FOOTNOTES Volume 2 (2009)
The Presence and Power of the Cosmic Yin: An Analysis of Chinese Women in Taoism Tessa Fleming
Abstract The aim of this paper is to place a Western, twentieth-century understanding of feminism in dialogue with the ancient religion of Taoisrn, The paper examines women’s placement and presence within Taoism, focusing on their arguable agency, influence and reverence within the religion as a whole. While normative views present Taoism as a reflection of the mainstream Confucian restrictions imposed on women at the time, Fleming would argue that Taoisrn, predating patriarchal ideologies, valued a feminine ideal that honored the cosmic yin and revered important Goddesses and immortals In turn, this respect for females makes Taoisrn a philosophical religion that also progresses the values of Western “feminism” while underscoring its value as an egalitarian, humane, and truth-seeking spirituality.
For centuries world religions across the globe have subjugated women, leaving them persecuted and voiceless. The image of an oppressed, silenced woman seems to be the most widely held Western vision of Asian women. The oppression of women is certainly universal and has historically been felt in the West and the East, transcending borders, class, and ethnicity. However, for the purposes of this paper I will focus primarily on the religion of Taoism, the indigenous high religion of traditional China.’ My aim is to place a Western, twentieth-century understanding of feminism in dialogue with the ancient religion of Taoism. I want to look at women’s placement and presence within ancient Taoism, focusing on their arguable agency, influence and reverence within the religion as whole. While normative views present Taoism as a reflection of the mainstream Confucian restrictions imposed on women at the time, I would argue that Taoism, predating patriarchal ideologies, valued a feminine ideal that honored the cosmic yin and revered important Goddesses and Immortals. In turn, this respect for females makes Taoism a philosophical religion 2that progresses the values of western “feminism” while underscoring its value as an egalitarian, humane, and truth-seeking spirituality.
In order to place Taoism and the Western tradition of feminism in dialogue with one another it is imperative to historically situate Taoism against the patriarchal backdrop of Confucianism. Confucianism was a conservative ideology that dominated the Chinese body politic for twenty-two 3centuries. One of the main
‘Catherine Despeux and Livia Kohn, Women in Daoisni (Cambridge: Three Pines Press, 2003), 1. 2 Ibid.,5 Thomas Cleary, Immortal Sisters: Secrets of Taoist Women (Boston: Shanibhala Publications, 1989), 1. FOOTNOTES Volume 2 (2009) 63
political goals of this reigning ideology was to keep all political power in the hands of the narrow-minded male elite, and “to this end it attempted to suppress free thinking, imagination, social change, and inklings of the spiritual side of humanity.” Juxtaposed against this oppressive regime is the ancient tradition of Taoism.4 This system of thought and belief cherishes the significance of the feminine element and counts many women as its founding leaders and teachers. Symbols such as the “Mysterious Female” and “Mother Earth” are paramount in the foundation of Taoist belief; ‘ these symbols are representative of the cosmic yin and are feminine in nature. The symbolic qualities that characterize the “Mysterious Female” and “Mother Earth” are practical traits that all practitioners of Taoism should exhibit; however, women are known to be more inclined towards embodying them. As a result, it was considered to be relativity simple for women to achieve the fundamental heart of Taoism even under oppressive patriarchal 6conditions. There is a great deal of historical evidence that further polarizes Confucianism from Taoism, such as the following facts from the late Han dynasty. During the late Han dynasty, Confucian college students suggested to the Emperor Wu that Confucius’s teachings on humanity and justice would benefit the Chinese citizens if they were actually put into practice. Resulting from this ‘radical’ proposal to the state was an en masse slaughtering of Confusian college students. As Thomas Cleary articulates in his book, Immortal Sisters: Secrets of Taoist7 Women, due to this mini genocide of college students many survivors turned to Taoism, joining “generation upon generation of seekers of truths that lie beyond the realm of narrow and despotic orthodoxy.” In this way, Taoism provided a way out of political oppression for8many people. It became an escape for forward-thinking youth who were refused not only basic human rights to justice and freedom of speech, but were also being murdered for suggesting that such rights exist.
Taoism also tends to be conflated with Confucianism by scholars who misrepresent the differences between the two religions. For instance, Cleary discusses Max Weber’s characterization of Confucianism as “masculine rationality” and Taoism as “feminine hysteria.” It would seem here that Weber’s argument is more fueled by misogyny than9 by any reputable academic research. Cleary goes on to say that “if the masculine/feminine polarity has any relevance at all in this context, it might be more historically accurate to characterize Confucianism as ‘masculine authoritarianism’ and Taoism as ‘feminine rtu.” Taoism vastly exceeded the appeal of Confucianism in its attention to human°1 rights and the egalitarian interests of its citizens. There is no doubt that the importance of the female and feminine lbid.,1. 4Ibid.,2. 6lbid., 2. lbid.,4. 7Ibid. Ibid. ‘° Ibid. 64 FOOTNOTES Volume 2 (2009)
influences within Taoist lore have transcended social institutions and patriarchal ideologies throughout the ages.”
Many Chinese women were active in the ancient Taoist tradition and appear frequently throughout historical records as priests, renunciants, teachers and ToImmortals.’ preface an understanding of immortality within the context o Taoism, an understanding of “Tao” itself is essential. According to Wang Yi’e in his book2 Daoism in China: An Introduction, Tao is the “root and essence of all that exists in the umverse.” Yi’e goes on to quote a famous Taoist text, Daode Jing (written by Laozi,3 a great philosopher who is credited along with Zhuangzi for founding the philosophical school of 4Taoism)’ [Tao] emerged before : the cosmos. It is solitary, self grounded, and unchanging, permeating all processes without fail. We can deem it the mother of the world. Look at it and you will not see it, listen to it and you will not hear it. It is shapeless, existing apart form the senses. It is the permanent root from which all things 5grow.’ This definition is fluid yet emphasizes the unchanging aspect of the doctrine. For example, “it is permanent and infinite and its movement is limitless. The birth, changes, and extinction of all things have a temporary nature, yet through their changes they manifest the working of The[Tao].” goal of Taoism is to encourage its followers, whose bodies are temporary,6 earthly matter, to follow the natural inclination of their souls or the depth of their beings, which are essentially all a part of the unchanging “Tao,” the way, the source of all creation.
The Taoist notion of immortality means to have gone beyond the boundaries of this world and ascended to a higher level of enlightenment, as authors Catherine Despeux and Livia Kohn have researched in their book Women in Daoisni. They argue that “[Taoism] is a form of transcendence to a divine realm that is closely connected with the origins of the universe.” The physical, earthly beings that achieve this level of divinity do so by7 adhering to the following principles: living in separation from their families and society, engaging in techniques of bodily and spiritual control, devoting and disciplining their minds towards spiritual enlightenment, and acquiring magical powers as they progress in their trajnjng.’ Despeux and Kohn beautifully describe the transitory and all-knowing 8nature of Taoist Immortals:
Cleary, Immortal Sisters, 2. ° Despeux, Kohn, Women in Daoism, 83. 13 Wang YI’E, Daoism in China: An Introduction (China: Floating World Editions, Inc., 2006), 26. ° Ibid., 24-26. ° Ibid., 26. °‘ Ibid. ° Despeux, Kohn, Women in Daoistn, 83. ‘ Ibid., 84. 26 20 24
20
were
Sister
are women
there
about
organizations. 25
This
the
charitable
generous,
epitomizes
feminine
being
Immortals as
understanding Immortals Cleary, Ibid. Cleary, Ibid. Ibid. Ibid.
Ibid., Despeux,
well
quick
farmers,
Taoist embodiments
84.
Zhao’s
is the Immortal
Immortal
of
in
While as
Kohn,
a
Cleary
influence
to
the
humanitarian
works
China.
relative
lives
use
only
the
tale
are
23 Sister
worldly
are
the
that virtuous
suggest
story,
become who
They meet,
take
[Immortals’] heavens. Immortals Women
Sisters,
community. 2 ’
Sisters,
Cleary
of
latter
their
helps
Immortal
spiritual
describes
truly
use
they
wary
of
and
the
Cleary
have neither
are
seems
exhibiting
of of shortage
in Zhao 6.
5.
people
their
description
“magic”
that
well-known fully
Daoism,
Tao
deeds
questioned
debunk
cannot
Immortal
provides
antifeminist
influential
perfected
Accepting
of
fulfilled
acts
are
immortals
the
warns
would
not
helps
Sister
“magic”
Immortal
too
human
hidden
becoming
do are
84.
An
of
of
be
higher
at
to
the
over
a
seriously
not
happy
extensive
kindness.
them
Sister
be
encompassed
practiced
information of
Zhao’s reply:
against
example
home
companions
the
their
archaic
and
and
men life
works
get
the
the doctrines,
natural
in
do
knowledge
Sister
value
exercise
altruistic
thus
Zhao
known
to
humanitarian
and
attitude
case. 26 not
potential,
venerated
both
from
story
some
and
hear
belief are
As
of
information
covertly.
take
phenomena
superhuman.’ 9
death
in
Zhao,
of
written
such
carried
make
of
her in
which,
about
also
doing
in
aristocratic
control
to
the
and
“Western
ways
that
traditions
FOOTNOTES
the
one
the
true
as
brother
the
figures
who
Song
a
falsifies
playful
them. 24
the
Taoist
Such aspect
[Tao],
such
a
prominent
generalization.
out
in
when
given on
world
over
persons
public;
regarding single
and
was
themselves,
dynasty
best
neo-Buddhist
great
in
things
constantly
is
within
way
of
families
of
history
their
realized
a
divine
it
the
secret,
known
their
and
of
widely
China
Taoism.
would
flow,
therefore
that
Taoist
of
content
figure
Volume
(960-1278
natural
all
as
women’s
in
Taoist
being.
range
agents. 20 However,
consists
their
“rainmaking”
have
ones
they
they
But
and
for
and/or
such
undermined
benefit
held
the
and 2_
writers” would
2
surroundings
of
partaking
lore.
(2009)
as
belief
Immortal
of C.E)
Buddhist
presence
political
the
Taoism
stories
be
Their
who
who
well
that
her
the
for
65 in 66 FOOTNOTES Volume 2 (2009) and agency within the religion, he also explains why information and records on women in Chinese history have been so difficult to recover. He gives two reasons for this: firstly, “A skilled artisan leaves no traces,” a Buddhist expression that conveys the altruistic nature in which prominent Taoist women would exercise their 27goodwill. The fact that there is a void in retrievable information about the history of women in Taoism does not completely negate the possibility that the information does exist. Secondly, many female Taoist followers or Immortal Sisters were victims of Confucian society. In other words, “the perceptions of those around them were geared only toward certain definitions of women in terms of social position and duty as defined by quasi-Confucian orthodoxy. Notice of what they did, therefore, was ordinarily taken only within certain 28parameters.” Thus, Immortals Sisters moved silently, their spiritual talents invisible to their family members, as they belonged to a society more interested in upholding male dominance then female autonomy.
Cleary is not the only scholar who has been successful in giving voice to the resurgence of biographies of female Immortals within Taoism. Daniel L. Ovennyer is another such scholar whose article entitled “Women in Chinese Religions: Submission, Struggle, Transcendence” discusses the primary document Yun-chi ch ‘i ch ‘ien (HY 1026), an eleventh century collection of Taoist texts complied for the emperor. 29Although he admits that these stories are presented to the modem reader in “legendary form,” they provide the reader with an account of female agency during a restrictive Confucian dynasty. The stories from this document are set in the Eastern Chin dynasty (3 17-420°3 31C.E). Overmyer and Cleary both point out that these enlightened females were everyday common women: mothers, wives, daughters of officials who studied the Tao with such dedication that they ascended to the level of 32Immortals. Overmyer also provides an example of a female Immortal, Sun Pu-erh, who was one of the “Seven Perfected” Immortals of the Ch’uan-chen Taoist tradition in the twelfth 33century. Sun Pu-erh and her husband were disciples of Wang Che (1112- 1170), the founder of the Ch’uan-chen Taoist school. After Sun Pu-erh and her husband separated she became quite successful in gathering a following and spreading Taoism on her 34own. Once deemed an Immortal, she became a catalyst and inspiration for other women in her community who began seeing themselves as valid practitioners in their country’s ancient indigenous religion.
27 Cleary, Immortal Sisters, 6. 25 Ibid. 29 Daniel L. Overmyer, “Women in Chinese Religions: Submission, Struggle, Transcendence. “ In From Benaresto Being: Essays on Buddhism and Chinese Religion in Honour of Professor Jan Yun-Hua, ed(s). Koichi Shinohara and Gregory Schoper. (Oakville: Mosaic Press, 1991), 97-101. 30Ibid., 101. ‘ Ibid. 32 Ibid. Ibid., 102. “ Ibid.
L t.
‘
religions.
defined participants
extremely union
nor
Pass
yin
combine, has
significant
the
“Old
spoke
Sun
energy.” 37
dichotomized
energy”
poem
and
illuminate
fourteen
Ibid.
Ibid. text
that
Ibid., relating
Ibid.
Cleary,
Ibid.,
and
opening
advocating
also
Bu-er’s
will
significance
25.
24.
women
Master
was
of
to
by
Immortal
by
one
been
Based
that
to
the
After
This be
both
Immortal
verses
sprit
egalitarian
a
monumental
allows
passage
The
the
yang,
the
western
of
in
established.” 40
The
A
line
called
Stay Like
Sweet Like
universality
One
“Before
were
called
Sisters,
Sun
argument
because
the
for
and
particle
ying
reading
sacred
on
the
testimonies
poet
for
gentle
“the
energy
jade,
real firm of
one
gold,
a Mysterious
very
the
Bu-er
but the Sister
clear
energy
the
rudiments
23.
notion
the
superior
her
and
in
avoided
our
spirit
harmony
traditions
door
by
commentary
at
door
more
brighter
“is
“lair
both
“when firing
subtext
much
would for
first
work,
the
was
body
of
the
Sun
the
yang
speaks
made
of
Immortal
to
and
and
of
presenting
energy
of
ocean
of
Overmyer
time
point lustrous
position;
door
already
“feminism”.
is
Bu-er:
mass delineating
Pass.” 38 a
total
undeniably existed,
of
the
spirit
it
I
and
energy,
one
with as
warm.” 36
biographies
part
of
will
of
becomes
to
to
of
it’s
one
of of
Mysterious
Taoist
and
mastery”
advances
energy,
together,
creativity
in
and of
Western
total
there.
the
Sister
in
birth as
open
provide
refined.
instead,
This
Cleary’s
Immortal
of
the
and
it’s
not
because
her
Tao
energy,”
mastery.
along
belief.
be
and
awareness,
the
Sun
foundations
polished,
magical,
that dichotomized,
only
Cleary’s
of
poem
categorized
was,
my
to
then
readers. 35
a
and
Female,
death,
she
female
world’s
Bu-er
brief
is FOOTNOTES
be
book
to
this
In
argument
Sister
and
all;
receptivity
simply
the
according
achieved.
is
yang
order
“mysterious”
analysis
close
blending
essentially
is if
by
a
Immortals,
substance
and
of
Her
you
most
lines,
neither Sun
primal
as
or
Chen
and
to
ancient
it
what
that
reading
a
yin
poems
can
demonstrate
Bu-er’s
to
cannot
feminist
joining
of
skillfully
revered
The
creating
Volume
women of
subjugating
Yingning,
Yingning,
energy
get
energy
later
describes
primary
of
it
opening
Taosim.
masculinity
meaning
are
of
yin
is
the
be
together.” 39
famous
Taoists
standpoint
very
the
and
2
stunning
a
specifically.
were
advocates
and
Mysterious
that
called
(2009)
the
verse
documents
“just
following
what
is
the
apparent
Cleary’s
women yang
ancient
here
active
a
impact
is
called
set
“one
very
and
one
that
one
not
the
and
as
to
is
It
67
a of 68 FOOTNOTES Volume 2 (2009)
How then can one place Taoism and western feminism in dialogue with another? To begin, Taoism and feminism pride themselves on being philosophical traditions that provide spiritual and intellectual 41inspiration. If this is true, then it is certainly productive for them to use each other’s perspectives as mirrors to better understand their own weaknesses and strengths. Taoism is rooted in Chinese medicine and attempts to undo emotional blockages on an individual 42level. Harmonizing Taoism with feminism may suggest ways of overcoming these blockages and also allow us to work towards a more comprehensive understanding of this ancient philosophy through dialogue with our current critical practices. The goal of Taoism and Taoist practice is to return and be reunited with the Tao, the source of all creation. The primal energy in all of us must flow freely without emotional blockage, for the proper circulation of energy through the body and 43mind. It is only then, after this work of clearage has occurred, that the individual’s spiritual development can have a positive impact on 44society. A point of diversion between feminism and Taoism is in Taoism’s belief not so much in social mass movements but in the effect of the enlightened person on whomever she or he comes into contact 45with.
In terms of the maturation of western feminism over the twentieth century, the standpoint of Taoism might see the changing waves of feminism in this light:
The different feminist perspectives might be seen as vehicles that, while valuable at one point of development in the social history of women and men, need to be put aside once they have served their purpose. Otherwise, these perspectives become blockages to further development just as attachments to objects and ideas become blockages to 46enlightenment. This description uses Taoism as a strong metaphor for understanding an interesting perspective on the evolution of western feminism. Taoism would instruct feminism not to get caught up in mistakes of the past, it might encourage feminists to see past shortcomings as moments of self-reflexivity, and constructive criticism not as abominations to the movement of feminism as a whole. For example this Taoist principle of undoing blockages lends itself to the American philosopher Judith Butler who has widely contributed to the field of feminism. Butler has been instrumental in contributing to what is commonly known as the third wave of feminism. Butler
‘° Karen Laughlin and Eva Wong, “Feminism and/in Taoism.” In Feminism and World Religions, ed(s). Arvind Sharma and Katherine K. Young. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999), 149. Laughlin and Wong, “Feminism andlin Taoism,” 149. ° Ibid. 44Ibid., 150. Ibid. 46Ibid., 151.
Ibid, ‘° 49 !
‘
nirvana
importantly
places
extreme understood
and
power
it women
fact
Young
nicely
“greatness.”
This
Ibid.
Ibid.
not
waves
Laughlin
Ibid.
with
suggests
reminds
would
there
only
do
154.
a
quotation,
structure.” 5 ’
today
with
of
less
that
cite
and
A
more
in
Taoism
in
us
I
not
feminism
seem
great
Wong,
would
China
by
primordial on
glorified
the
universe,
the is feminist
208).”
far
going
“[w}hen
Cleary
of
a
patterning
their
West
While
of
It
enormous
partaking
to
experienced
a
the
latter
the
and
their
microcosms
explains
energy
“Feminism western
then
master
in
account
would
argue
equal
than
and
attachments This
-
danger
To
saying
was
it
addition
that
near,
academia
feminists
and
point
rights
one’s
when
has
that
conclude
vapor
no
feminist
any
in
that
commend
refers
of
balance now,
importance
conceived
motivated
in more
and/in
why
for
inner
been
when
coming,
“feminist
in
regarding
that,
Taoism
Taoism
and
practice
the
the Taoist
presumed
of
of
to idealizing
the
in
but
Taoism,”
to
pragmatic
have
great
important
place
the
energy to
and
history
the
the warning
“[t]aoism’s
of the
one
universe,
the
relative
also
Butler
energies
principles,
during
“great
Li definition).
no
Tao.
could
twenty
latter
also
body
mythmaking,”
outer reaches on
ascends
women
dissolution
the
within
153.
Ni-wan,
in
entering
misogyny
on
inside
a
the
This
recognized “revision
advancing
for
time
Taoist
against
scarcity
“dialogue”
for
and
a
are
the
women”
very
first
and
between
beauty
respect
pre-Confucian
history
to
the
her
are
women
is
history
although
the
eliminated”
that
the
With
the
in
and
century
the
FOOTNOTES
well
of
attitude
desire
both
level
not
attachments
on
of
body
his
of
level
can
macrocosms
rather,
the
feminism
and state
—
for
rather
no
yin
a
wrinkles
between
history”. 48
information
to
of
the
always
be
in
need
that
partake
Precious
no
barrier
to
flourishing
emerging, no
the
develop
“great
is
of
and
reverence
China
towards
of
part
classified
move
we
longer
the
(Wile
longer
immorality:
than
era,
there
the
unheralded
to
yang.
as
feminism
in visible. 50
should
to
between
of
men” 49
same
let
as
highest
and
of
VoJume
a
forward
the
of
a
Raft,
merely
be
1992,
about the
is public
a serve
social
in
go
sense
then
during
of
the
the
male-dominated
thus
as
unification
recovered. 47
no
as the
re
of
past,
yin
describes
their
feminist
sage
and 2
Sharma
read
great
movement:
form
placed
displays
(2009)
periods
but
connects
Taoisrn,
purpose
the
may
Taoist
earlier
more
here
and
and
the past
She
(as
of
of
in 69 70 FOOTNOTES Volume 2 (2009)
level of Taoist training, the return to the Tao, when the practitioner can “age with heaven and earth, and cultivate with the sun and 52moon”. This is the hope for all women, not just practitioners of Taoism. The whole sky, not just half, is there’s to claim. That women as well as men in China and around the world can “age with heaven and earth, and cultivate with the sun and moon.” The world with all its earthy pleasures and high realms of spiritual thought exists for us all. Despite evolving in a constrictive Confucian ideology Taoism transcended current expectations of women by revering and respecting many women as prominent leaders and enlightened Immortals. Despite close parallels between feminism and Taoism, Taoism believes in changing individuals on a spiritual level as oppose to changing social institutions on a political level. Incomplete without the balance of the other, yin and yang are the two energies of Mother Earth, there union brings humanity a sense of equanimity, peace of mind and ultimately when our physical bodies grow old a spiritual “return to the Tao”- our creator.
Laughlin and Wong, “Feminism and/in Taoism,” 170.
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From
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Historical
Smith-Christopher,
Being:
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Institute
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FOOTNOTES
Jan
Daoism
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Discrimination,
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