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TEACHING ABOUT ASIA // or Sage/Immortal/Bodhisattva? Women in the Teaching of Chinese Religions Joseph A. Adler Kenyon College

Teaching the history of Chinese a large number of variables at play, and and they became invested in its stability religions in a -balanced way little time in which to do them justice. and continuance. Confucians argued that involves a rather large number of Of the three the was a microcosm of the state, variables. First, of course, there is the fact traditions, and just as the state was ruled by a male that one must deal with at least three emperor with the mandate of Heaven, the religious traditions: Confucianism, must be central to possessed a natural authority that Daoism, and Buddhism, each of which this discussion, legitimized the social superiority of men itself varies both synchronically (at a given since it largely in any social context. The proper place period of time) and diachronically defined the for women was in the home, where they (through time).1 In addition, there are the mainstream were largely responsible for the following sets of polarities that must be discourse on upbringing and of children. The taken into account: gender in “’s way (dao)” was to assume the 1) The various textual traditions and from the Han roles of wife and mother. The chief virtue the social practices that may or may not dynasty onward. proper to these roles was obedience: first reflect them. Sage But just as we to her father, then to her , and 2) Normative texts and descriptive need to distinguish between the treatment finally to her grown . Such views, it is texts. usually need to be warned of women as symbols of a feminine ideal said, led eventually to such misogynistic not to make the same mistake as some of and women as diverse individuals, we also practices as foot-binding (for the erotic the early Orientalists, i.e. to assume that need to be aware that Confucianism is not pleasure of men), which began in the Tang such texts as the Liji (Record of Ritual) a fixed, monolithic, entity dynasty (7th -10th described actual practices, when they were but rather a dynamic field centuries), and more like idealized norms. Similarly, the of discourse. Not only does The conventional view the “cult of traditional dynastic histories were written it display both synchronic presents Buddhism and chastity” (in the from a distinctly Confucian perspective and diachronic variation, it Ming and Qing and cannot be relied upon as transparent also has different levels of Daoism as the woman’s dynasties, 14th - sources on topics in which the Confucians discourse. For example, refuge from the hostility of early 20th had a particular sectarian interest (such as the same Confucian Confucian values. centuries), Buddhism and Daoism). thinker might express one which elevated 3) The practices of the literate elite view of women in a chaste widows to and those of the majority of commoners. commentary to a classic scripture and the role of cultural heroes. In the early 20th This distinction should not be over- quite another in a letter, conversation, or century such Confucian repression was emphasized though, since there was eulogy. The same is true, of course, for harshly criticized, for example by the considerable mutual influence. the other religious traditions. writer Ba Jin in his novel, The Family 4) Women constructed as ideal (Jia), which portrayed the stifling and symbols and women seen as diverse The conventional view lethal influence of Confucian family individuals. I will begin by sketching what might values on both women and men. The “May 5) Women portrayed as objects of a be called the conventional view of women Fourth” generation of intellectuals and the male-centered “gaze” and women as in Chinese religions, and then will suggest Communists, who later came to power, subjects expressing their own lives and ways by which to go beyond it. The usual rejected Confucianism as one of the chief worldviews. story goes something like this. The causes for China’s failure to modernize. Since these are polarities, not Confucians—or “scholars” (ru), as they For the Communists, Confucianism was dualities, any specific observation may be were actually called—were the a “feudal ideology” (terminology that one located anywhere along the spectrum conservative supporters of the status quo, still hears from tour guides in China) that defined by each one. And in certain cases especially after the 2nd century BCE, when stood for social hierarchy and thus was the boundaries between the three their teachings and their authority were inimical to socialism. traditions can be just as fluid. So we have given official sanction by the government (continued on next page) 11 Teaching about Asia ASIANetwork Exchange

The conventional view presents But it doesn’t incorporate much of the bodies, but must first be reborn as Buddhism and Daoism as the woman’s scholarly literature on women in Chinese men.4 refuge from the hostility of Confucian religions that has appeared in the past two Several other scholars, since Paul’s values. Although Confucianism to a great decades or more, and continues to appear ground-breaking work, have been extent defined the playing field for two at increasing rates. Here I will not attempt focusing less on the normative textual thousand years, alternatives were to review it all, but I will merely offer an tradition and more on the lives of available to women by recourse to the impressionistic outline of some of the individual women in Chan Buddhism, the values and practices of Daoism and trends since about 1980 and new most prevalent school since the Song Buddhism. In the early phase of Daoist perspectives to which students today can dynasty (10th - 13th centuries). Among thought—i.e. the classical texts Laozi and should be exposed. them are Miriam Levering, who has (a.k.a. Dao de jing) and Zhuangzi, which To begin with Chinese Buddhism, in published a series of essays since the took their present forms by the 3rd century the early 1980s Diana Paul, who has been 1980s on women in Chan Buddhism BCE—Confucian values were strongly called a pioneer in the field, published two (primarily the female disciples of the Song criticized as being contrivances, important works on women as portrayed dynasty Chan master Dahui), Beata Grant, and the spontaneous processes of the in the normative textual tradition of and Ding-hwa Evelyn Hsieh.5 One of the natural world were seen as the model for Mahayana Buddhism: The Buddhist most interesting developments in a meaningful human life. The Laozi, in Feminine Ideal (Scholars Press, 1980), Buddhism today is that Buddhist nuns in particular, seems to express a strong focusing on Queen Srimala in the have been leaders in such groups preference for distinctly “feminine” Srimaladevi Sutra; and Women in as the Buddhist Compassion Relief (Tzu- virtues, such as yielding, softness, fertility, Buddhism (2nd ed., University of chi) Foundation (founded in 1966 by the and non-aggression, and suggests that California Press, 1985), surveying the nun Cheng Yen), which may be the fastest- these are, in the long run, both healthier Mahayana sutra literature more broadly. growing religious organization in Taiwan. and (perhaps ironically) more effective in Paul showed that there is a tension in the I might also mention an excellent the furtherance of personal interests.2 canon between the philosophical documentary film, “To the Land of Bliss” Earlier versions of the conventional story foundation of Mahayana thought, which by Wen-jie Qin (who has a Ph.D. in end the Daoist chapter right there, provides no justification for Buddhist Studies from Harvard), which completely ignoring the full-fledged examines the responses of Buddhist nuns Daoist religion, which only began in the Paul showed that there is a at a Pure Land Buddhist temple in Sichuan nd 6 2 century CE. But until the 1980s there tension in the canon between to the of their abbot in 1998. was relatively little scholarship available In the case of Daoism, the most in English on the Daoist religion. the philosophical foundation remarkable development bringing the Buddhism played a similar role. of Mahayana thought, which conventional view up to date since the Entering China from by way of provides no justification for early 1980s is that scholarship on the and the “Silk Road” at the Daoist religion, as opposed to the early beginning of our first millennium, against Daoist classics (Laozi and Zhuangzi), has Buddhism at first was solely the religion women, and the patriarchal come into and opened up of foreign monks, all of whom (as far as I attitudes that were so deeply- essentially a whole new tradition to the know) were male. But as it gradually English-speaking world. Beginning in the spread into the Chinese population it rooted in both the Indian and late 2nd century CE, several series of attracted women in substantial numbers. Chinese cultures that gave rise revelations were received and recorded Buddhist nunneries provided alternative to and interpreted the canon. (the first series from the now-divinized vocations not only for those women who Laozi), and now comprise the core of the chose not to marry, but also for widows discrimination against women, and the enormous Daoist Canon (containing over and those women who, once their children patriarchal attitudes that were so deeply- 1400 titles). Daoist communities existed had grown, felt limited by Confucian rooted in both the Indian and Chinese (in the Celestial Masters tradition) in social restrictions. A prominent example cultures that gave rise to and interpreted which women could be priests or of the greater possibilities for women in the canon. The famously ambiguous story “libationers”, and later on there were Buddhism is the fact that one of its most of the 8-year old daughter of the Dragon respected female Daoist teachers, a important “deities” (using that term King in the “Devadatta” chapter of the number of whom achieved apotheosis as loosely), the Bodhisattva of Compassion, Lotus Sutra can be taken as a symbol of “immortals.” In medieval Daoist Avalokitesvara ( in Chinese), that tension. The precocious young monasteries, women were equal in status essentially became female in China, shows up the sceptical disciple, to men in all ways, distinguished only by reflecting the enormous appeal of Shariputra, by manifesting her full the type of cap they wore.7 The current Buddhism among women.3 Buddhahood at the wink of an eye—yet generation of Daoist scholars, many of she does so by first briefly transforming whom were trained by the late Michel Updating and complicating the herself into a , reflecting the popular Strickmann at the University of California conventional view Buddhist notion that women cannot at Berkeley and by Livia Kohn at Boston That, more or less, is the standard achieve Buddhahood in their polluted University, have been churning out account of women in Chinese religions. translations, essays, and monographs at a 12 ASIANetwork Exchange Teaching about Asia

Culture and May Fourth movements, and website Confucius2000.com, for example, So now there is much more solid then by the rabidly anti-traditional is an extraordinary forum reflecting the data available to show how Communist regime. An admittedly re-evaluation of Confucianism occurring extreme example of this approach is in China today, including vigorous debate Daoism provided alternatives for embodied in a pamphlet produced during on its religious dimensions.10 women to the Confucian- the , called Workers, So what can we learn (and teach) dominated mainstream of society, Peasants, and Soldiers Criticize from contemporary scholarship in terms of vocation, social Confucius and Lin Piao, which begins, concerning women in Confucianism? The “Confucius was a reactionary who first two points I would stress are status, and religious symbolism. doggedly defended slavery and whose methodological: (a) we need to examine doctrines have been used by all the Confucian tradition as a dynamic field furious rate, including a substantial reactionaries, whether ancient or of discourse unfolding through history number of accounts of Daoist women. As contemporary, Chinese or foreign, rather than a static body of ideas, and (b) in the case of Buddhism, this has shifted throughout the more than 2,000 years we need to bear in mind the conceptual the focus somewhat from normative texts since his time.”9 Even putting aside the polarities outlined at the beginning of this and idealized conceptions of the feminine strident political dimension of such paper, the most important of which, in to individual female figures, including material, many non-Maoist scholars today, regard to Confucianism, are the first two: deities, immortals, and mere . The both Chinese and Western, have not (1) the distinction between the textual recently published Women in Daoism, by critically examined the clichés and out- tradition and social practices, and (2) the Catherine Despeux and Livia Kohn (Three of-context Confucian quotes that provided distinction between normative texts and Pines Press, 2003), provides an excellent fodder for this kind of polemic, such as descriptive texts. summary of current scholarship. So now the oft-quoted comment by the 11th- Taking the historical view, we must there is much more solid data available to century scholar Cheng Yi to the effect that identify the Han dynasty11 as the first show how Daoism provided alternatives it would be better for a widow to die of important turning point. Two events are for women to the Confucian-dominated starvation than to lose her “virtue.” central to this episode, and one man is the mainstream of society, in terms of Nevertheless, Confucian scholarship key figure in both: Dong Zhongshu (179- vocation, social status, and religious in the West since 194 BCE). It was Dong symbolism. World War II has who persuaded the Han And so we arrive at last at the bête blossomed and Emperor, Wu-di (r. 140-87 noir, Confucianism. It is not my intention matured, led by the BCE), to switch allegiance to exonerate Confucianism from estimable William and state support from responsibility for the subjugation of Theodore de Bary Huang-Lao Daoism to , but rather to complicate and Wing-tsit Chan at Confucianism. The the over-simplified picture presented Columbia and Tu Confucian scriptures (at above. It is unrealistic to attempt to Wei-ming at Harvard that point limited to the so- explain away or minimize the damage (and formerly called Five Classics) and done to women’s lives in China by policies Berkeley), and the ideas of Confucius and practices that have been legitimized building upon the (551-479 BCE) then in Confucian terms, such as the “cult of work of eminent became the ideological chastity” in the Ming and Qing dynasties, scholars in Taiwan, basis for the training of which condemned many widows to , and Bodhisattva government officials, and and loneliness by placing a social . In mainland for the first time the state stigma on remarriage by women.8 Nor is China, however, serious contemporary had an interest in controlling the content it adequate to separate Confucianism scholarship on Confucianism got a of those teachings. And, to further develop entirely from these practices by arguing relatively late start. It began in the early and clarify the relevance of Confucian that they stem ultimately from patriarchal 1980s after the death of , the thought to government, Dong Zhongshu social values, and are only reflected fall of the Gang of Four, and the rise to wrote his magnum opus, the Luxuriant secondarily in Confucian thought. While power of the more pragmatic Deng Gems of the Spring and Autumn Annals that may be true, it does not remove from Xiaoping. Even then, such influential (Chunqiu fan lu), in which he the Confucian ledger the responsibility for scholars as Ren Jiyu brought to their work incorporated, for the first time in a reinforcing those values. the Marxist assumption that religion was systematic way, the theory of yin and yang On the other hand, it is intellectually inherently bad. Only in the past decade or into the emerging Confucian synthesis. and historically mistaken to essentialize so—paralleling the revival of popular There is an emerging consensus the Confucian tradition—to treat it as a since the early 1990s— among recent scholars that it was the rigid static, monolithic, misogynistic entity— has Chinese scholarship on Confucianism application of the yin-yang rubric to and thereby to condemn it out of hand. put aside the tired old debates about women and men, respectively, that has led Throughout most of the twentieth century materialism vs. idealism and begun to take to the repression of women in Confucian in China that is precisely what occurred: seriously the prospect of learning thought and practice. There are two first by the pro-Western, rationalistic New something valuable from the tradition. The aspects to this process that need to be (continued on next page) 13 Teaching about Asia ASIANetwork Exchange explored: the intellectual and the over the centuries, would draw flourish by living their lives according to historical. First, the intellectual point is Confucianism consistently toward support that model. But we also know from the actually somewhat counter-intuitive, of stability, a hierarchical order, and the personal accounts of women who joined because the yin-yang concept is a status quo. We see this even more strongly Buddhist nunneries that that was not the principle of complementarity or polarity, in the Comprehensive Discussion in the case for all women. which, one would think, would not be White Tiger Hall (Baihu tong), which is a The process by which male and consistent with a record of an female were rigidly boxed into the hierarchical There is an emerging consensus imperially- categories of yin and yang was a gradual structure. But even among recent scholars that it sponsored one, and it was slowed considerably by before the Han, yin- was the rigid application of the conference in 79 the fall of the Han dynasty and the yang was CE (although the resulting discredit brought upon associated with an yin-yang rubric to women and received text may Confucianism in the eyes of many implicit hierarchy, men, respectively, that has led to contain later intellectuals, who were drawn instead to since Heaven the repression of women in additions). The Buddhism and Daoism. But the growth of (above) and Earth meeting was politicized Confucianism resumed again (below) were early Confucian thought and practice. convened to in the (960-1279). Here we examples of the decide the meet with another great systematizer, Zhu distinction. Yet they were originally seen authenticity of the “New Text” and “Old Xi (1130-1200), who was heavily as functional modes of activity, which both Text” versions of the Confucian canon, indebted to his predecessor Cheng Yi men and women were understood to and includes such statements as “Yang (1033-1107). Both of these figures are embody. The key interpretive shift, which takes the lead; yin acts in concert. The frequently depicted as culpable for the seems to have occurred in the Han and is male acts; the female follows.”16 suppression of Chinese women over the certainly seen in Dong Zhongshu’s Another important Han-dynasty text last millenium. Cheng Yi’s statement writing, was to essentialize men as yang is one written by a woman for women: the about widow chastity, referred to above, and women as yin:12 “The husband is yang Lessons for Women (Nüjie), by Ban Zhao is one of the most-quoted indictments of and the wife is yin;”13 and “Yin and yang (45-114 CE). Ban was the of Ban the entire Confucian tradition. Zhu Xi also may be called man and woman, and Gu, the official historian of the Former occasionally expressed similar views, e.g., man and woman may also be called yin Han dynasty, who died before he could “To do wrong is unbecoming to a wife, and yang.”14 As Chan Sin Yee points out complete that history, so she finished it. and to do good is also unbecoming to a in an excellent essay, the yin-yang concept She wrote the Nüjie ostensibly for her wife. A woman is only to be obedient to itself does not imply gender essentialism. , instructing them on how to live what is proper.”18 But, she says, “the alignment was in fact proper Confucian lives as and Here is where the distinctions of text made by Confucians in the past, and with . Although this is a relatively rare vs. social practice and normative vs. the alignment, gender essentialism is instance of a female Confucian voice, Ban descriptive texts become crucial. Scholars suggested.”15 This, of course, begs the Zhao almost entirely accepts the such as Bettine Birge and Pat Ebrey have question why Dong Zhongshu should have prevailing views concerning women’s shown that these “Neo-Confucian” made this interpretive shift in the proper roles; they should be silent, hard- writings do not necessarily reflect either application of the yin-yang working, and compliant. She stresses the the prevailing social practices or the complementarity. One can only speculate, complementarity and equal importance of scholars’ own attitudes and practices in but since Dong was constructing a massive the male and female roles according to regard to actual women.19 Cheng Yi, for intellectual system of correspondences, it yin-yang theory, but she clearly accepts example, praised his father for “marrying is not unreasonable to assume that even a the dominance of the yang-male. Her only off” an orphaned, widowed relative, garden-variety level of or departure from the standard male versions contrary to the scriptural injunction that a patriarchal attitude might have tempted of this orthodoxy is that she insists on the widow should not remarry.20 Zhu Xi him to align women and men with yin and necessity to educate and women. We similarly treated the actual women in his yang, in the interest of filling out his should not underestimate the significance life far differently than one would expect system. of this point, as education was the bottom given his theoretical writings and If Dong Zhongshu’s system had line qualification for being a junzi or statements on the proper role of women. remained merely an intellectual construct “noble person,” and the prevailing view, He, even more so than Dong Zhongshu, it almost certainly would not have had the ever since the time of Confucius, was that was a systematizer, and he too regarded social impact that is claimed for it. But a junzi is presumptively male. Still, some yin-yang as the most fundamental Dong was not just an effete scholar; he scholars assert that Ban Zhao did more ordering principle.21 Zhu was, in fact, was a prime minister working for an harm than good to the fate of women in intent on fitting everything he possibly activist emperor who was reconceiving a China.17 But her example suggests that the could into this intellectual system. So it is theory of government that was destined Confucian prescription for a meaningful not surprising that he would align the to sustain a great empire. It was the life as a woman was apparently not stifling categories of man and woman with the resulting politicization of Dong for all women. Even some women of the fundamental yin-yang principle. But as the Zhongshu’s Confucian synthesis that literate elite, for whom Confucianism was above-mentioned scholars have shown, provided the conservative inertia which, quite explicitly the norm, were able to we should not superimpose that theoretical

14 ASIANetwork Exchange Teaching about Asia structure onto the actual lives of Song Chinese religions in a gender-balanced eds., Women in China: Current Directions women. In fact, the very existence of such way to undergraduates. in Historical Scholarship (Youngstown, arguments for restrictions on women’s Confucianism is the hard part. Its role NY: Philo Press, 1981). 3 lives might suggest precisely the opposite: should neither be whitewashed nor See Chün-fang Yü, Kuan-yin: The Chinese Transformation of Avalokitesvara (NY: the stronger the polemic, the higher the villainized. What is most crucial here is Columbia University Press, 2001). percentage of women there might be who (1) to unpack the historical development 4This widespread notion is roundly rejected are actually ignoring the strictures. of the tradition, with some attention to the by the 13th-century Japanese Zen master, The politicization of Confucian way in which the yin-yang theory was Dôgen, in the “Raihai tokuzui” essay of his principles resumed in strength when Zhu interpreted, which resulted in the Shôbôgenzô (translated by Francis Cook in Xi’s teachings became the basis of the civil essentializing of gender roles; (2) to How to Raise an Ox: Zen Practice as Taught service examination system, and remained distinguish between normative texts and in Zen Master Dogen’s Shobogenzo (Los so for almost 600 years. It was really the actual social practice; and (3) to note that Angeles: Center Publications, 1978), pp. Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) it was politicized Confucianism that 133-150. 5The syllabus for Hsieh’s course, “Women in dynasties in which the lives of women— became the supporter of a harshly Chinese Religions,” is on the website of the at least women belonging to the literate patriarchal society. A rigid social American Academy of Religion (http:// elite—became seriously restricted. For hierarchy, of which the gender hierarchy www.aarweb.org/syllabus/default.asp under example, “[a] woman who was widowed was a part, was one way of maintaining a “Syllabus Project”) and could serve as a before she was thirty and remained chaste stable society. valuable guide for anyone interested in until she was fifty was granted a memorial This is not to say that politicized teaching a similar course. arch, and her family was exempt from Confucianism is not “true” Confucianism; 6“To the Land of Bliss” (47 minutes) is certain kinds of taxes” (under a system of that it is inauthentic. That would be a distributed by Documentary Educational state rewards that actually began in the sectarian judgment, not a scholarly one. Resources in Watertown, Mass. (http:// th www.der.org). early 13 century during the Yuan dynasty, But we can say that this version of 7 th 22 Livia Kohn, The Daoist Monastic Manual: A and continued until the 20 century). Of Confucianism was and is not the only Translation of the Fengdao Kejie (NY: course it was the situation during the Qing, version. It arose at a specific historical Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 65. in particular, that was the immediate point moment in response to the political needs 8 This is based on a line in the Liji (Record of of departure for the liberal and radical of a new empire, and it continued to be Rites), ch. 9. critiques of Confucianism in the twentieth reinforced as later iterations of that empire 9 Trans. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, century. found it a useful tool to support a 1976. Finally, we should note that the hierarchical social system. Gender 10 See Anna Xiao Dong Sun, “The Fate of limitations placed on women in Confucian essentialism was not a feature of the Confucianism as a Religion in Socialist China: Controversies and Paradoxes,” in texts never really applied to the peasant teachings of Confucius and Mencius, nor Fenggang Yang and Joseph B. Tamney, eds., class, for whom the restriction of women is it part of contemporary Confucian State, Market and Religions in Chinese 23 to work within the home and with children thought. In fact, there are contemporary Societies (Leiden: Brill, 2005). was a luxury they could not afford. And female scholars who call themselves 11206 BCE - 220 CE, with a short interregnum since the percentage of the literate elite feminist Confucians. So in my view, the from 9 CE to 23 CE. was tiny in the Han dynasty and still story of how Confucianism became 12Chan Sin Yee, “The Confucian Conception relatively small even in the Qing, we politicized and what became of it as a of Gender in the Twenty-First Century,” in should not assume that the majority of result is an excellent object lesson in the Daniel A. Bell and Hahm Chaibong, women were even aware of these danger of implicating religion too closely Confucianism for the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, restrictions—which, in any case, were with politics.24 2003), pp. 312-333. idealized norms rather than descriptions With these suggestions for nuancing 13Chunqiu fan lu 53, trans. Mark of the prevailing state of affairs. the presentation of Confucianism, and Csikszentmihalyi, in Robin R. Wang, ed., with the numerous resources readily Images of Women in Chinese Thought and Conclusions available to balance the teaching of Culture (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2003), p. The conventional view outlined Daoism and Buddhism with women’s 168. above is fairly accurate in regard to lives and voices, it is quite possible today 14Ibid., p. 169. Daoism and Buddhism. They did indeed to present an adequately gender-balanced 15Chan Sin Yee, p. 320. 16 provide welcome alternatives to the picture of the history of Chinese religions. Trans. Paul R. Goldin in Wang, Images of Women, p. 171. sometimes stifling restrictions on women’s 17 See Lily Xiao Hong Lee, The Virtue of Yin: lives prescribed by Confucianism. What Footnotes Studies on Chinese Women (Australia: Wild 1 is most important today in teaching For the sake of brevity I will omit popular Peony, 1994), ch. 1. Chinese religions is (1) to include the first- religion (minjian zongjiao), Islam, and 18Trans. Robin R. Wang, Images of Women in person voices of Buddhist and Daoist Christianity from this discussion. Chinese Thought and Culture, p. 325. 2 women (making use of the scholars For an alternative interpretation — that the 19Bettine Birge, “Chu Hsi and Women’s Laozi stresses the feminine with the aim of mentioned above), and (2) to include Education,” in Wm. Theodore de Bary and reaching a balance between masculine and John W. Chaffee, eds., Neo-Confucian institutional Daoism. These are fairly easy feminine virtues — see Roger T. Ames, and straightforward ways of presenting Education: The Formative Stage (Berkeley: “Taoism and the Androgynous Ideal,” in University of California Press, 1989); and Richard W. Guisso and Stanley Johannesen, (continued on next page) 15 Teaching about Asia ASIANetwork Exchange

Patricia Buckley Ebrey, The Inner Quarters: Han dynasty to the Qing dynasty had China’s Long Eighteenth Century (Stanford: and the Lives of Chinese Women identified with monarchy. This is just as Li Stanford University Press, 1997); Susan in the Sung Period (Berkeley: University Dazhao said: ‘We are launching an attack Mann and Yu-yin Cheng, eds., Under of California Press, 1993). See also Bettine not upon Confucius himself but upon the Confucian Eyes: Writings on Gender in Birge, Woman, , and Confucian Confucius whom the past successive Chinese History (Berkeley: University of Reaction in Sung and Yuan China, 960- emperors have molded into a political idol California Press, 2001); Sherry J. Mou, ed., 1368 (Cambridge: Cambridge University and authority — not upon Confucius Presence and Presentation: Women in the Press, 1999), and idem., “Women and himself but upon the Confucius whom the Chinese Literati Tradition (NY: St. Martin’s Confucianism from Song to Ming: The emperors have invested with a tyrannical Press, 1999); Sherry J. Mou, Gentlemen’s Institutionalization of ,” in Paul soul.’” Trans. Liu Qizhong, in Wm. Prescriptions for Women’s Lives: A Jakov Smith and Richard von Glahn, eds., Theodore de Bary and Richard Lufrano, Thousand Years of Biographies of Chinese The Song-Yuan-Ming Transition in Chinese eds., Sources of Chinese Tradition, 2nd ed., Women (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 2004); History (Cambridge: Harvard University vol. 2 (NY: Columbia University Press, Vivian-Lee Nyitray, “The Real Trouble with Asia Center, 2003). 2000), p. 578. Confucianism,” in Joseph Runzo and Nancy 20See Wang, Images of Women , pp. 318-319. 24Aside from the sources already mentioned, M. Martin, eds., Love, and Gender in 21I have argued elsewhere that this claim is the there are numerous recent studies on women the World Religions (Oxford: Oneworld, key to the significance of the term taiji in Confucianism. Some of them are: 2000); Vivian-Lee Nyitray, “Treacherous (Supreme Polarity) in Zhu Xi’s thought. See Patricia Ebrey, “Women, Marriage, and the Terrain: Mapping Feminine Spirituality in Joseph A. Adler, “Varieties of Spiritual Family in Chinese History,” in Paul S. Ropp, Confucian Worlds,” in Tu Weiming and Experience: Shen in Neo-Confucian ed., Heritage of China: Contemporary Mary Evelyn Tucker, eds., Confucian Discourse,” in Tu Wei-ming and Mary Perspectives on Chinese Civilization Spirituality, vol. 2 (NY: Crossroad, 2004); Evelyn Tucker, eds., Confucian Spirituality, (Berkeley: University of California Press, Vivian-Lee Nyitray, “Confucianism” in vol. 2 (NY: Crossroad, 2004), pp. 122-123; 1990); Mary Gallagher, “Women and Arvind K. Sharma, ed., Fundamentalism and idem., “Zhou Dunyi: The Metaphysics Gender,” in Howard Giskin and Bettye S. and the Position of Women in World and Practice of Sagehood,” in Wm. Walsh, eds., An Introduction to Chinese Religions (Albany: SUNY Press, 2005); Theodore de Bary and Irene Bloom, eds., Culture Through the Family (Albany: Lisa Raphals, Sharing the Light: Sources of Chinese Tradition, 2nd ed., vol. SUNY Press, 2001); Theresa Kelleher, Representations of Women and Virtue in 1 (NY: Columbia University Press, 1999), “Confucianism,” in Arvind Sharma, ed., Early China (Albany: SUNY Press, 1998); p. 672. The argument is developed further Women in World Religions (Albany: SUNY Lisa Raphals, “A Woman Who Understood in a work in progress. Press, 1987); Dorothy Ko, “Footbinding as The Rites,” in Bryan W. Van Norden, ed., 22Ann Waltner, “Recent Scholarship on Female Inscription,” in Benjamin A. Elman, Confucius and the Analects: New Essays Chinese Women,” Signs 21:2 (1996), p. 422. John B. Duncan, and Herman Ooms, (NY: Oxford University Press, 2002); See also her “Widows and Remarriage in Rethinking Confucianism: Past and Present Barbara Reed, “Women and Chinese Ming and Early Qing China,” in Guisso and in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam (Los Religion in Contemporary Taiwan,” in Johannesen, eds., Women in China (note 2 Angeles: UCLA Asia Institute, 2002); Arvind Sharma, ed., Today’s Woman in above). Dorothy Ko, JaHyun Kim Haboush, and World Religions (Albany: SUNY Press, 23As Li Zehou put it in 1980: “In the hands of Joan R. Piggott, eds., Women and Confucian 1994); Rubie S. Watson and Patricia different Confucian scholars serving the Cultures in Premodern China, Korea, and Buckley Ebrey, eds, Marriage and interests of their respective classes or Japan (Berkeley: University of California Inequality in Chinese Society (Berkeley: political ideologies, Confucianism often Press, 2003); Chenyang Li, ed., The Sage University of California Press, 1991); and went off at a a tangent. The Confucius that and the Second Sex: Confucianism, Ethics, Terry Woo, “Confucianism and ,” the May 4 movement in 1919 destroyed was and Gender (Chicago: Open Court, 2000); in Arvind Sharma, ed., Feminism and World just the Confucius that Confucians from the Susan Mann, Precious Records: Women in Religions (Albany: SUNY Press, 1998).

Brill’s journal of African and Asian Studies (AAS) Call for articles

The peer-reviewed journal of African and Asian Studies publishes leading empirical and multi-disciplinary work in the areas of African and Asian Studies. It offers a wide range of scholarly topics aimed at experts in their respective fields of research. The Editorial Board invites you to submit articles for publication. For more information, please contact the Editor-in-Chief: Prof. Lumumba-Kasongo at [email protected] or visit the web page at www.brill.nl/aas For a free online issue, please go to http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/brill/ afas.

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