I ; I I Arvind Si~gh~' and Everett M. Rogers (1991). Hum Log Story; From Concept to After-Effects. ! Communication lOOOAD, New Delhi; Indian Institute of Mass Communications, pp. 17-25.

HUM LOG STORY FROM CONCEPT \ TO AFTER-EFFECTS

HUM WG represented nothing but a truly Indian lifestyle, wrote Abhinav Chaturvedi, who played the role of Nan he in Hum Log, in his personal diary, December 1985.

HE purpose of the present Arvind Singhal On the other hand. entertainment article is to analyse India's Asslstant Professor at SCliool of interper- programmes like feature films and Texperience with Hum Lo g (We sonal Communlcat1on • College of television setials generall y obtain high People), a television soap opera which Communlcat1on. OhIo Unlverslty ~dience ratings, and hence are popular consciously auempted to combine and with commercial sponsors. So why not entertainment with education. We in- Everett M. Rogers use entertainment programmes to edu- vestigate the nature of the Walter H. Annenberg cate viewers? entertainment-education strategy in Professor of Communication. Annenberg This approach of combining en- SChool of Communlcat1on. Unlverslty of mass communication, and trace the South California tertainment with education toinfluence historical roots of Hum Log. viewers' attitudes and behaviours in a The reasons for Hum Log' spopu- socially desirable direction is called larity are'discussed, and the direct and theentertainment-education strategy in indirect effects of Hum Log are mass communication (Singhal. 1990). analyzed. Theentertainment -education strategy is highly versatile; it has been Historical roots utilized in television. radio, rock music, the print medium and theatre. While the roots of the entertainment-education strategy go The strategy back many thousand years to when storytelling originated. the first major A needless dichotomy exists in mass media experience with the almost all mass media content: That entertainment-education strategy mass media programmes must either occurred accidentally in 1969 with the be entertaining or educational (Singhal broadcast of the television soap opera and Rogers, 1989a; 1989b; 1989c). Simp/ememe Maria in Peru. National governments in many Third Simp/emente Maria told the rags- World countries often feel obliged to ((rriches story of Maria, a rural-urban produce educational programme for . migrant to Lima from the Andes Moun- broadcasting. Such programmes tains, who was employed as a maid in usually require a heavy investment. a rich urban household, and depicted in are perceived by audiences as relatively the television series as hardworldng, dull, and receive very low audience idealistic, and a positive role model for attention. Nor are such programmes upward mobility. Maria asked her popular with commercial employers for free time in the evening advertisers. to enrol ih adult literacy classes, and

Communication 2000 AD 17

Silver Jubilee Commemorative Volume (199]), New Delhi: Indian Institute of ~l

18 Communication 2000 AD '~.:..

government family planning health his role in breeding the miracle wheat clinics in order to adopt contraceptives, varieties that set off the Green an increase of 33 per cent over the Revolution) and Dr M. S. previous year. Some 2,500 Mexican Swaminathan, India's top agricultural women registered as voluntary scientist, had a coffee break workers to help implement the conversation at a population Mexican National Plan for Family conference in Oslo, Norway. Planning, an idea promoted by Swaminathan expressed the Acompaname (Tele visa ,slnstitUlefor difficulties involved in implementing 1981). Co171l1WllicaiionResearch India's family planning programme. After Acompaname ended, Borlaug, who was familiar with Sabido produced several Poindexter's understanding of en tertainmen t-education telev ision Sabido's entertainment-education soap operas in Mexico until 1982, television soap operas in Mexico, each promoting a particular suggested that Swaminathan invite development theme (such as the stains Poindex ter to India in December 1981 of women, sexual responsibility for a forthcoming conference on the among teenagers, and child environment. development). While the Mexican experience with entertainment- Sabido's presentation education soap operas was highly successful, Sabido's soap opera Later in Septem her 1981 the topic methodology was unknown in other of the Mexican entertainment- countries. education television soap operas was And then, in 1984, came along put on the programme of the the Indian television soap opera Hum impressed by the idea of using International Institute of Log (We People), representing the entertainrtent soap operas to address Communication (IIC) meeting in first non-Mexican use of Sabido' s soap educational-development problems in Strassbourg, France. Sabido made a opera methodology. Third World countries. presentation, showing a videotape Poindexter's interest in transferring featuring a collage of Acompaname Hum Log story Sabido's soap opera methodology to India and a segment about the theory and was sharpened when, in March 1980, methodology of entertainment- "David Poindexter, President of Emilio Azcarraga, President ofTelevisa, education television soap operas. Population Communications- told Poindexter about his desire to meet Some 80 media offic.ials attended International (PC-I), headquartered in the Indian Prime Minister, Mrs Indira Sabido's presentation; the discussion New York City, played a key role in Gandhi, in order to tell heraboutSabido' s was generally favourable, but concern the international diffusion of the entertainment-education soap operas. was expressed about the soap operas Mexican entertainment-education being too powerful. What if a Hitler- soap opera experience to India. The Borlaug's suggestion like political leader utilized the Hum Lo g story goes back to entertainment-education strategy for September 19n when Poindexterfrrst In September 1980, Poindexter manipulative purposes (Brown and met Miguel Sabido in Mexico City. arranged a meeting between Emilio Singhal. 199O)? Poindexter (then Director of Azcarraga and Kurt Waldheim, President The closing session for the lIe Communication at the Population of the UN General Assembly, in New conference on Friday morning was Institute) was searching for an York.' A 45-minute videotape featuring chaired by Inder Gujral, who, effective means to utilize mass media excerpts from Acompaname was viewed. Poindexter learned, had previously communication to promote family During this meeting, Azcarraga told served as India's Minister of planning, and Sabido was having great Poindexter that he should accompany Information and Broadcasting (I&B). success with Acompaname. Miguel Sabido (instead of himself) to Poindexter learned that Gujral would As Sabido achieved success after India. But then, for a year or so, nothing visit New York in two weeks. success with his entertainment- happened. Gujral had" not seen the Sabido education soap operas, Poindexter In September 1981, Dr. Norman presentation the previous Wednesday, became increasingly intrigued and Borlaug (Nobel Peace Prize Winner for and so Poindexter showed him the Communication 2000 AD 19 Teievisa videotape in his office in But Sabido's trip was postponed twice: In September 1983, Poindexter . New York. GujraI was impressed by fIrst, because of the Asian Games in New returned to New Delhi to meet S. S. the videotape, and agreed to set up a Delhi in November 1982, and then due to Gill, who was by then appointed showing of the videotape in his New the New Delhi conference of the Non- Secretary to the Ministry of! & B. Gill Delhi home in December 1981 (when Aligned Nations in early 1983. had many questions for Poindexter Poindexter attended theSwaminathan- about entertainment-education led conference on the environment). Sabido visits India television soap operas. In December 1981 about 20 Indian In November-Deceffiber 1983, media and public health officials met In May 1983, the long-delayed Gill called a meeting of 25 writers, for dinner at GujraI' sNew Delhi home. Sabido trip to India occurred. Sabido joumal-ists, producers and directors to The United States Information Ageocy presented a fIve-day workshop on suggest changes for improving (USIA) in New Delhi provided a video entertainment -education soap operas held Doordarshan's programmes in the cassette player, and after dinner at Akashvani Bhawan, New Delhi. A wake of the impending satellite Poindexter showed the 45-minute problem arose when Sabido insisted that television expansion in India Gill's Acompaname collage videotape, a television soap opera needed to be idea of promoting family planning and leading the ensuing discussion. broadcast five times a week (as is the other sociall~ desirable values in India custom in Latin America) in order to via a television melodrama (Sabido Vision of failure have its desired effects. Indian officials style) received a negative reaction from insisted they had only enough resources most participants. One individual who Poindexter felt that the reception (equipment, studios, funds, etc.) for a was intrigued by Gill's proposal was to his ideas was not very enthusiastic, soap opera to be broadcast once a week. Manohar Shyam Joshi, a Hindi novelist and left directly for Palam airport During this India visit, Poindexter and editor of the Weekend Review. catching his flight back to New York, and Sabido met Prime,.Minister Indira and feeling that he had failed in his Gandhi. She was quite enthusiastic about Joshi commissioned mission to India. the idea of an entertainment-education A few weeks later, Jyoti Shankar family planning soap opera. In December 1983, Gill deputed Singh, Chief of the Information and Rajendra Joshi, media officer in the External Relations Division of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, United Nations Population Fund to attend a lO-day training workshop (UNFP A), New Yorlc, told Poindexter on entertainment-education soap that he may have misread the reaction operas at Televisa. In January 1984, to the Televisa videotape in New Delhi, Gill made a quick trip to Mexico City as high-level Indian civil servants in order to be briefed by Sabido. Back seldom show much enthusiasm for a in New Delhi, he set the ball rolling for new idea. . HumLog. Gill hired Manohar Shyam . . Indeed, in April 1982 Poindexter Joshi as Hum Log's scriptwriter, and was back in New Delhi to give a two- found him a small office in Mandi day workshop, invited by S B LaI, House, Doordarshan's headquarters. Secretary to the Ministry of I&B. Based on his knowledge of the About 20 top Indian radio .and Sabidotelevision soap opera television scriptwriters and producers methodology (even though Joshi had participated. never met Miguel Sabido), Joshi The. ' reaction towards cranked out Hum Log's storyline, its entertainment -educational soap operas character sketches, and a summary of was skeptical, but Lal designated the fIrst 39 Hum Log episodes in a Manzurul Amin, the number two record 40 days. Doordarshan lacked individual at Doordarshan, to explore the resources to produce and sustain a further the idea of a family planning series likeHumLog, soShobha Doctor, soap opera. In June 1982 Amin and 'a Bombay-based advertiSing agency Poindexter travelled to Mexico City owner, was called in. She could, it was for a briefmg by Miguel Sabido. argued, sell the programme to When Amin left Mexico City, C

20 Communication 2000 AD ~. \,. til,I" - t

Doordarshan, was appointed as' the Log' stremcndous audience popularity executive producer of Hum Log and P (Singhal and Rogers. 1989a). Kumar Vasudev its director. 1. Timing : Hum Log was For the next several monlhs, work broadcast at a time when Doordarshan, progressed at breakneck speed on Hum the government national television -Log. Actors and actresses were hired, network, was experiencing an scripts were completed, production unparalleled expansion due to the schedules were made, and a privately- launch of the Indian National Satellite owned modem television studio was (INSAT-IB) in 1983, which greatly leased in Gurgaon, 25 miles south of increased public access to television New Delhi. Finally, on July 7, 1984, in India Doofdarshan began broadcasting Hum 2. Novelty : Hum Log was Log. Doordarshan's ftrst long-running soap Hum Log was broadcast for 17 opera, a novel programming genre for monlhs in 1984-85, a total of 156 half- Indian audiences. hour episodes. At the close of each 3. Audience identification : Hum episode, film actor Ashok Kumar Log centered on three generations of a summarized the episode in an epilogue lower -middle class joint family. Many of 60 to 90 seconds, and provided characters seemed real-life, and viewers with appropriate guides to millions of, Indians identified with action in their lives (Singhal and them, creating a type of para-social Rogers, 1988). interaction. Para-social interaction is the Mid-course correction seemingly face-to-face interpersonal (1) personal interviews .withkey officials relationship which can develop ThefirstHumLog episodes earned who were involved in Hum Log, (2) between a viewer and a mass. media disappointing ratings. Viewers content analysis of Hum Log scripts, (3)' personality (Horton and Wohl,1958). complained of too-violent dramatic field survey of the television audience in For instance, Badki, a protagonist for situations, didactic sermons about India, (4) content analysis of a sample of female equality, was mobbed on famil y planning, indifferent acting, and viewers' letters written in response to several occasions by young college a story line that was too slow in Hum Log, and (5) a nlaiIed questionnaire girls,' who said they had also rebelled developing. After the first 13 episodes, to a sample of our letter-writers. and she should advise them what to do Hum Log was given a mid-course next correction. The family planning theme Content analysis 4. Audience involvement: Mass was diluted, and themes such as the media communication is usually one- status of women, family harmony, and Our content analysis of Hum Log's way. from one or a few source national integration were widely episodes indicated that the television individuals to many audience promoted. series addressed,' to varying degrees, individuals. Hum Log was unusual in A sub-story addressing important educational-development that audience feedback via viewers' underworld activities and political themes: Family harmony, the status of letters actually helped write and rewrite corruption was also added, which, women, alcoholism, national integration, the storyline, suggesting new twists to while popular with the audience, family planning, health, problems of the plot detracted from the soap opera's major urban life, and public welfare services Some 4,00,000 viewers' letters purpose (Singhal andRogers, 1989c). (Singhal and Rogers, I989a; Singhal, were received in response to Hum Hum Log rose rapidly in popularity. 1990). Log. For instance, three avid viewers When it ended on December 17,1985, . Hum Log was highly popular with of the Hum Log television series wrote there was widespread sentimental Indian audiences, comrnandingaudience a joint letter to scriptwriter Joshi: protest from many Hum Log vie- . ratings from 65 to 90 per cent in North "Please have mercy on Samdar (the wers. India (a predominantly Hindi-speaking police inSpector who lost his eyesight). The present authors used a variety area), and between 20 and 45 per cent in Poor fellow has got all the bad things ofmethodsandcollectedmultipletypes the main cities of. South India, where in life .... Give back his eyesight, of data to determine the effects of Hum Hindi language programmes are less please." Joshi restored Samdar's Log. Five types of data were gathered: popular. Several factors explain Hum eyesight!

Communication 2000 AD 21 5. Asbok Kumar's epilogues: attitudes (I) towards freedom of choice Asholc Kumar's epilogues endeared family planning, and so on), despite for women (for example, women should statistically controlling for several Hum Log to many viewers. Learning have the freedom to choose their careers, from elders is a highly cherished Indian socio-demographic variables (Singhal. their husbands, and soon), and (2) towards 1990). value, and Asholc Kumar, a father equal opportunities for women (for figure in India, doled out words of Exposure to Hum Log was found example, women should have equal say to be positively related to behaviours wisdom in his epilogues. in decisions about household spending, 6. Hindi language: In writing indicating freedom of choice for women. While statistically significant, Hum Log's dialogues, scriptwriter TABLE 2 the effects were all quite small (Singhal, Joshi creatively used Khadi Bali. a Tbe bierarcby or media effects and 1990). much-used and highly popular the sources or possible data about derivative of the Hindi language. A these effects combination of Khadi Bali and Behavioural effect Cuntuh:ztiv~ uv~/ ofM~dia conventional Hindi served as the SOIlTC~SofPossib/~ Efftcts Data lowest common denominator for many While mass media programmes, Hum Loi viewers. by themselves, rarely lead to direct 1 Exposure to TV ratings for example overt behaviour change on the part of the message(s) Intended effects audiences, our content analysis of viewers' letters suggests that at least 2 Awareness of the Content analysis, audience We considered McGuire's (1981) message(s) survey certain Hum Log viewers were classification of the hierarchy of effects behaviourally affected in the intended 3 Being informed Content analysis, audience direction: The president of the Legal (Table 2) in conceptualizing Hum survey Log'seffects. WeexfXXtedHumLog Aid Centre for Women in New Delhi, to create widespread audience 4 Being persuaded Content analysis, audience in her letter to Asholc Kumar, said: survey "Your encouragement on Hum Log exposure and widespread awareness 5 Intending to Audience survey boosts our organization's morale. and information about the message change behaviour During June-July 1985 (when Hum Log content. Exposure to Hum Log 6 o.anging Audience survey, point-<>f broadcasts was less likely to change behaviour referral clinic data, coodom was being broadcast), a record number the audience's attitudes (about such sales data, and case studies of women's cases (152) were handled of behaviour change ~ssues as the status of women), and 7 by our office, out of which 56 were Maintaining Audience survey, point-<>f- new." , even fewer individuals were eXfXXted behaviour change referral monitoring, and ., to change their overt behaviour. Our case nudies of behaviour The president of a youth club in finding about Hum Log's modest change. Chandigarb in his letter to AshoIcKumar said: "Mter getting inspiration from effects fit well with our • This table is adaptedfrom McGuire (1981). conceptualisation of the hierarchy of the Hum Log television series about media effect (McGuire, 1981). eye donation, we the members of TABLE 3 On the average, about 5 crare Chandigarh's Youth Club have Extent or learning rrom Hum Log people watched a Hum Log broadcast, launched a campaign to enrol 5,000 about pro-social issues and the television soap opera achieved prospective eye donors in the next one month ... To date we have enrolled 982 SfXXlaCularly high ratings (up to 90 Pro-social WII6 P u ce1ll of SIiTlIe] members." While organ donation is per cent in Hindi-speaking areas). So respondenu who a very high proportion of the television said the] /uznud extremely rare in India, Hum Log audience in India was exposed to the from HIIl1I Log spurred several eye donation Hum Log broadcasts . (N = 1.170) campaigns. Eighty-three per cent of our 1,170 In addition to its direct effects, at 1. Women should have equal opportu- least three indirect impacts of Hum respondents watched at least one nities 70% episodeofHumLog. Ahighproportion 2. Women should have the freedom to Log occurred : make their personal decisiOl\l in life 68% 1. Commercial sponsorship: of ourrespondents (between 64 and 75 3. Family size should be limited 71% Hum Log launched the era of per cent) were aware and informed 4. Family harmony should be promoted 75% 5. commercially-sponsored programmes about the message content of Hum Cultural diversity should be respected 68% Log (Table 3). 6. Women's welfare programmes should on Doordarshan. The successful Further, exposure to Hum Log be encouraged. 64% experience of Hum Log's commercial was found to be positively related to SaUTee: Singhal and Rogers (l989a) sponsor, Food Specialities Limited, convinced many other advertisers that 22 Communication 2000 AD television programme sponsorship ShiJdmana were based on Sabido's could be an attractive investment. soap opera methodology. Commercial sponsorship boomed at In India, another entertainment- Doordarshan thereafter. education soap opera, Sooth Sooth l'l 2. Serials come of age: Hum ("Together together"), based on Log's commercial success led to a Sabido's methodology, was created. proliferationofdomestically-produced Produced by Roger Pereira, a former televisionserialsonDoordarshan. The advertising official in Bombay,Saalh main lesson from the Hum Log Saalh was entirely a private effort. experience was that indigenous soap Sabido in Mexico is also operas in India could attract large producing a family planning/AIDS audiences and big profits. soap opera, Sangre Joven ("Young At any given time, at least one blood"), which will be broadcast in soap opera reigned supreme on Indian 1991throughout Latin Americaand in television: frrst it, was Hum Log (in the U.S.A. 1984-85),thenBuniyaad (in 1986-87), thenRamayana (in 1987-88),and then Other media Mahabharata (in 1989-90). 3. Delhi-Bombay marriage : Sabido's accomplishments with The proliferation of domestically- the entertainment-education strategy produced serials on Doordarshan in television Jtave inspired several spurred Bombay fllm moghuls to rush entertainment-education projects to Delhi to get their programmes on worldwide which utilizeotherpopular Doordarshan. . "It is a marriage of media such as rock music,radio, print, convenience between Bombay and and theatre (table 4). Officials of the Delhi", said Harish Khanna, former Johns Hopkins University's Director-General of Doordarshan Population Communication Serviees (Jain, 1985, p.25). (JHU/PCS), at present a leading i I institution in implementing Expansion of TV audience entertainment-education projects worldwide, were highly influencedby In sum Hum Log ushered in anew entertainment-education soap operas, Sabido's work. era on Indian television, which was representing the ftrSt non-Mexican use When Patrick L. Coleman, at aided by the simultaneous expansion of the entertainment-education strategy. present Director of Johns Hopkins of the television audience in India via When Hum Log was created in University' sPopula tion satellite transmission. 1984,nineyearshadpassed since Miguel Communication Service (JHU/pcS), While there is little doubt that Sabido frrst utilized his entertainment- served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Hum Log was a big success with both education soap opera methodology to El Salvadoc in the 19708,he regularly its audiences and advertisers, its create Ven Conmigo in 1975. The Hum viewed Sabido's television soap success regarding the achievement of Log experience in India showed that operas,and observed theirtremendous its educationaI-development goals is another nation could successfully follow audience effects. Sold on the idea of not so clear cut. However, there is Mexico's lead, encouraging Kenya and combining entertainment with enough research evidence to suggest other countries to follow suil education (so as togaintheadvantages that Hum Log met at least some of its Kenya's first family planning of each), Coleman pioneered in educational-development goals. television soap opera, Tushauriani utilizing this approach in rock music Certainly, various worldwide ("Let's discuss") was broadcast during for promoting sexual responsibility en tertainmen t-education efforts 1987-88. Tushauriani became the most among adolescents in Mexico (with derived useful lessons from India's popular programme ev.er on Kenyan singers Tatiana and Johnny) and the experience with Hum Log. television. Philippines (with singerLeaSalonga), . The creation of Hum Log is of A radio soap opera Ushikwapo forpromoting responsible parenthood paramount historic importance in that Shikimana (''When given advice, take in Nigeria (with singers King Sunny it broke the temporary logjam in the it") was broadcast between 1987 and Ade and Onyeka Onwenu), and in international diffusion of 1989. Both Tushauriani and Ushikwapo various other projects. The relative

Communication 2000 AD 23 TABlE 4 Year Slmplemente Maria is broadcast in Peru 1969

1970

,I Jj 1971 "i :1 1972 ! ~ 1973

1974

1975 Inspired by the audience success of Simplemente Marta, 1976 Miguel Sabido, a Television Producer-Director, creates Population Institute's David 1977 seven entertainrnent- Poindexter meets MigUel Sabido education soap operas in ~ in Mexico City\ and is convinced 1978 Mexico from 1975 to 1982, about the potential of the Sabido- one each year. style soap operas in the Third 1979 World Co.untrles.

1980

1981

Inspired by Sabldo's/ soap 1982 operas, Johns Hopkins 1983 University Population Communication Services' Poindexter's efforts helps 1984 ~HU /PCS) Patrtck launch Hum lAg on Indian Coleman launches several Television . 1985 ..entertainment -education

1986 ~jects'l' . ..Tatiana and ' ~ Poindexter's strom 1987 Johnny's Songs . In a lighter help launch in Mexico . mood.in Nigeria 1iLshawiant (on 1988 television) and ..' The Phllippine UshlkwapO Shikfmane 1989 " .young people's (on radio) in Kenya music project Karina and 1990 CharU's .Sunny Ade and Poindexter songs in . Onyeka Onwenu's persuades Mexico songs in Nigeria MigUel Sabklo I~ to create Sangre " Severai ot.h~r\lliU /PCS Joven in Mexico I ,;. eIitertalrinient -Education and Indian offictals 1 projects presently I are to create &lath Saath. I underway worldwide. I I ! i Major entertalnment- educatiqn projects worldwide, and how each was influenced by Its 'predecessors. Source: : Stnghal(l990)

I 24 Communication 2000 AD I, i -j' I.~;:ccss,: O~J~ ;nlertainment-educalion country's educational-development 2. Prior to Hum Log short, stralCgy in rock music, television, radio, goals. en ten a i n me n t-ed ucat ion -type Gand the print medium has made it highly telcvision scrials wcre produced and I' ':,ular with audiences, policy-makers, NOTES broadcast by the Space Applications I Ifl,.dia officials, and commerci<1.! Center (SAC) in Ahmcdabaa to raise i sponsors. 1. The present article draws upon consciousness and to initiate local Singhnl (1990); Singhnl and Rogers dcvelopment programmes in Gujarat' s Ii, Content crucial (1989a, 1989b,and 1989c);Singhnl and Khcda District Rogers (1988); and the authors' personal For example, during India's As mass media audiences continue interviews with Manohnr Shyam Joshi famous Satellite Inslructional to expand in Third World countries, (1986, 1987 and 1988), S. S. Gill (1986), Television Experiment (SITE) in 1975- the content of media programming Salish Garg (1986),InderGujral(1986), 76,a 20-partseries called Chnlur Mota becomes a crucial factor in determining ShoMo Doctor (1986), Harish Khnnna (Wise elder) was broadcast in Khcda whether the m?"" media will advance (1986 and 1987), Abhinav Chnlurvedi District (SITE Winter School, 1976). national deve;opment goals or jusl be (1986,1987and 1989),DavidPoindeXler Another 40-pan enlCrtainment- used .for entertainment purposes. The (1986, 1987, 1988 and 1989), Miguel education-type scries called Nari lu entertainment-education strategy in Sabido (1986, 1988 and 1989) and other Narayani (Wom~n you are powerful) mass communication represents one officials who were involved in was also broadcast by SAC to raise the possible means of accomplishing a Hum Log. status of women .• j I: I' j

! 1: ! • ~. References

1. Brown,William J. and Arvind Singhal 5. Singhal, Arvind (1990). EfIIerlaUtmLfI/- (I989c). Educating Through Television, Populi, ] (1990). Ethical Dilemmas of Prosocial Education Communication Strategies for 16(2): 38-47. Television, COmmwUcatiOfl Quarterly, 38 (3): Development. Ph.D. Thesis. Los Angeles: 9. Singhal, Arvind and Everett MRogen i 268-280. University of Southern California, Annenberg (1988). Tele virion Soap O~rasfor Dewlopmutl I' 2. Horton, David and R.R. Wahl (1958). School for Communication. in India, GaUlle, 41(3): 109-126. Mass communication and Para-Social 6. Singhal, Arvind and Everett M. Rogers 10. SITE Winter School (1976). I' interaction: Observation on Ifllimacy at a (1989 a ), India's Information Revolutian. New Ahmedabad : Space Application Centre. I, DistQIICt, Psychiatry, August: 215-229. Delhi: Sage Publications. II. Te1evisa 's Institute fOf Conununieat.ion j, 3. McGuire, William 1. (1981). Thtoretu:al 7. Singhal, Arvin

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I I' i: q Communication 2000 AD 25 I' I)! 1'/