APALACHEE AGENCY ON THE GULF COAST FRONTIER by Patrick Lee Johnson B.A., Beloit College 2008 A thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology College of Arts and Sciences The University of West Florida In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts 2012 The thesis of Patrick Lee Johnson is approved: ____________________________________________ _________________ Norma J. Harris, M.A., Committee Member Date ____________________________________________ _________________ John J. Clune, Ph.D., Committee Member Date ____________________________________________ _________________ Gregory A. Waselkov, Ph.D., Committee Member Date ____________________________________________ _________________ Neil J. Wallis, Ph.D., Committee Member Date ____________________________________________ _________________ John E. Worth, Ph.D., Committee Chair Date Accepted for the Department/Division: ____________________________________________ _________________ John R. Bratten, Ph.D., Chair Date Accepted for the University: ____________________________________________ _________________ Richard S. Podemski, Ph.D., Dean, Graduate School Date ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My thesis committee of John Worth, Norma Harris, Jay Clune, Neil Wallis, and Greg Waselkov provided valuable guidance and unpublished data. John Worth enthusiastically encouraged my interest in Spanish colonial documents during a course and maintained that energy during the three years I worked as his research assistant. His training allowed me to succeed in Mexico’s National Archives and has already opened up numerous doors for me. Norma Harris cheerfully encouraged my interest in Native American ceramics and helped me connect work done at the University of West Florida (UWF) to other areas. Jay Clune’s interest in Spanish colonialism, his encouragement to present and publish, and his skills as an editor have proven essential. Neil Wallis thoroughly evaluated my thesis at every stage of writing and provided particularly valuable guidance as far as statistical and theoretical approaches and resources. Greg Waselkov’s insight not only proved valuable with regard to the Upper Creek and French, but also in carefully maintaining my regional and Native American perspectives. The interest and insight provided by these five committee members always excited my research and writing. A variety of other experts provided valuable assistance for this thesis. Dean Debolt and his assistants Jessica Chapman, Travis Patterson, and Joshua Broxson at UWF’s Special Collections granted me regular access to a huge array of material. Archivists at Mexico’s National Archives made a stressful venture as straightforward as ii possible, patiently sharing insights as well as colonial texts. James Cusick made many microfilm reels from several collections at the University of Florida’s P. K. Yonge Library of Florida History available, and enthusiastically shared his insight about Spanish colonialism. Detailed critiques by Paul Hoffman and Robbie Ethridge about presented papers sharpened my efforts to connect the historical and material records. Talking with Thomas Foster, and working on his Apalachicola Ecosystems Project, provided valuable insights. Talking with Chester DePratter, particularly about his ongoing work looking for the Apalachee in the Savannah River area, helped me iron out several ideas. The Anthropology Department and Archaeology Institute have been incredibly supportive over the years. UWF’s Scholarly Creative Activities Committee funded my on-site research at Mexico’s National Archives. Elizabeth Benchley offered encouragement and provided funding for research at UWF, the P. K. Yonge Library, and archives in Mexico City. Karen Mims streamlined the bureaucracies of funding. Cindi Jackson kept, and still keeps, the sanity of everyone in the department intact. John Bratten’s support, ranging from careful editing to occasional jokes, proved helpful. Ramie Gougeon encouraged me to present and publish, and also helped me track down gray literature as well as material about particular archaeological approaches and statistical methods. So many family and friends maintained my interest in archaeology and history, and several in particular have shaped my work and perspective. Shannon Fie, Dan Shea, Bill Green, and Rob LaFleur at Beloit College developed my enthusiasm in archaeology, history, cultural anthropology, Native Americans, and ceramics. Felipe Campuzano and his family welcomed me into their home in Mexico City and showed me sites, museums, iii and pulquerias gringos would have missed. My aunts, uncles, grandparents, and cousins always asked about projects and even visited sites. My brother William’s interest in economics, statistics, and history has always been supportive and helpful. Too many friends to list here made conference travel, field schools, and UWF in general a great experience. Nichole Rosenberg Marshall provided valuable insights into several drafts of the thesis and presentations. At the most stressful stage, Stephanie Ward helped me with formatting, Colin Bean helped with graphics, and Sarah Price did a complete check of the entire thesis. Greg Waselkov and Bonnie Gums got me started in archaeology several years ago and have provided valuable guidance since then. Finally, more than anyone, my parents have always been there to offer advice and support, helping me in more ways than I can describe. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ ii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix ABSTRACT .........................................................................................................................x CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................1 A. Practice Theory Perspective ........................................................3 B. Applying Practice Theory to Colonial Frontiers—the Transformation Concept..............................................................7 C. Specific Research Questions .....................................................10 CHAPTER II. HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND CERAMIC TRADITIONS…..16 A. Spanish Bureaucracy ................................................................17 B. Spanish Society ........................................................................22 C. Bourbon Reforms .....................................................................24 D. French Colonial Economic and Political Structures ................27 E. French Colonial Society ...........................................................30 F. Creek Indians ...........................................................................31 G. English Trading Practices and the Yamasee War ....................39 CHAPTER III. ETHNOHISTORY-- DEVELOPMENT OF PENSACOLA AND MOBILE .......................................................................................45 A. Early Pensacola and Mobile: Spanish Failure and French Success .....................................................................................46 B. Presidio San Miguel: Transformation via Economic Investment ................................................................................52 C. Gulf Coast Native American Alliance Decisions ....................56 D. Conclusion and Discussion ......................................................60 CHAPTER IV. APALACHEE RESPONSE ..........................................................61 A. Hispanicized and Bitter from 1670s-1704 ...............................65 v B. Migration to Pensacola/Mobile ................................................70 C. Apalachee as Middlemen .........................................................73 D. Conclusion and Discussion ......................................................75 CHAPTER V. CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES ........................................................77 A. Ceramic Assemblages ..............................................................88 B. Diversity Statistics ...................................................................94 C. Spatial Comparisons Between Pre-Yamassee War Sites .........96 D. Spatial Comparisons Between Post-Yamassee War Sites .......98 E. Comparing Pre-Yamassee War and Post-Yamassee War Sites ........................................................................................101 F. Discussion and Summary .......................................................104 CHAPTER VI. INTERPRETATIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH ..............108 A. Discussion ..............................................................................114 B. Further Research ....................................................................114 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................121 APPENDIXES .................................................................................................................158 A. San Luis Ceramic Data ...........................................................159 B. Patale Ceramic Data ................................................................161 C. Santa Maria Ceramic Data ......................................................163 D. Old Mobile Ceramic Data .......................................................165 E. Santa