Religion and Conflict in Modern South Asia William Gould Frontmatter More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70511-0 — Religion and Conflict in Modern South Asia William Gould Frontmatter More Information

Religion and Conﬂict in Modern South Asia

Religion and Conflict in Modern South Asia is one of the first single- author comparisons of different South Asian states around the theme of religious conflict. Based on new research and syntheses of the literature on ‘communalism’, it argues that religious conflict in this region in the modern period was never simply based on sectarian or theological differ- ences or the clash of civilisations. Instead, the book proposes that the connection between religious radicalism and everyday violence relates to the actual (and perceived) weaknesses of political and state structures. For some, religious and ethnic mobilisation has provided a means of protest, where representative institutions failed. For others, it became a method of dealing with an uncertain political and economic future. For many, it has no concrete or deliberate function, but has effectively upheld social stability, paternalism and local power, in the face of globalisation and the growing aspirations of the region’s most underprivileged citizens.

William Gould is Senior Lecturer in Indian history at the University of Leeds. He is the author of Hindu Nationalism and the Language of Politics in Late Colonial India (2004) and Bureaucracy, Community and Inﬂuence in India: Society and the State, 1930s–1960s (2011).

Religion and Conﬂict in Modern South Asia

WILLIAM GOULD University of Leeds

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Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521705110 © Cambridge University Press 2012 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2012 A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data Gould, William, 1973– Religion and confl ict in modern South Asia / William Gould. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978-0-521-87949-1 – isbn 978-0-521-70511-0 (pbk.) 1. South Asia – Religion. 2. Social confl ict – South Asia – History. 3. Social confl ict – Religious aspects – History. i. Title. bl1055.g68 2011 306.60954–dc22 2011001009 isbn 978-0-521-87949-1 Hardback isbn 978-0-521-70511-0 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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Contents

List of abbreviations page ix Glossary xi Acknowledgements xvii

1 Introduction: Community and Conflict in South Asia 1 2 Building Spheres of Community: 1860s–1910s 30 3 Transforming Spheres of Community: The Post–First World War Colonial World 80 4 Defining Spheres of Community: Society, Religious Mobilisation and Anti-colonialism 119 5 State Transformation, Democracy and Conflict: High Politics and the Everyday in the 1940s 163 6 Forging National Consensus and Containing Pluralism: South Asian States between 1947 and 1967 195 7 New Conflicts and Old Rivalries: The 1970s and 1980s 232 8 The Resurgence of Communalism? 1990 to the 2000s 269 Conclusion 309

Bibliography 317 Index 337

vii

Abbreviations

AIADMK All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazagham AICC All India Congress Committee AL Awami League, Bangladesh BHU Banaras Hindu University BJP Bharatiya Janata Party BJS Bharatiya Jana Sangh BLD Bharatiya Lok Dal BNP Bangladesh National Party BSP Bahujan Samaj Party CIDL Central Record Room, CID, Lucknow CM Chief Minister DMK Dravida Munnetra Kazagham ENLF Eelam National Liberation Front EPDP Eelam People’s Democratic Party EPRLF Eelam People’s Revolutionary Liberation Front EROS Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students FP Tamil Federal Party FSF Federal Security Force, Pakistan IJI Islamic Jamhoori Ittihad IPKF Indian Peace-Keeping Force ISI Inter-Services Intelligence, Pakistan JI Jamaat-e-Islami, Bangladesh JP Jatiya Party, Bangladesh JSS Jatika Sevaka Sangamaya JVP Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna

x Abbreviations

LTTE Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam MMA Muttahida Majlis-i-Amal MQM Mohajir Quami Movement NAI National Archives of India, Delhi NAP National Awami Party NMML Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi NRI Non-Resident Indian NWFP North-West Frontier Province OBC Other Backward Castes OIOC Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London PAC Provincial Armed Constabulary PLOTE People’s Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam PMK Paattali Makkal Katchi PNA Pakistan National Alliance PPP Pakistan People’s Party PRODA Public and Representative Office Disqualification Act PSP Praja Socialist Party RSS Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh SC Scheduled Caste SLFP Sri Lanka Freedom Party SM Sipah-I Muhammed SP Samajwadi Party SRC States Reorganisation Commission SSP (Sunni) Sipah-I Sahaba Pakistan TELO Tamil Eelam Liberation Organisation TJP (Shia) Tahriki Jafaria Pakistan TNFJ Tahrik-I Nifaz-I Fiqh-I Ja’fariyya TUF Tamil United Front TULF Tamil United Liberation Front UNP United National Party, Sri Lanka UP Uttar Pradesh UPSA Uttar Pradesh State Archives VHP Vishwa Hindu Parishad

Glossary

Adharmi ancient religion adi original Adivasi/Adibasi umbrella term for original and indigenous peoples of a region ahimsa nonviolence Ahir Hindu agricultural caste associated with cattle rearing Ahmadi Muslim sect with difference of belief with orthodox Muslims surrounding prophet Ahrar liberal; Muslim party Akali admirer and follower of the ‘supreme power’; Sikh party akhara gymnasium andolan movement anna one-sixteenth of a rupee arora mercantile caste community Arti ceremony or form of worship Arya Samaj Arya Society – Hindu reform organisation awami people badmash rufﬁan Bahujan people in the majority Bania trader/business caste basti settlement or suburb Batgama low-caste agriculturalists/soldiers in Sri Lanka

xii Glossary

bhadralok gentlefolk; refers mostly to high-caste groups in Bengal bhakti devotion/devotional movement or practice Bharatiya Indian Caliphate Islamic system of government under constitutional head of Caliph Chamar low caste often associated with tanning and leather work; today Scheduled Caste chanda contribution chauraha roundabout/junction Chehlum Shia religious observation Chettiar trading and agricultural community, South India of Vaishya varna Chitpavan Brahman community of Konkan, Maharashtra crore ten million Dadhkando Hindu festival in UP cities dal party/corps Dalit ‘suppressed’; caste groups previously referred to as ‘outcaste’ or ‘untouchable’ Damdami Taksal Sikh educational organisation dar al-harb ‘abode of war’; territory not under Islamic control dar al-ulum ‘abode of sciences’; Muslim establishment for higher learning dharma religious duty Dharmarakshana Sabha society for temple reform Dravidian people of Dravidian language group in south India Eelam Tamil name for Sri Lanka fatwa religious opinion on Islamic law garbhadan traditional life-cycle rite gari song gaurakshini sabha cow-protection society gharana system of social and ideological formation, linking musicians goonda gangster/hooligan/lout Gounder community of Tamilnadu and Karnataka goyigama dominant caste in Sri Lanka

Glossary xiii

Gujar north Indian caste now defined as OBC Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence named after Abu Hanifa al-Numan hartal strike hindutva ‘Hinduness’, coined by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar Holi Hindu festival around February–March iddat waiting period for widow or divorced Muslim woman Jagran night worship of mother goddess jamiat/jamaat society/organisation Jamnabhoomi birthplace Janata/Janatha populace/people Jat agricultural caste mainly from western UP, Punjab and Rajasthan Jatav sub-caste of Chamar, Scheduled Caste jati community, family or tribe, fixed by birth Jatiya national jhanda flag or standard joy bangla long live Bangladesh Julaha Muslim weaver community kafir unbeliever kajal song Kallar caste of Tamilnad Kanbi sub-caste of Maharashtra kar sevak volunteer to a religious cause Karaiyar sea-faring and warrior caste of Tamilnad Kayastha caste of scribes Kazagham organisation/federation (Tamil) khadi home-spun cloth Khattri administrative and commercial caste kirtan devotional song kisan farmer kotwal officer in charge of a police station Koviar Sri Lankan Tamil caste of agriculturalists and temple workers krishak farmer Kshattriya Hindu upper caste of martial or royal status Kurmi agricultural caste

xiv Glossary

lajja shame lakh one hundred thousand lashkar army ma-bap mother-father madrasah educational institution mahajan moneylender Mahar largest Scheduled Caste group in Maharashtra Mahasabha ‘great’ assembly/association Mahvamsa historical poem of Sri Lankan kings, Buddhist text Majlis assembly mandal society, association, committee mandir temple or place of worship masjid mosque maulvi/moulvi Muslim priest or learned man mela festival/company of dancers taking part in a festival Mizo Ethnic community of the North-East of India mohalla neighbourhood Mohurram Islamic festival Momin Muslim community associated with weaving mudaliyar Tamil/Sri Lankan high caste mufti Islamic scholar muhajir Urdu-speaking migrants to Pakistan Muhurram Islamic mourning festival mulla Islamic scholar Munda Adivasi people of Jharkhand and Bihar munnetra progress muttahida united Nadar caste group of Tamilnad natukal hero stone nawab regional ruler under Mughal dynasties octroi local tax panchayat caste council or council of elders pandit Hindu scholar teacher/brahman pargana revenue or administrative unit parishad council

Glossary xv

patidar caste group of Gujarat often using surname Patel pir Suﬁ spiritual leader praja people puja prayer Qadiani derogatory term for follower of Ahmadiyya community qaum people/nation/community Qawwali Suﬁ devotional music Rajput major group within Kshattriya varna raksha protection Ramdasia caste of weavers, ethnic group within Sikh community Ramlila Hindu festival rashtriya national Rath yatra festival of chariots ryotwari system of revenue administration based on cultivator sabha assembly, congregation or association salagama caste traditionally associated with cultivation of cinnamon in Sri Lanka salish village judgement samaj society samajwadi socialist samiti association sammelan conference/convention/meeting sampradaya disciplic succession around a Hindu tradition samyukta united Sanatan Dharma ‘eternal law/religion’ sangathan organisation sangh association sankh conch shell sati ritual involving immolation of a widow satyagraha ‘truth force’, nonviolent resistance Satyashodhak Samaj society of the seekers of truth sena army seva service sharif noble/high-born

xvi Glossary

sheth merchant shuddhi ‘puriﬁcation’ and Hindu reconversion movement Suba province sudra lowest varna swadeshi self-sufﬁciency/ home industry swaraj self-rule, independence swatantra free/independent swayamsevak volunteer tabligh Muslim proselytisation movement tahsil revenue division tamasha spectacle/show tanzim religious movement for the unity and organisation of Muslims tazia representation of the shrine of Hasan and Husain, carried in procession Teli low-caste oil pressers Thakur Kshattriya Rajputs ‘ulama Islamic learned man ummah community of believers Vaishnavite worshipper of Vishnu and his avatars Vaishya Upper varna – usually traders of commercial communities Vanniar Tamil caste group Varna fourfold division of Hindu society Vellalar landlord community of Tamilnad vishwa world waqf religious property trusts Yadav agricultural caste associated with cattle rearing Zakat alms giving zamindar landlord, landowner

Acknowledgements

This book is the result of research and writing carried out intermittently since 1996, during my time at the University of Cambridge and then since 2003 at the University of Leeds. It is the product of three converging interests over that period. First is a long-term fascination with the politics of religious community mobilisation in India, which formed the basis of archival research in Uttar Pradesh in the late 1990s. Second, it has also connected to a more recent focus on the nature of the Indian state, and how ordinary citizens have historically made contact with that state, especially at local levels over the period of independence. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, it has come about as a result of collaborations built up since 2006 with Sarah Ansari, Taylor Sherman and Yasmin Khan in looking at the comparative histories of India and Pakistan. This collaboration was based on uneasiness with the tendency of scholars working on the subcon- tinent to concentrate on either India or Pakistan, and the paucity of comparative studies that consider developments on both sides of the new borders. There were, we thought, various limitations implicit in the dominant mode of ‘national’ studies within the context of South Asia, and we were lucky enough to receive an Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) award to fund a comparative project, ‘From Subjects to Citizens: Society and the Everyday State in India and Pakistan, 1947–1964’. This book, therefore, would hardly have been possible in its present form without this assistance from the AHRC, and in this connection, I am ﬁrst and foremost grateful for the opportunity to collaborate with Sarah, Taylor and Yasmin since 2006, as a result of the AHRC project. In association with ‘From Subjects to Citizens’, I have also beneﬁted greatly from conversations with Francis Robinson, Ian Talbot, Paul R. Brass,

xvii

xviii Acknowledgements

Markus Daechsel, Craig Jeffrey and Nicolas Jaoul, as well as all of the attendees at the project’s three workshops in Leeds and London. Much of the material and arguments that appear here were already forming during research for my PhD from 1996 and for my first book Hindu Nationalism and the Language of Politics in Late Colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). There were a number of broader and comparative issues that Hindu Nationalism was unable to address, and some research material that, unused in the first instance, has been refined and developed for this book. In this connection, I am deeply indebted to all of my colleagues during my time at Cambridge, and particularly those who introduced to me the interconnections between the everyday concerns of Indian subjects/citizens and the politics of ‘communalism’. Principal here was the late Raj Chandavarkar, my PhD super- visor, who constantly interrogated my ideas on themes associated with this book and encouraged my wider-ranging interests in South Asia. Also important at this time were two other highly influential historians of labour in India – Subho Basu and Nandini Gooptu – and a colleague working on ethnic conflict in Gujarat – Ornit Shani. Around this time too, the attendees of the Cambridge Centre of South Asian Studies seminar were a constant source of interaction and ideas, and in this connection, I would like to thank Chris Bayly, Gordon Johnson, Justin Jones, Magnus Marsden, Eleanor Newbigin, Francesca Orsini, Norbert Peabody and Carey Watt. More widely, my time at Cambridge brought me into contact with other influential advisers, notably Thomas Blom Hansen, Joya Chatterji, Roger Jeffery and Sudipta Kaviraj. As all Smuts Research Fellows at the Centre in Cambridge know, these kinds of interactions are made all the more significant as a result of conversations (and coffee breaks) with Kevin Greenbank and Barbara Roe based at the Centre. At that time and since, I made extensive use of a range of libraries and archives (including the Centre of South Asian Studies), and I would like to thank the staff of the University Library, Cambridge; the Oriental and India Office Collections of the British Library; the National Archives of India, Delhi; the Uttar Pradesh State Archives, Lucknow; Bharatiy Bhavan, Allahabad; the Gyan Prasad Library, Kanpur; the Indian Institute of Public Administration, Delhi; and the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, Delhi. Since 2003, my ideas for Religion and Conflict in South Asia were developed further via interactions with colleagues and students at the University of Leeds. The experience of exploring and articulating issues of religious mobilisation and conflict with students at all levels, and their

Acknowledgements xix

responses to my research, has certainly helped me to form some of the principal arguments presented here. To this end, I am grateful to all those students who took the plunge to study India with me over the last seven years, particularly Catherine Coombs, Susanne Kranz, Rabia Dada and Oliver Godsmark. The School of History and the Faculty of Arts at Leeds have also been extremely fertile environments for the development of this project. In this connection, I would like to thank my colleagues on ‘Race and Resistance’, particularly fellow Indianist Andrea Major, and my col- laborators in South Asian Studies – Sean McLoughlin, Emma Tomalin, Ananya Kabir and David Hall-Matthews – all of whom listened to research papers, which have informed this work. Perhaps most important of all has been the patience and time granted to me by my family, in particular my partner Olivia Gould and my parents Richard and Elizabeth Gould, as I juggled research time in India with fatherly duties. Finally, I dedicate this book to a young man who has managed to keep me upbeat through the last three years of the project. He too has enjoyed roaming the streets of Delhi during one of my research trips there, but has also, along with Olivia, tolerated my absences.