Analysis of Renewable Energy Sources at Remote Locations

8-12 October 2018

2018- 5th Student Symposium Analysis of Renewable Energy Sources at Remote Locations

Book of Papers and Abstracts 2018 STUDENT SYMPOSIUM – ANALYSIS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES AT REMOTE LOCATIONS Swinburne University of Technology 8 – 12 October 2018, Melbourne, Australia

Editors

Durul Huda M. Akbar Rhamdhani

Assessor Committee

Reiza Mukhlis Durul Huda Farhana Diba

Published in Australia by: School of Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia

ISBN 978-0-9875930-4-7

This proceedings contain a collection of selected papers and abstracts from the Student Symposium on Analysis of Renewable Energy Sources at Remote Locations. The symposium was held in conjunction of the delivery of a teaching unit Thermodynamics/Heat Transfer at Swinburne University of Technology at Hawthorn and Sarawak Campus.

Apart from fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without the written permission of the publisher.

Responsibility for the contents of the articles rests upon the authors and not the publisher. Data presented and conclusions drawn by the authors are for information only and not for use without independent substantiating investigations on the part of the potential user.

2018 Student Symposium – Analysis of Renewable Energy Sources at Remote Locations Swinburne University of Technology 1 Table of Contents FEASIBILITY STUDY OF PERSONAL WIND POWER GENERATORS ...... 14 Aiden Seamer, Christopher Williams, Uthyaraj Ganesamurthi

SOLAR ENERGY HARVESTING AND APPLICATIONS IN JAIPUR INDIA AND YULARA AUSTRALIA ...... 7 Brendan Cooper, Dale Blackwell, Daniel Mills, Jivtesh Sandhu, Navjot Singh Kharoud

ANALYSIS OF SUSTAINABLE WAVE ENERGY IN AUSTRALIA AND INDIA ...... 14 Daniel Roberts, Prashant Soni, Brent Roberts and Damen Sinhmar

AN ANALYSIS OF THE VIABILITY OF RENEWABLE ENERY FOR REMOTE LOCATION IN SRI LANKA AND AUSTRALIA...... 21 Jason Heenatimulla, Jing-Yi Heng, Ho-Bin Kim, Mitchell Roberts

FEASIBILITY OF RENEWABLE ENERGY IN RURAL DOMESTIC APPLICATION ...... 30 Adnan Pasha, Ashen Napawala, Matthew Olejarz, Sam De Kruiff

FEASIBILITY COMPARISON OF HYDROELECTRIC AND SOLAR ENERGY IN REMOTE LOCATIONS ...... 37 Andrew Dickeson, Jack Day, Harsh Wardhan Bhatia, Hrithik Mehra

SOLAR ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ON RURAL AREAS ...... 44 Stephanie Reding, Dylan Hill, Keegan Carvalho, Tavsharan S. Dhillon

POWRING REMOTE ZONES WITH SOLAR ...... 52 Ayeshan Bandara, Kevin Semmens, Suvenan Pradeep Perera, Deep Sheth HYDROELECTRIC POWER AND SOLAR ENERGY IN VARYING REMOTE TOWNS ...... 63 Sebastian Acosta, Yusuf Yusuf, Matthew Sanders, Craig Edwards

APPLICATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SUPPLY IN REMOTE AUSTRALIA AND MALAYSIS ...... 70 Jake Minogue, Calvin Soon Chee Yung, Goh Jie Ren ANALYSIS AND FEASIBILITY OF SMALL SCALE SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS ABSTRACT ...... 78 Majeed Habibi, Adam Bordignon, Savan Patel

SOLAR ENERGY AND ENERGY STORAGE IN ISOLATED TOWENS ABSTRACT ...... 78 Alex Baensch, Yash Patel, Peter Fouad, Shailesh Maharjan

ANALYSIS OF WAVE ENERGY COMPATIBILITY IN RURAL LOCATIONS IN AUSTRALIA AND INDIA ABSTRACT ...... 79 Daniel Holder, Alexander Brown, Lydia Greenland, Jack Cain

FEASIBILITY OF SOLAR ENERGY IN MALAYSIA AND AUSTRALIA ABSTRACT...... 79 Farhan Islam, Hamza Firasat, Saad Rasool and Malik Zain

ANALYSIS OF SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SOURCE TO REMOTE LOCATIONS ABSTRACT...... 80 Conor Cochrane, Jarrod Donohue, Jarrad O’Brien

A FEASIBILITY STUDY OF THE APPLICATION OF SOLAR ENERGY FOR HEATING AND COOLING IN REMOTE COMMUNITIES ABSTRACT...... 80 Joel Yip Sze Quan, Deshan De Silva, Rashan Fernando, Syed Baqir Raza Naqva

ANALYSIS OF WAVE ENERGY’S APPLICATION IN AUSTRALIA AND MALAYSIA ABSTRACTS ...... 81 Kieran Carlow, Huu Phuoc Le, Sachila T. J. Weerasekara Bamunu, An Khuong Nguyen

FEASIBILITY STUDY OF HYDRO AND SOLAR POWER APPLICATIONS IN AUSTRALIA AND KENYA ABSTRACT ...... 82 Kurt Cosson, Joel Pinxt, Brendan Sonka, Dhakwaan Nizam

PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR IN REMOTE COMMUNITIES ABSTRACT ...... 82 Mark Kemp, Michael Giaccotto, Kyle Braun, Tajinder Singh

SOLAR PV PANEL USAGE IN SMALL RURAL COMMUNITIES EASIBILITY STUDY ABSTRACT ...... 83 Sam Nettleton, Nathan Purcell, Matthew Poynton, Liam Flanagan

WIND ENERGY AND MICROGRID POWER DISTRIBUTION FOR REMOTE COMMUNITIES ABSTRACT ...... 83 Charles Dunn, Boyd Hillman, William Niven, Simon Prien

ANALYSIS OF SOLAR AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN AUSTRALIA AND ICELAND ABSTRACT ...... 84 Anthony Claxton, Robert Wibberley, Shehan Athauda, Walid Issa

FEASIBILITY STUDY OF PERSONAL WIND POWER GENERATORS

Aiden Seamer, Christopher Williams, Uthyaraj Ganesamurthi Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Keywords: Thermodynamics, Wind power, Sustainability

Abstract Literature review This paper explores the feasibility of personal wind power generators for the small towns of Bemm Wind Turbines River, Australia and Kamaru, Indonesia. The selected areas are extremely different in relation to Wind turbines are one of the most efficient and their climate, population density and government widely used sources for mass renewable energy. In regulation, hence the report evaluates the Australia alone, there are over 80 Wind farms effectiveness based on a number of categories; operating with plenty more that are currently under economic viability, environmental variables and the construction. Wind turbines are currently responsible turbines ability to provide enough power based on for generating over 5% of Australia’s current calculations. The ability of the wind turbine to electricity and over 30% of Australia’s renewable provide enough power is assessed against a strict energy. Currently, every state have at least of 2 wind criteria that a house will need to be kept at 23⁰C, all farms, however the Australian mainland territories heat loss is through the windows, and calculations (ACT and NT) do not have any will be made for a house with single glazed windows but surprisingly, the Australian Antarctic Territory and a house with double glazed windows. There is a (AAT) has a wind farm with 2 wind turbines. 42.5% reduction in heat transfer when using double Wind turbines operate in a very simple way. glazed windows, using $0.095/kWh as the cost of Essentially, wind blows over the blades that are electricity this represents a $ 239.6 saving for a house attached to the turbine. As a result of the wind, the in Bemm River and an $85.5 for a house in Kamaru. blades spin the wind turbine and electricity is generated. This is just a simple explanation, as there Introduction are various important components for a wind turbine to work properly and at peak efficiency. The various We were tasked with the problem of designing a major components in the whole wind turbine setup system to deliver energy to small villages in remote include the rotor blade, the nacelle, the gearbox and areas. As a team of engineers from a Multinational the generator. There is also a swivel and tilt consulting company it was identified that the project mechanism that is inbuilt within newer turbines. This at hand was best tackled by selecting two very allows the turbine to move in the direction with the diverse communities at opposite ends of the world; a most amount of wind, allowing it generate electricity rural country town in Australia vs an isolated village more efficiently. on the outskirts of Indonesia. The report Wind turbines require there to be wind to function. encompasses the research we conducted to determine As wind blows over the turbines rotor blades, the how effective wind turbines were in solving the rotor begins spinning. This is done through energy problem at hand. conversion. The kinetic energy from the wind is transformed into rotational energy by spinning the

rotor blade. The rotor blades have a very distinct

1 shape in order to allow this. The rotor blades on wind to wind turbines is that the energy source required for turbines have a similar shape to the wings on an them to operate is natural and has no cost to it. This aeroplane. They both function using the same means that the only costs involved in a wind turbine principles despite having different purposes. The is the cost of manufacturing and the maintenance of wings on an aeroplane generate lift as wind passes it. Unlike fossil fuels or nuclear power, the over, lifting the aeroplane whereas the rotor blades operational costs is not dependent on fuel prices or on wind turbines begin to spin as wind passes over politics, making the financial side of things very them. The central hub that the rotor blades connect appealing. Despite the advantages of wind turbines, to is also connected to the central axle or driveshaft. there are however a few drawbacks to their design This drive shaft moves at a fairly low speed despite and function. Firstly there is a very high setup cost the outer edges of the rotor blades appearing to move for a single wind turbine. A single wind turbine very quickly. The driveshaft is also connected to the installed will usually cost approximately $3 million. gearbox which sits within the nacelle. The function Another disadvantage to this is the variable power of the gearbox is to convert the low rotational speed output from wind turbines. [2] Wind turbines require of the rotor blade into high rotational speed. The wind to operate and there is not always a guarantee main reason for this speed conversion is to ensure of there being wind 100% of the time. Thus, wind there is enough rotation speed for the generator to power would not be viable to power systems all the function properly and efficiently. The generator then time and would require assistance. A final takes this mechanical input and converts it into disadvantage to wind turbines is the amount of land electric energy in the form of alternating current required if a farm setup is wanted. The turbines need (AC). It does this by creating a rotating magnetic to have adequate spacing between each other to field which creates a steady flow of electrons at the ensure that there isn’t any crosswinds affecting the output of the generator. [1] Cables then connect from performance of other turbines. As a result, high land the generator and run all the way down the tower of is required for a large scale farm setup, however, the the wind turbine. These cables eventually connect to land is still usable for farming low height a step-up transformer. The purpose of a step-up constructions. transformer is to convert the voltage coming from the generator to a much higher voltage to be suitable to Micro-Wind Turbines be transmitted to the power grid. In order to increase efficiency of the wind turbines, they are fitted with Micro-wind turbines are starting to emerge as a solid devices that allows the whole turbine assembly to form of generating renewable energy for single sites. rotate to find the best angle for the turbine to point Micro wind turbines have been used in the past for for it to make the most of the wind that is passing powering small devices, such as battery charging through it. These devices are known as pitch control unit for yachts or powering portable road signs and mechanisms. These pitch control mechanisms are electronic billboards. As micro technology has usually made from electric motors or hydraulic rams improved, these micro-wind turbines can now be that allow the turbine to swivel with precision. The used to generate enough power for single homes and biggest advantage of using wind turbines as a such without having the sheer size of a commercial renewable energy source is that there are no carbon wind turbine. They are however not suitable for emissions generated after the wind turbines are made populated towns or inner city areas. This is because and setup. As a result, during the operation of wind tall buildings and tall bridges cause turbulent wind turbines, they make almost no contribution to global which doesn’t allow these micro-wind turbines to warming and also create no air pollution, which operate properly and at peak efficiency. Below is a usually contributes to acid rain. Another advantage

2 table comparing the specifics of a commercial wind turbine against a micro-wind turbine [3].

Analysis and Discussion Commercial Micro Method for energy consumption analysis Mounting 80-100m ~10m Height Rotor <90m 1-4m In this section we will cover the calculations used to Diameter assess the effectiveness of our chosen renewable energy source in heating and cooling an idealised Energy 1-8 MW 0.05-40 KW house in the two chosen locations. We will first Production look at the power requirements based on our Operational 16-100km/h 16-64km/h simplified case of keeping the house at 23⁰ C all 2 Wind Speeds year round and the only heat loss is through 15m of glass windows, single glazed in one case and double Cost $1-2mil/ MW $500-$100000 glazed in the other. The two selected locations vary significantly in their climate, the average yearly Sites 50-550 homes 1 home Supplied temperature for Bemm River is below the room temperature of 23⁰ C so heat will exit the room

which is the opposite of what will happen in

Kamaru where the average temperature is above 23⁰ Australian Location - Bemm River C. As a result of this the house in Bemm River will be assumed to be running a heating system and the Bemm River, also referred to as ‘The Bream Capital’ house in Kamaru will be running a cooling system, is a small coastal town located in the Eastern it is assumed these systems will be run 24 hours a Gippsland of Victoria, approximately 450 km east of day. In order to simplify calculations and remove Melbourne. The township and surrounding area variables, efficiency ratings and the differences in boasted a population of 287 as per the 2011 Census. power consumption between heating and cooling [4] Bemm river is primarily a fishing village systems will be neglected, it is assumed that the however in recent times has become a popular heat lost or gained through the windows will need destination for bird watchers and hikers, who to be directly replaced or removed by the heating or frequent the area to explore the natural wonders of cooling system. This will provide a simple the Bemm state forest. comparison between double and single glazed Indonesian Location – Kamaru windows along with the different power consumptions for each location. The heat loss our Kamaru is an indigenous village community located gain is calculated using the heat transfer equation on the Indonesian island of Buton, in the Sulawesi (1): peninsula. Kamaru is surrounded openly to the Banda Sea to the East and surrounded by rainforest on all other accounts. It hosts a population of Q=UA(Tindoors-Toutdoors) (1) approximately 4300 people making it relatively larger than that of Bemm River. [5] Where:

Q = heat loss (W) We can see clearly that double glazing provides an U = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 ⁰C) improvement in the amount of power needed to heat A = area that heat is lost through (m2) the house as less heat transfers through the glass, ⋅ Tindoors = temperature inside the house (⁰C) there is a 42.5% decrease in the amount of energy

Toutdoors = temperature outside the house (⁰C needed. The U factor for single glazed windows was selected from [6] as 5.57 and from [6] as 3.2 for double glazed Energy Consumption Analysis Kamaru windows. As seen in graph 3, the house in Kamaru only needs Energy Consumption Analysis Bemm River cooling as the average temperature is always above room temperature. As seen in graph 1, only heating is needed for Bemm River as the average temperature is always below room temperature.

Graph 3: Yearly temperature for Kamaru [8] against room temperature

Graph 1: Yearly temperature for Bemm River [7] against room Once an understanding of the yearly temperature for temperature Kamaru was known we were again able to calculate the amount of heat loss through the windows using With an understanding of the yearly temperature the heat conduction equation (1) and this meant we variance in Bemm River we were able to calculate could find the amount of energy needed to cool the the amount of heat loss through the windows using house, the results of these calculations can be found the heat conduction equation (1) which in turn gave in graph 4 below. a value for the amount of energy required to heat the house, these results are displayed in graph 2 below.

Graph 4: Yearly power needed for double and single glazed windows in Kamaru From graph 4 we can see that there is a definite

Graph 2: Yearly power needed for double and single glazed advantage to double glazing, resulting in a 42.5% windows in Bemm River reduction in the amount of heat transfer.

Power provided by wind turbine

We will analyse further the possibility of using personal wind turbines in Bemm River since this type of renewable energy will be much easier to implement due to the flat open landscape and coastal winds in this part of Australia. In order to calculate the power produced by the wind turbine we need to use the power equation [9]:

Graph 5: Amount of power produced by different sized turbines 3 P=½ ρAV Cp (2) during the first 8 months of the year compared to the required power Where: P = power (W) A wind turbine with 2.75m long blades is likely to be 3 sufficient to cover the cost of heating the house for ρ = density of air (kg/m ) 2 2 most of the year however other methods will have to A = πr = swept area (m ) be used to fill in where the turbine falls short. Some V = wind velocity (m/s) possible ways of making sure the wind turbine can Cp = coefficient of performance cover the cost of heating would be raising the height

3 of the turbine in order to access faster uninterrupted In this case density will be taken as 1.225 kg/m . winds or using multiple wind turbines. Another Typical coefficients of performance for wind worthwhile option would be incorporating another turbines are between 0.35 and 0.45, in this case we source of renewable energy that can fill in when the will take the coefficient of performance to be 0.4. wind is not able to effectively provide enough power. With this equation we can calculate the power The method used for calculating the power produced produced by different sized wind turbines for by the wind turbines is rather inaccurate as it assumes different wind speeds. Using the average monthly the turbine will be placed in a location where no wind speeds [10] for Bemm River we are able to obstacles nearby are able to interfere with the flow of calculate the yearly power output in kWh of different wind over the turbine blades. sized wind turbines, keeping in mind that wind speeds are measured at 10m above the ground [11], so a turbine below 10m may experience lower wind Economic Viability speeds and produce less power. This data is In reality this process is going to be economically displayed in graph 5 below, we have excluded the last four months of the year in order to make the much more viable for that of a household in a first world country no matter what the outcome of the graph more readable as it is very similar to the first four months of the year, and have also excluded savings is (barring major unrealistic situations) due single glazed windows as a turbine large enough to to financial availability, government aid and drastic differences in average wage. However, instead of cover the energy requirements for heating would be impractically large as a domestic turbine. From the comparing the two townships it is more realistic to compare the outcomes of single glazed windows vs graph is clear that even a wind turbine of 2.75m radius cannot sufficiently cover the power double glazed windows in both locations and requirement of the heating system for the full year. calculate the savings. Having single glazed windows would total to a dollar value amount of $200.90c and

$563.80 for Kamaru and Bemm River respectively. As there is a 42.5% reduction in heat transfer when

5 using double glazed windows, this represents a $ References 239.60 saving for a house in Bemm River and an [1] M. Brain W. Harris and R. Lamb, 2008, How $85.50 for a house in Kamaru. Totaling to $115.40 Electricity Works, How Stuff Works, viewed 26 and $323.90 annually. August 2018, [2] Windustry, 2014, How much do wind turbines

cost?, viewed 26th August 2018, The two locations selected; Kamaru and Bemm world and have many expected different [3] C. Woodford, 2018, How do Wind Turbines Work, environmental factors to take into account. Similarly, Explain That Stuff, viewed 1st October both Bemm river and Kamaru are located at the 2018, Sea and Banda Sea respectively, inferring that the [4] Bemm River Community Centre, 2018, Bemm altitude of both locations is insignificant to the River a Little Bit of History, Bemm River temperatures being recorded. They are also both Community Centre, viewed 5th October 2018 enclosed by surrounding rainforests that incorporate a dense humidity to the climate of the area. As [5] The Joshua Project, 2018, Kamaru in Indonesia, Kamaru is geographically situated much closer to the The Joshua Project, viewed 5th October 2018, equator the variance of the temperature is also less coastal breeze and higher latitudinal location of [6] Y. Cengel and A.Ghajar, 2015, Heat and Mass Bemm River gives it a cooler temperature. Transfer, 5th edn, McGraw-Hill Education, New York, p571 Conclusion and Recommendations [7] Climate-Data.org, 2017?, Climate: Bemm River, Climate-Data.org, viewed 20th August 2018, Through our research and analysis it was found that wind turbines are quite inefficient, these [8] Climate-Data.org, 2017?, Climate: Kamaru, inefficiencies mean that turbines which are able to Climate-Data.org, viewed 20th August 2018, cover the cost of heating and cooling a house are impractically large for areas with small properties. It [9] RWE npower renewables, Wind Turbine Power was also found that turbines are extremely Calculations, The Royal Academy of Engineering, unproductive if the wind is interrupted by nearby viewed 23rd August 2018 obstacles, this effectively ruled out Kamaru as a https://www.raeng.org.uk/publications/other/23- potential location for turbines as the township is wind-turbine surrounded by rainforest. Another reason for ruling [10] Bureau of Meteorology, 2018, Climate Statistics out Kamaru as a potential location is the cost of for Australian Locations, Australian Government, rd purchasing a wind turbine, a turbine that would be viewed 23 August 2018 be out of reach for most households. [11] Bureau of Meteorology, 2010, Climate Statistics

for Australian Locations, Australian Government,

viewed 25th August 2018, http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/cdo/about/definiti ons9and3.shtml

SOLAR ENERGY HARVESTING AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN JAIPUR, INDIA AND YULARA, AUSTRALIA Brendan Cooper, Dale Blackwell, Daniel Mills, Jivtesh Sandhu, Navjot Singh Kharoud Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

year. These allow a very high exposure to sunlight, Abstract and also have geographical landscape that is well suited for the construction of the project. In this report we discuss the required energy Jaipur being a metropoulos in one of the and solar harvesting solutions for two locations in fastest growing economies of the world, a major different parts of the world, namely Jaipur, India and tourist destination, and the capital of the state of Yulara, Australia. We’ve researched about the Rajasthan. Jaipur has an ever growing need of energy growing need of energy in both the locations and the for the electricity supply for both industrial and deficiency of the supply of energy to match up with residential purposes. the growth. The comparison conducted between the Yulara on the other hand is a place which two locations was based on the climate variations, holds a great cultural importance which makes it a the existing infrastructure and the potential locations major tourist destination in Australia. To cater to the to develop the project, the demand of power, and the tourist, all the hospitality services such as hotels, potential to implement the system. Further on, restaurants and food joints will have a growing analysis is conducted to see the amount power and requirement of energy. With Australia’s growing money that can be conserved by switching the population there will be a greater need of energy in windows of the houses from single-glazed to double- the future and hence this place can cater to the energy glazed. needs of its surrounding areas too. We have chosen to research these two places as they both lie [close to] the 26th parallel (North & Literature Review/Theoretical Background South respectively) and both will allow us to understand the potential benefit of solar energy Our reliance on fossil fuels is unsustainable. harvesting and its applications within two differing “If the life-supporting ecosystems of the planet are cultures, both locations have very hot summers and to survive for future generations, the consumer cold winters and as such provide an interesting society will have to dramatically curtail its use of challenge from a heat transfer perspective. resources....” (Durning, 1992). It is therefore vital that we implement renewable energy resources to Introduction power our cities of the future. India is one of the world’s fastest growing Solar power is the renewable source of economies. With this growth comes an increasing energy with the highest potential energy generation demand for power. (Paul, 2004, pg.977) found a and causes the least pollution and environmental “strong relation between energy consumption and disturbance amongst all the methods used for energy economic growth in India”. generation currently in practice. The general difference in energy The two different locations we’ve chosen consumption between Australia and India is have a great potential to generate solar power addressed by (Soytas, 2003, pg.34), who identified a because of their climate conditions throughout the “casual relationship” between gross domestic

product (GDP) and the energy consumption of a flow of visitors. These days tourists have grown to country. It was also noted that a more direct expect a certain level of comfort; resort amenities relationship can be found between “energy such as fully-furnished apartments including consumption and individual income”. Australia has microwaves and air-conditioning are plentiful within a GDP per capita of 49,000 USD with India having a the town. Located close to ‘the red centre’ in the GDP per capita of 1,700 USD. middle of the Australian desert - 25°14′0″S Air conditioning accounts for a large 130°59′0″E (Geohack, 2018) - Yulara has high percentage of energy consumption in Yulara, with an temperatures throughout the day yet can drop below average maximum temperature of 28.5℃, reaching 0 degrees Celsius overnight (Climate Uluru-Kata peaks of 45℃ (Uluru Climate, 2015). This is similar Tjuta National Park 2018), as such it is crucial not to the average maximum temperature of Jaipur of only to harvest energy during the day but also to try 32.5℃ (World Weather Online, 2018). retain a consistent indoors temperature during the Diagram 1.1, Mean Temperatures high fluctuations throughout a 24hr period. Yulara, otherwise referred to as Ayer’s Rock Resort “employs about 910 staff” and uses “scientific know how [to enable] [it] to source all of its water and generate its own electricity locally’’, which is crucial for its locality - 1663km by road from Adelaide where food and materials are sourced twice a week (Ayer’s Rock Resort c. 2018). Unsurprisingly, Yulara already houses a large 1.8MW solar system known as the ‘Tjintu (Issac, 2009, pg.507) estimates that the Solar Field’, this produces about 15% of the Resort’s demand for air conditioning worldwide will average needs - during the sunniest periods of the day “increase by 72%” before 2100 due to global it can produce up to 30% of peak resort needs - and warming. There are many types of solar air consists of 5,770 photovoltaic modules, equivalent to conditioners including; “adsorption chillers, solar powering about 150 average Australian households desiccant cooling, solar cooling using ejectors, or (Ayer’s Rock Resort c. 2018). driving domestic air conditioners with photovoltaic panels.” (Energy Rating 2016) Description of Jaipur The current Yulara power station has a “capacity of 11MW from both natural gas and diesel Rajasthan's beautiful Pink City Jaipur, was backup.” (Territory Generation, 2016). This includes the stronghold of a clan of rulers whose three hill an already existing additional “1.8MW of solar forts and series of palaces in the city are important photovoltaics” (Arena, 2018). Number of houses in attractions. Known as the Pink City because of the Yulara is 970 (Australian Census, 2016), Jaipur has colour of the stone used exclusively in the walled 1,169,723 (Census India, 2011). city. Western Rajasthan itself forms a convenient circuit, in the heart of the Thar Desert which has Description of Yulara shaped its history, lifestyles and architecture. Jaipur, the capital city of the Indian state of In the case of Yulara - a small village in the Rajasthan is situated in the eastern border of Thar Northern Territory, Australia, which primarily caters Desert, a semi-arid land. It is positioned at an altitude for visitors to Uluru and Kata Tjuta - a consistent of 1417 feet above the sea level. The total length of supply of electricity is a vital part of sustaining the Jaipur extending from east to west is about 180 km

whereas the width from north to south is about 110 rooftop with no connection to the power grid, the km. Owing to its location in the semi-arid Thar power supply would be very inflexible. Desert in Rajasthan, the climate in Jaipur varies from To avoid these complications Jaipur would extremely hot in the summer months to pleasant and be best suited to a remote solar power station design cool weather in the winter months. The state of where a solar farm could be located several Rajasthan mainly has dry and hot climate. Rajasthan kilometers away from the crowded city centre in the climate can be divided into summer, post monsoon, surrounding farmland. monsoon and winter. The temperature during the Yulara however, is sparsely populated with summer months varies between 32 degree C to 45 an average population density of approximately 12 degree C. persons per square kilometer (Australian Bureau of Due to presence of high temperature, it Statistics, 2010). This means that the existing makes an ideal location for harvesting of solar infrastructure will present minimal complications energy. In Jaipur, sun shines most of the time in year and there will be plenty of room to install the panels giving constant supply of solar energy throughout. A either on rooftops or next to buildings. large scale project can be established in Jaipur The power demands of the two areas is also because a vast space of available land, resources and vastly different. The power consumption for Jaipur cheap labour. was over 3,000,000 MWh in 2011(Research Gate, 2016) and rapidly increasing. Whereas Yulara’s Comparison and Analysis power consumption was approximately 100,000 MWh in 2016 (Territory Generation, 2016). When assessing the feasibility of solar Both locations have the potential to energy for any civil application, factors that need to implement a solar electricity system, and have a great be considered are: natural environment, existing environment for high energy output per unit area of infrastructure and, power demands. solar panels. Jaipur however, presents difficulties in For both Yulara and Rajasthan the their infrastructure and population density requiring environmental conditions are ideal. With very low that it would have to use a remote solar farm to meet amounts of average annual rainfall. Both regions its needs. In contrast, Yulara has plenty of available have an average between 200-400 ml/y (Uluru space and relatively low power demands meaning Climate, 2015) (World Weather Online, 2018) as that solar panels could be easily integrated into compared to an international average of existing infrastructure. approximately 1000ml/y (The World Bank, 2018). The energy requirements for maintaining This would allow for high amounts of absorbed each house at a constant temperature in Jaipur and sunlight energy due to minimal interference from Yulara will be vastly different due to the large clouds and rain. population difference. The energy requirement The existing infrastructure of the two calculations were made with the future in mind, as locations is vastly different. Jaipur, Rajasthan is a any implemented system should be capable of densely populated city with an average of 598 powering the future. persons per square kilometer (India Population, “40% of a houses total energy usage comes 2017). Meaning that the large scale installation of the from heating and cooling” (Australian Government, solar panels will be extremely difficult due to the 2013) assuming that each house has heavily many obstacles presented by the uneven and insulated walls, floor and roof. It is assumed that crowded skyline. To add to these complications, if 50% of the heat loss is through the window surfaces the solar panels were installed individually on each in the house. It is also assumed that every house and every appliance is turned on at the peak of summer

and the air conditioning unit has an efficiency of $25.13 while the minimum is $1.26. A maximum 40%. For these calculations, Yulara’s power supply reduction of heat losses of 42.5% is achieved by needs to be greater than 7.5MW, which aligns with switching from single to double-glazing. The yearly their current capacity of 11MW. With the slightly energy saved is 1837.37 kWh with an associated cost different climates, Jaipur’s houses would be drawing saving of $174.55AUD when comparing the normal just under 9kW each, over their summer single-glazed windows with their double-glazed (calculations in appendix), requiring a minimum of competitors. 10.6GW of electricity. Basing the cost of changing the windows Diagram 1.2, Estimated Power Required from single to double-glazing on $800AUD/m^2 (Doubleglazed.com, 2018), the payback period would be approximately 67 years for return of investment. The payback period of double glazed windows is obviously highly dependent on the cost of having the glazing installed, however it is always a long term reward - payback will be measured in decades rather than years.

Solar energy harvesting is a very viable The cost of installing double-glazed prospect in both selected localities due to the windows in Australia (where the installation cost consistently high solar output and relative locations, estimate was attained) would be significantly higher both situated in desert areas. The key differences than in India, with an average cost of $135AUD/m^2 between Jaipur and Yulara would be the population (Virk, 2018) resulting in a payback period of just density, where Jaipur has 598 persons/km2, Yulara over 11 years. The major benefits of double-glazed has 12 persons/km2, however this is not a true windows tend to be noise reduction, reduction of heat representation of the number of people in any given gain in summer and loss in winter leading to a more time frame. Yulara is home to Ayer’s rock resort pleasant living environment (Build, 2018). which has a flow of visitors in excess of 250,000 The following are the assumptions used to people per year. Both localities have vast empty calculate the saving gained from double glazed spaces available to put solar panels on, however due windows. Heat loss is only from the windows, to the Aboriginal Culture and local land ownership surrounding walls and roof are fully insulated. It is in Yulara and the Northern Territory there are also assumed that there is no heat loss when the doors restrictions on where the Solar panels could be are opened. Each month’s temperature range was placed. Building a solar harvesting system in Jaipur used to create a monthly average value, this was used would certainly be cheaper than in Yulara not only for the all calculations as the value which heat loss because of labour costs but also locality, the only and electricity cost was based upon. access to Yulara would be via the local airport or via Values of U-factor (Cengel and Ghanjar 2015, p. 573 trucks - both of which would require extensive travel Table 9-6): distances, driving the cost up. U_single-glazed = 5.57 (W/m^2.K) U_double-glazed = 3.20 (W/m^2.K) House Energy Consumption

Average savings per month are $14.55 due to switching from single-glazed windows to double- glazed windows (with a vinyl frame and an air space of 6.4 mm), the maximum saving per month is

Diagram 2.1 Double vs Single Glazing

Diagram 2.2 Heat Loss

Summary

In conclusion, Yulara and Jaipur are suitably located to utilise solar harvesting to power their cities. However, energy storage, efficiency of air conditioning and cost of photovoltaic production need to significantly advance before solar becomes a viable renewable energy source to power large cities, especially for fast growing, developing economies, like India. Double glazed windows offer a large energy saving, up to 40%. With a current repayment time of 67 years, they will become more viable as production cost are reduced. This can be seen in India, with cheaper production cost the repayment time is 17 years.

References (Harvard) SC70302>

Durning, A., 1992. How much is enough. The Jaipur Census, Census India, consumer society and the future of the earth, 139. Soytas, U. and Sari, R., 2003. Energy consumption and GDP: causality relationship in G-7 countries WMFLabs 2018, Geohack - Yulara, Northern and emerging markets. Energy economics, 25(1), Territory, viewed 1 October 2018, pp.33-37. . between energy consumption and economic growth in India: a note on conflicting results. Energy Ayer’s Rock Resort c. 2018, Tjintu Solar Field: economics, 26(6), pp.977-983. History & Facts: Operating a resort in the desert, Voyages, Viewed 1 October 2018, Isaac, M. and Van Vuuren, D.P., 2009. Modeling . and air conditioning in the context of climate change. Energy policy, 37(2), pp.507-521. Meteo Blue 2018, Climate Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park, viewed 7 October 2018, Cengel, Y.A., 2007. Heat and mass transfer. Tata . Energy Rating, Solar Air Conditioners, viewed 6/10/2018, windows, viewed 8 October 2018, doors>.

Jaipur Monthly Climate Averages, World Weather Virk S, S 2018, What is the square foot cost of a Online, viewed 6/10/2018, double-glazed UPVC window/door?, Quora, viewed square-foot-cost-of-a-double-glazed-UPVC- window-door>. Yulara Solar Project, Arena, viewed 7/10/2018,

Yulara Power Station, Territory Generation, viewed 7/10/2018

Heating and Cooling, Your Home, viewed 10/10/2018, Yulara Statistics, Australian Bureau of Statistics,

Appendixes Table 6.1, Temperature Mean Max and Min (℃) Yulara - Yulara - Jaipur - Jaipur - Estimated power required for Jaipur over the Mean Max Mean Min Mean Max Mean Min summer months: Jan 36 21 22 8 Qwindow loss=715.5 W | NHouses=1,169,723 (50% of heat lost through windows) Feb 35 20 25 11 Qloss = Qwindow loss / 0.5 =1.43 (kW) Mar 33 17 32 15 (40% air conditioning efficiency) Apr 28 12 38 23 Qairconidtioning = Qloss / 0.4 = 3.57 (kW) (40% of total consumption) May 23 8 40 26 QTotal house = Qairconditioning / 0.4 = 8.9 (kW) Jun 19 4 39 27 PTotal = NHouses * QTotal house = 10.4 (GW) Jul 19 3 36 26

Heat loss calculations for single and double-glazed Aug 23 7 34 25 windows in Jaipur (at Tave which is the average of the Sep 27 9 36 23 monthly high and low): Oct 30 14 34 17 Qloss = Uwindow * As_window * (Tinside - Tave) (W) ΔQloss = Qloss_single-glazed - Qloss_double-glazed (W) Nov 34 17 30 15 Dec 35 20 24 10 Energy saved per month is a function of ΔQloss and the hours the energy is used each month (the number of days in a month * 24 hours = kWh/month):

Esaved = (ΔQloss / 1000)*(31day * 24hr) (kWh/month)

Dollars saved per month is the multiplication of the Energy saved per month and the cost per kilowatt hour: $saved = Esaved * $0.095($ AUD)

Total Yearly savings are found from the summation of all monthly savings, as is the total kilowatt hours saved per year a summation of the monthly saved kilowatt hours.

Analysis of Sustainable Wave Energy in Australia & India

Daniel Roberts, Prashant Soni, Brent Roberts and Damen Sinhmar Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Abstract The energy required to heat or cool the household will be used to determine the cost of maintaining this India and Australia have differing characteristics in temperature and then compare it to the same terms of climate, population and energy conditions, however with double glazed windows in requirements. The purpose of this report is to place of the existing single glazed setup. highlight these differences in two geographically different locations and find a sustainable way of Theory meeting these needs. The comparison between the Australian town of Southport and the Indian town of Wave energy harnesses the natural oscillation of the Redi is used here to showcase the differences in ocean waves and converts it into useable electricity. energies. The use of wave energy and its potential for Research conducted by the CSIRO shows wave energy could contribute up to 11 per cent of these areas is also discussed. Australia’s energy by 2050. 11 percent of Australia’s energy needs is approximately enough to power Introduction Melbourne, making wave energy a very strong contender in Australia’s renewable energy market. Sustainable energy is becoming more prevalent in [9] Carnegie, Western Australia currently has CETO the minds of consumers and governments. With the 5 and CETO 6 wave energy generators in place as a increased demand on energy suppliers comes the proven method of supplying a reliable source of energy. need to expand the power supply.

The two towns selected for this paper include; Southport, Tasmania, Australia and Redi, Maharashtra, India. The climates of the two areas are very different, with Redi’s overall mean temperature for the year being around 27oC and Southport’s being a little under 12oC. The aim of the project is to keep the temperature of a household to a temperature of 23oC for the year, analyzing the energy required to keep it so. The analysis draws on the use of mean Figure 1: Comparison of CETO 5 & CETO 6 Generations temperatures for each month of the year and assumes that all heat loss/gain is through the windows only. The CETO system has been locally designed and While this is not true for the real world, it is practical developed in Western Australia and already supplies for the purpose of this paper. a reliable source of energy to the HMAS Stirling

Naval Base in WA. The CETO system in particular double-glazed set up can save up to 20% or more has been a costly exercise however through the energy usage depending upon the climate. continued developments made in the CETO program costs associated with wave power technology have Double glazed windows are, on average, 5 times decreased and the cost trend continues to decline. The CETO 6 program is valued at $56 million [17] more expensive than a single glazed one. However, to develop, test and implement the latest generation the actual numbers will differ according to the type wave harnessing generators as pictured in Figure 1. and quantity needed by the customer.

Wave energy is a year-round source of reliable Australia renewable energy, it is predicted by the Australian Renewable Energy Association that by the early Southport is a small coastal town located in the 2030’s Victoria’s peak energy demands may be greater during the winter than in the summer, the South-East of Tasmania, around one-hundred opposite of the current status quo. Other renewables kilometres of Hobart. The southernmost town of such as solar are not optimised for high energy yields Australia, in the 1800s it was a convict station, during winter months especially in Victoria with the whaling station, timber town, exporting to Europe cold often overcast conditions experienced during [3] As of 2016, the town has a population of 135 [1] wintertime. [10] This is where wave energy may consisting mainly of fishermen. As shown in Figure provide a reliable solution for the states and indeed 2, the mean temperatures of this area have highs in the country’s energy needs. the summer months of January and February with o Majority of households currently have single glazed values of around 20 C and lows in the colder winter o windows due mainly to the reduced cost compared to months of June, July August of less than 4 C. that of double or triple glazed windows. Single glazed glass is a single layered glass also known as one plane of glass [14]. It is also available in improved forms, e.g. toughened glass etc.

A single glazed window will provide with maximum heat gain coefficient or natural sun energy, the U value will also be high which means that heat will not be retained inside the room and hence leave it with the minimum impact on comfort levels and will be less energy efficient. In comparison, double Figure 2: Southport Climate [2] glazed glass, also referred to as an insulated glass unit (IGU), combines multiple glass planes clustered A research project carried out by the CSIRO into a single window system. The planes in this examined the potential of wave energy around system are separated by a spacer and a layer of air or Australia with the aim of highlighting the untapped gas. The glass is hence fitted into window frames, energy potential. The resulting wave flux atlas, which is why it results in accommodating two magnified to Tasmania, is shown in Figure 3. The planes. bright yellow and orange on the map show the high amount of wave energy flux available in the range of Even though double-glazed glass is quite expensive 90 to 110kW/m. This high wave flux energy is due compared to single glazed glass, its energy efficiency to the winds coming from Antarctica and across the vastly outstrips the single glazed glass [15] A basic Southern Ocean. The blue “pin drop” on the map indicates the location of Southport.

being the hottest months and July-August being the coolest ones.

A renewable source of energy that we are looking at in this area is wave energy or wave power which is used to capture wind waves to do useful work for example; electricity generation, water desalination or pumping water. Redi, Maharashtra specifically is a strong candidate for wave power generation as Maharashtra has a coastline of almost 720 km. This gives a huge prospect of extracting wave power and use it for electricity generation for the state of Maharashtra as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 3: AREMI Mean Wave Flux Atlas [4]

Within this town there are 218 properties [1] with a median weekly household income of $524.

India

The state for India is Maharashtra and the town is Redi. It is located very close to the majestic Arabian Sea. The population for the town of Redi is estimated to be 644 [18]. The weather of Redi village is almost stagnant all the year. Below is the figure showing the average temperatures of Redi.

Figure 5: India Wave Energy [8]

Within this town there are an estimated 250 households with an income of $180 [23]

Analysis & Discussion

To analyse the difference between the two locations,

Figure 4: Redi Climate the heat loss or gain was determined using the general equation; This clearly depicts the temperature which remains almost the same each month with February-April = ( )

𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜

Where; For the town of 250 households this equates to 800

Uoverall is the heat transfer coefficient MW (single glazed) and 437.5 MW (double glazed). Awindow is the area of the window space The introduction of double-glazed windows to both

Ti is the inside temperature areas resulted in a 45% reduction in energy To is the outside temperature. requirements which equated to a saving of $350 for Overall U-factor was taken from Table 9-6 [6] Southport and $133 for Redi households. To keep the upgrade cost down, the double-glazed option was The energy consumption of each area was calculated selected without the extra coating added to the inner for the year, based upon the mean temperatures and surface of the window. If cost was not a factor, the adjusted according to the number of days in each addition of the coating would help increase the month. From this we created the chart shown in insulation of the setup [6]. Figure 6. While its shows Southport having positive values and Maharashtra having negative values, this According to the definition of wave energy, it is the is consistent with what we expected due to the mean storage of mechanical energy of wind in the sea temperatures of each area. Southport’s positive water. Sea waves have a variable nature as their values indicate that heat energy is required to be height and width changes with time and season. The added into the household, where-as the household of formula used to express the power per metre length Maharashtra requires air-conditioning and removal of wave crest is: - of heat energy. = 0.55 2 𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 Where; 𝑃𝑃 𝐻𝐻 𝑇𝑇

Hs is the average of one-third of the highest waves in

metre and Tz is the zero-crossing period in seconds

Two thirds of the earth’s surface is covered with water and there is a large potential of energy is contained in its motion [11]. India also shares a large portion of water, which gives India an opportunity to Figure 6: Energy Comparison meet its electricity needs through a renewable source of energy, which is wave energy. While there are a To keep this analysis comparable, we used the same lot of wave energy convertors available, the Indian type of window setup for each area. The single government is opting to use, in Redi, Maharashtra, glazed windows are 3mm thick and have a “double- an oscillating water column. According to the type” wood frame. The double-glazed upgrade research done by the government of Maharashtra, utilizes a vinyl coated frame with a 6.4mm air gap Redi town has an average annual wave energy and insulation. The energy required in Southport is potential of 5 to 8 kW/m and monsoon potential of 8.3MW (single glazed) per household or 4.6MW for 15 to 20 kW/m This can result in producing double glazed with an energy cost of $300 and $165 approximately 500MW of potential for a wave respectively. Over the 218 households [1], this energy power plant [12] results in an energy figure of 1809.4 MW (single glazed) and 1002.8 MW (double glazed). In The Maharashtra energy development agency comparison, the town of Redi requires 3.2 MW (MEDA) is a government agency working tirelessly (single glazed) and 1.75 MW for the double glazed. to ensure efficient and safe alternative energy source

in the state of Maharashtra. A brave step has been taken to generate wave power from the coast of Maharashtra which is 702 kms stretch. MEDA is the agency appointed by the government of Maharashtra to put forward some tenders to invite the expression of interest which would assess the potential of generation of wave energy from the coastal region of the state.[13]

Tasmania currently makes use of hydropower, wind power and the Basslink power cable to supply the state with its power [21] While being a sustainable method of energy supply, there was an energy shortage in 2016 when the Basslink cable broke and the state had water levels at record lows. There are currently studies being carried out by the Australian Maritime College in conjunction with the University of Tasmania to further the confidence in wave energy [22]

Conclusion & Recommendations

The savings which were outlined highlight the added benefit of the introduction of double-glazed windows. While it may be more expensive to install at the start, this would surely pay itself off over the years to come.

Australia’s adoption of the wave energy in Western Australia shows the potential of this still unknown and untapped energy source. While the studies carried out show the potential, the uncertainty compared to existing technologies may be a barrier to completely accepting this source.

The Indian government and its proactive movement towards utilizing the wave energy potential in its surrounding waters is promising for the future of wave energy, not only in India, but worldwide.

References afda-4306-b6ae- e8b22b97cfe1&acdnat=1538897183_ead682fc0769 [1] Australian Bureau of Statistics 2016, 2016 1e41b81a72c5017c0cdb> Quick Census Stats, Australian Bureau of Statistics, [12] Limaye, A 2018, New Technologies Wave viewed 27 September 2018, Power, Maharashtra energy development agency Australia, viewed 27 September 2018, [13] Gole, S 2012, Maharashtra energy state’s 720 km coast, Times of India, viewed 2 [3] Aussie Towns 2017, Southport, TAS, Aussie October 2018, Towns, viewed 30 September 2018, wave-energy-along-states-720-km- [4] ARENA 2018, Australian Renewable Energy coast/articleshow/16226622.cms> Mapping Infrastructure, Australian Government, [14] Australian Glass Group, 2018, Single glazed, viewed 3 October 2018, Australian Glass Group, viewed 7 October 2018, single-glazed/> [5] O’Neill, B 2017, Wave Energy Explained, [15] Nu-Eco, 2018, Single glazed windows vs Canstar Blue, viewed 2 October 2018, double glazed windows, Nu eco windows, 17 aug, [6] Cengel, Y. and Ghajar, A. (2015). Heat and windows-vs-double-glazed-windows/> mass transfer. 5th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. [16] Carnegie Clean Energy 2018, What is CETO, [7] Holiday IQ 2018, Redi Climate and Weather, Carnegie Clean Energy, viewed 7 October 2018, Holiday IQ, viewed 5 October 2018, Australian Government, viewed 7 October 2018, [8] Goswami, Prerna. (2015), Ocean Energy For Invertis Journal of Renewable Energy. 5. 231-238. [18] Census, 2015, Redi population- Sindhuderg, [9] CSIRO 2018, Ocean Energy in Australia, Maharashtra, Census population 2015 data, 18 CSIRO, viewed 5 October 2018, june, 2011, 2014 Renewable Energy, Tasmanian Government, [10] Newman, A 2018, How a Perth company viewed 7 October 2018, created the world’s most advanced wave energy viewed 6 October 2018, [20] Latimer, C, 2017, Renewable energy trial Morning Herald, viewed 7 October 2018, [11] Hong, Y, Waters, R, Boström, C, Eriksson, M, systems’, Renewable and Sustainability Reviews [21] Gramenz, E, 2017, Tasmania’s eye on ful Elsevier, 22 Nov, 2013, vol. 31, pp. 329-342, renewable energy by 2022, but work still to be viewed 4 October 2018,

[22] AMC, 2018, Model testing validates innovative wave energy device concept, viewed 8 October 2018, [23] Vuukl, 2018, Monthly income in rural maharashtra higher than national average survey, Express new service, viewed 8 October 2018,

An analysis of the viability of Renewable Energy for Remote Locations in Sri Lanka and Australia Jason Heenatimulla, Jing-Yi Heng, Ho-Bin Kim, Mitchell Roberts Swinburne University of Technology Keywords: Renewable Energy, Energy Consumption, Wave Power, Solar Power

Abstract the premise of the temperature regulation of With rising awareness of climate change and simple homes as a model to determine the increasing global power consumption, it is benefits of sustainable energy when becoming more imperative to look towards comparing them to fossil fuelled power sustainable energy to meet the needs of the generation currently being used as the global human endeavor. Renewable energy standard source of modern energy. happens to be well suited to provide locally For this study, the two locations selected contained sources of power while remaining were Nene Valley on the limestone coast in relatively low impact in the environmentally South Australia and the Hambantota District in conscious setting of modern industry. In any Sri Lanka. The energy consumptions of these case, the suitability of any given power source locations would be compared observing when the target locality is in a remote area macro power consumption and limited cost must be thoroughly investigated. The viability analysis. In order to establish a preliminary of the concept of sustainability on the other baseline comparison, various key variables hand becomes ever more complex as we were standardized: namely the temperature to introduce local conditions and the availability maintain indoors of 23 degrees Celsius, and of the desired resource. In this paper, the the cost per unit of power consumed. investigation turns its attention towards the Wave Power application of small scale Wave Power and Ocean waves are a form of raw energy with Solar Power installations in the context of two a tremendous potential for power extraction. locations chosen for their diversity. It finds that With the issuance of the first known wave careful selection of the sustainable energy energy converter (WEC) in 1799 following the installation based on direct local condition rise in interest for renewable energy sources analysis is crucial in establishing a case for since the oil crisis of 1973 [1], the potential viability. Wave power quickly becomes from wave energy has been known to obvious for a location with abundant wave engineers. resources, and solar power is found to be The power available from ideal ocean waves suitable for a remote area with typically low in deep water where the water depth is greater power requirements and is located in a global than half of the wavelength [2], can be region of ample solar resource. described for typical offshore case by: Introduction This paper explores the effects of = 0.5 2 (1) sustainable energy application in small 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2 𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚0 𝑒𝑒 3 𝑚𝑚0 𝑒𝑒 settlements and isolated communities under 𝑃𝑃 64𝜋𝜋 𝐻𝐻 𝑇𝑇 ≈ � 𝑚𝑚 ∙𝑠𝑠� 𝐻𝐻 𝑇𝑇

Which describes the known wave energy flux the waves and creates power using motion at per unit wave crest length formula, P, the joints. approximated for practical modelling by applying real world observations of significant wave height, , as four times the root mean square wave height, and the average wave 𝐻𝐻𝑚𝑚0 crossing period [3].

It is estimated that𝑒𝑒 an annual energy flux of 13 000 Terawatt𝑇𝑇 hours is produced along the Southern coastline of Australia [4] where the Figure 1, 2: Hinged Contour WEC Limestone Coast is situated. Selection of WEC As the Hinged Contour WEC moves, kinetic Wave energy converters may be categorized energy from the waves in converted to into three schools of wave energy extraction mechanical energy through generators concepts: point absorbers, linear attenuators, installed along the construction. It is said that and terminators [4]. However, the selection a WEC of this design comprising five sections process for the most suitable WEC with totalling 150m long and 3.5m can have a respect to chosen locality based on the capacity of 750 Kilowatts [6]. current meteorological and geological data Wave Resource in Australia publically available is unrealistic without a The wave profile along the southern dedicated survey and task force team. coastline of Australia is world class. A multi- Fortunately, three companies are currently in decal hindcast which incorporates a high- the process of testing and installing WECs in resolution coastal ribbon grid demonstrates and along the Limestone Coast and can serve the Mean Significant Wave Height (m) for the as an excellent point of reference. One period from 1979 to 2010 [7]. company in particular (Waverider Energy) had successfully launched and tested their pilot plant near Elliston, SA, on the Eyre Peninsula in 2013 and is in the process of launching their pre-commercial WEC installation on the Limestone Coast. This plant is expected to have a capacity of 2 Megawatts and is ideally suited to supply electricity to remote Figure 3: 7km Coastal Grid Mean Significant communities. The company has since Wave Height announced active development on smaller WEC units which are very mobile and can Figure 4 gives an example of Wave energy provide energy in smaller quantities [5]. flux (kW/m) available on the South The specifics of the Waverider WEC aren’t Australian coastline can mapped using data publically available, but based on the based on the NOAA WaveWatchill construction and the information provided by operational wave model data (SWAN) the company’s own website, we can assume th th th that it is based on the Hinged Contour concept collected for the 10 , 50 , and 90 percentile which is a device which follows the motion of values between 1997 and 2006 [8].

been recorded to have a mean wave flux of 33 kW/m [8]. Compared to the yearly mean value 47 kW/m, the summer wave power can be approximated to be 70% of the yearly average flux availability. Solar Energy Solar energy has been a well-established technology for the postindustrial civilization and continues gain ranks as a reliable source of ‘green’ energy. The most accessible design also being the most well recognized concept Figure 4: Wave Energy Flux of South of Solar energy generation is the solar cell Australia 1997-2006 array. Energy generated can be simplified to the ideal power output described as [9]: Unsurprisingly, the energy flux availability is subject to some seasonable fluctuations. The = (2) annual cycle of the wave energy flux can be 𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐴 ∗ 𝑟𝑟 ∗ 𝐻𝐻 ∗ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 estimated using the SWAN model [8] in direct Where; 2 comparison to the commercial operator A = Total solar panel area (m ) (Waverider) buoy data collected from Cape de r = Solar panel yield (%) Couedic, which is located on the south west PR = Performance ratio, coefficient for losses tip of Kangaroo Island in the locality of Flinders H = Annual average irradiation on tilted panels 2 Chase, South Australia. (kWh/m month) E = Energy (kwh/month)

Considering the average solar panel surface area to be between 1.3m2-1.7m2, with the 1.6m2 the most well-known size [10], the output of the solar panel can be calculated by the ratio: electrical power of one solar panel divided by the cross sectional area of one Figure 4: Wave Energy Flux near Waverider solar panel. commercial installation 1997-2006 Inverter losses 8% The solid line indicates the estimation model Temperature losses 8% of the SWAN data, while the dashed line DC cables losses 2% indicates the Waverider buoy data. The three AC cables losses 2% Shading 3% sets of two curves correspond with the 90th, Losses weak irradiation 3% th th 50 , and 10 percentile values (top to bottom Losses due to dust, snow 2% respectively) [4]. The hourly mean wave flux Other losses 0% peak during the winter observations has been Performance Ratio 75% documented from 1998 to 2005 to be 68 Table 1: Losses details of the solar system kW/m, while the summer observations have

Solar Resource in Sri Lanka Temperature Averages - Month vs. Being a tropical country close to the equator, Year 2017 the location has little variation in terms of 40 temperature patterns throughout the year. The 20 warmest month is observed to be April and the Temperature coldest being January [11]. The temperature 0 variation throughout the year, the average Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov monthly temperatures and the specified room Figure 6: Annual Mean Temperatures - Max, temperature to be maintained is notable in Average, Minimum (Top to Bottom) Figure 5, wherein which indicates the mean The Bureau of meteorology Australia maximum in blue, mean minimum in green, provides important weather data which can be mean average in red, and a baseline room used to observe the monthly mean maximum temperature in purple. The graph shows that and minimum temperatures for later analysis. the average temperatures have small Nene Valley Energy Consumption variations between 28 degrees Celsius and 26 The energy consumption of heating and degrees Celsius. cooling of the average Australian home is 40%

of the total energy consumed [15]. For the 32 simplification of analysis and macroscopic 30 comparison however, only heating and 28 cooling will be considered. Further analysis 26 24 must also be made for the differences TEMPERATURE (CELCIUS) 22 between a single pane and double vinyl pane 20 window optimization for a house simplified to only having a window area of 15m2 was to be

Figure 5: Temperature patterns in Sri Lanka conducted. Heat transfer can be approximated with equation: Nene Valley, Australia

Nene Valley is a small community located = ( ) (3) along the limestone coast in Southern

Australia with evidently rich ocean wave 𝑄𝑄 𝑈𝑈 ∙ 𝐴𝐴 ∙ 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 Where; resource. Nene Valley holds a population of Q = heat loss, only 84 people and an average of 2.3 people U = factor of heat transfer, per house [12] and is located near the A = surface area of windows, limestone coast between the 40° and 60° Tindoors = Temperature indoors in Celsius, latitude lines which coincides with the data Toutdoors = Temperature outdoors in Celsius. found on wind in these regions since wave power potential is related to the distribution of Using mean maximum and mean minimum winds, and the strongest winds occur between temperature data from 2017 [14], to find the latitudes 40° and 60° [13]. average temperatures of each month during a

year for the outdoor temperature was done first to enable the use of the heat transfer.

Heat loss throughout year single Glaze development and thus, the project was vs double Glaze decided to be implemented this location.

1,200.00 1,000.00 Sooriyawewa Energy Consumption 800.00 600.00 A generalized perspective of the solar energy 400.00

heat loss Q(w) generation capacity can be observed by 200.00 0.00 analysing the average solar irradiation in the Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov region against the generation ability of a given solar panel. Figure 7: Single Glazed vs. Double Paned

(respectively) Heat loss comparison 323 330 317 319 314 320 309 309 304 306 306 310 With this data, heat loss can be estimated for 295

m2 month) 292 300 each month of 2017, which then can be 290 280 converted with the standardized $0.095/kwh 264 270 for analysis shown in Figure 7 and 8. 260 250 Average Irradation(kWh/

kwh per month single pane and kwh per month double pane Figure 9: Irradiation in Sri Lanka, 1000 800 Hambantota (monthly) 600

kwh 400 200 Figure 9 observes the local meteorological 0 data for averaged temperatures in the direct Jul Oct Apr Jun Mar Feb Nov Dec Aug Sep May Jan region across the year, while Figure 10

Figure 8: Single Glazed vs. Double Paned displays the projected power generation (respectively) Power usage comparison potential given the selected source.

Sooriyawewa, Sri Lanka 70 67 65 65 66 The second location selected for the 63 63 63 64 64 investigation was a rural community in the 65 60 61 60 village of Sooriyawewa, in the Hambanthota 54 55 district, located in southern Sri Lanka. The Energy(kwh/month) village of Sooriyawewa consists of a huge 50 margin of people with living standards below the poverty level. The region also is in the progress of converting into a strong industrial Figure 10: Energy generated by 1 standard zone with a proposed industrial zone of 250Wp solar panel (monthly) 15,000 acres, an international harbor in an extremely strategic location, just in the middle From this data we can conduct some of the prominent energy supply lines preliminary macroscopic cost analysis. The connecting middle east and east Asia and in number of solar panel enquired to maintain close proximity to one of the busiest shipping the room temperature can be calculated by routes in the world [16] and a newly built the following formula: international airport. These factors proved that the community required the upliftment of their = (4) living standards to keep up with the 𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

The solar panel that needed to install in amount compared to the single paned remotes area to generate the energy that windows. The heat loss calculated is maintain the room temperature (23°C) for the converted from Watts to Kilowatt hours (KWh), village is about 94. The cost for installation for assuming for theoretical purposes for the each 275W solar panel is about $270 [17]. project that the air conditioning system is left Therefore, the total amount for the project is switched on the entire day throughout the cost about $25380. year. Figure 13 shows the power consumption per household per month for having a

5.00 4.70 constant room temperature of 23 degrees. 4.62 4.52 4.44 4.38 The power consumption in terms of KWh is a 4.50 4.17 4.14 4.02 direct relationship to show the amount of 4.00 3.51 3.52 3.35 electricity saved merely using double paned 3.50 3.15 Number of solar panel solar of Number windows in a house. 3.00

350 300 250 Figure 11: Number of solar panel to maintain 200 150 the room temperature for 1 house 100 50 0 energy energy consumption KWh Using the average temperatures found for JAN FEB MAR APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC each month as seen in Figure 5, substituting Single paned windows Double paned windows

the average temperature values to equation Figure 13: Power consumption in KWh per (4), with a room temperature of 23 degrees household per month for cooling purposes. 2 and an area of 15m the heat loss is calculated. Figure 12 portrays the variance of Monthly energy consumption (KWh) = Q heat loss to the surroundings from the house, 24 no. of days of the month 10 (5) as shown the heat loss values are all negative ∗ −3 values which imply that heat is gained into the ∗ ∗ The average monthly power consumption is house from the surrounding which is justified calculated using equation (5), assuming the by the higher average temperatures system to be 100% efficient, as 254.67 KWh compared to the room temperature. for a house with single paned windows and an

average of 146.31 KWh for a house using 0 -50 double paned windows, where the percentage -100 SEP FEB JAN DEC OCT AUG JULY NOV MAY

MAR difference of the average power consumption -150 JUNE APRIL -200 -250 per month is 42.55%. For a house with single -300

ENERGY LOSS (W) -350 paned glass windows the monthly electricity -400 cost for cooling would turn out to be $22.92 -450 and for the double paned houses the cost for SINGLE PANE WINDOWS DOUBLE PANE WINDOWS a month would be $13.167. The total power Figure 12: Energy loss in Watts from the consumption for a small community of 20 house to the surrounding environment. houses using single glazed windows would be 5093.4 KWh per month and for houses with The graph proves the fact that double pane double paned windows will require 2926.2 window reduces the heat loss by a large KWh. The percentage saving on the cost of

electricity for cooling when using double viability seems positive. While the solar and paned windows would be which is a huge wave power systems proposed for the proportion of saving compared to the single locations appear to be relevant at first glance, glazed glass windows. the real world applications of such installations Comparison and Analysis pose a much more complex scenario for As seen in the location energy requirements investigation. and power loss section the two locations have Considering the wave power installation on very different power consumption amounts. limestone coast, a number of companies have These differences start right from the already established a reliable datum for geographical locations of the two countries, viability of similar WECs for this location. For where Sri Lanka is a tropical country right near the type of WEC considered for Nene Valley, the equator, whereas Australia is an Oceanic it is reasonable to assume that the major country with varying seasons [18]. Looking at construction of the device can be completed the annual temperature patterns of both at the workshop and then towed into site from countries, it is evident that Sri Lanka has a far a suitable launching point; which would more constant average temperature annually drastically reduce construction costs which is not far apart from the intended room compared to construction on location. The temperature. Australia has a far more different main point of contention would be the average temperature curve as seen in the environmental impact, as much of the descriptive section about its location. The Limestone coast and the surrounding average temperatures of Sri Lanka are always coastline is considered protected wildlife higher than the intended room temperatures preservations. As for our selected location in therefore heat is not actually lost but gained Sri Lanka, Solar energy being a well- from the environment, so it will require a established technology in the sustainable cooling system to maintain the intended room energy industry; it also appears to be an temperature. Australia on the other hand, attractive candidate. Sri Lanka is subject to requires a heating system to uphold the room rich annual solar resource and solar temperature to the desired value as the technology suppliers are available in Sri average temperatures are all below the Lanka. The primary concern arises from the required room temperature. actual costs involved in construction, The power consumption of the Australian maintenance, and operation as much of the location is much higher than of Sri Lanka’s; habited regions in Sri Lanka are considered this is due to the low difference between the developing. How much of an impact this will average temperatures and nominal room have for the actual affordability of supplied temperature of the Sri Lankan location, which power for its residents considering a has a much stagnant variation. The Australian dedicated installation in a rural location power consumption has a minimum towards remains unexplored through the scope of this the last and first quarter of the year and has a paper and presents and interesting prospect maximum in the middle of the year which is for further investigation. the winter season. Sri Lanka maintains low References variation with its peak in the month of May. [1] Falcão, A. F. D. O. 2010. Wave energy Conclusions utilization: A review of the technologies. Observing the preliminary analysis for the Renewable and Sustainable Energy application of sustainable energy, the case for Reviews, 14, 899-918.

[2] Tidwell, J. and Weir, T. 2006, Renewable Government, viewed 10th September Energy Resources, 2nd edn., Taylor & 2018, Francis, Oxon. 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton. [13] Harries D, McHenry M, Jennings P & [4] Behrens, S. et al, 2012, Ocean Renewable Thomas C, 2006, Hydro, tidal and wave Energy, 2015- 2050, CSIRO, Newcastle energy in Australia, International Journal [5] “Natural Energy from Ocean Waves”. Waverider Energy. Accessed 06-09-2018, of Environmental Studies, 63:6 maximum mean temperature Mount [6] "Wave Power". University of Strathclyde. Gambier aero”, viewed 20th September Accessed 06-09-2018, 2018, http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/EandE/Web ay_type=dataFile&p_stn_num=026021> [7] “Wave Forecasting”, Bureau of [15] Government of South Australia, 2018, meteorology, marine research and home energy use, viewed 12th September services, Accessed 28-09-2018, 2018 and-environment/using-saving- [8] Hemer MA and Griffin DA, 2010, The energy/home-energy-use> wave energy resource along Australia’s [16] Weatherandclimate.com, 2016, “Climate: southern margin, Journal of Renewable Average Monthly Weather in and Sustainable Energy. Hambantota, Sri Lanka”, viewed 7 [9] Photovoltaic software, “how to calculate October 2018, photovoltaic system?”, viewed 22 of Temperature-Sunshine, Hambantota, Sri- September 2018, . software.com/PV-solar-energy- [17] Trina solar, “HOBEY – PD05”, viewed 4 calculation.php> of September 2018, [10] Size of solar panel, viewed 22 of 2018, . and-global/australia-s-physical- [12] Australian Bureau of statistics, 2016, environment/the-australian-continent> census quick stats, Australian

Appendix Symbols and Abbreviations Symbol Unit Description

EF kW/m Energy Flux Acceleration due to gravity. Taken to be 9.81 meter s-2 ms-2 when used in calculations H𝑔𝑔 m Wave height from peak to trough - Pi P W Power absorbed by a wave energy device 𝜋𝜋 -1 Pw W m Power per unit crest length of water waves Kg m-3 Fluid Density s Wave energy period 𝜌𝜌 𝑒𝑒 year 2017 𝑇𝑇 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec temperature mean max 26 25.5 26.2 20 16 14.6 14 14.4 15.7 19.5 26.2 24.2 temperature mean minimum 12.8 11.5 13.3 9.7 6.7 5.1 5.5 5 6.8 8.7 11.7 11.3 mean avg temp each month 19.4 18.5 19.75 14.85 11.35 9.85 9.75 9.7 11.25 14.1 18.95 17.75

Q=UA(T1-T2) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec single pane window (w) 300.78 375.98 271.54 680.93 973.36 1,098.68 1,107.04 1,111.22 981.71 743.60 338.38 438.64 5.57 double pane window (w) 172.8 216 156 391.2 559.2 631.2 636 638.4 564 427.2 194.4 252 3.2 A 15 T Inside 23 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec kwh per month single pane per house 223.78032 252.6552 202.0239 490.2714 724.17798 791.0514 823.6359 826.74396 706.833 553.23468 243.6318 326.3463 kwh per month double pane per house 128.5632 145.152 116.064 281.664 416.0448 454.464 473.184 474.9696 406.08 317.8368 139.968 187.488 cost monthly single per house 21.2591304 26.573913 19.1922705 48.1283091 68.7969081 77.6548791 78.2454105 78.5406762 69.3874395 52.5572946 23.9165217 31.0028985 cost monthly double per house 12.213504 15.26688 11.02608 27.650016 39.524256 44.613216 44.95248 45.122112 39.86352 30.194496 13.740192 17.81136 0.095 for all houses 37 kwh per month single pane nene valley 8172.84647 10216.05809 7378.264174 18502.41631 26448.23927 29853.59197 30080.61548 30194.12723 26675.26278 20205.09266 9194.452278 11918.73443 kwh per month double pane nene valley 4695.351652 5869.189565 4238.85913 10629.75443 15194.67965 17151.07617 17281.50261 17346.71583 15325.10609 11607.9527 5282.270609 6847.387826

Feasibility of Renewable Energy in Rural Domestic Application Adnan Pasha, Ashen Napawala Matthew Olejarz, Sam De Kruiff Swinburne University of Technology

Abstract The aim of the following report is to investigate and calculate the potential for It has been discovered that there is the utilising renewable energy systems to demand for renewable power supply to deliver energy for domestic purposes in a parts of Kenya and Australia in small rural environment. Two locations were towns. This renewable energy is to be used chosen, the Tana River in Kenya, and for the heating and cooling of a residential Cleve in South Australia. For Kenya, the building, to maintain a temperature of renewable energy that was investigated 23°C. The chosen Australian town is was hydroelectricity, meanwhile in Cleve, in South Australia, and geothermal Australia the potential for geothermal heat pumps with horizontal closed loop energy was explored. ground heat exchangers will be investigated for their feasibility. In Kenya Literature Review it has been found that a pico hydro generating system is the most logical Geothermal energy utilises the heat energy method of collecting this power as it can that is found under the surface of the be installed, maintained and repaired by Earth. This natural heat can be contained locals with some training as well as having in shallow ground, hot water or hot rocks the modular ability to add more units is a up to a few kilometres under the surface, great advantage. The overall costs of these and then further past the surface in molten units are $2000 each and they provide rock. In order to utilise this heat, water is 2kW of power which is enough to support pumped down to the heat locations which the required heating load to control results in heated water or steam being internal climate. Double glazing the returned. This can then be used to run a windows of the houses was a clear method generator on the surface. There are 3 main of reducing costs associated with heating ways that geothermal energy is utilised: and cooling a house. Almost as much as electricity generation as described above, half of the energy is required, compared to direct use of heat from a geothermal single glazed, resulting in significant cost reservoir, or a geothermal heat pump [1] savings. The cost of both renewable [2]. energy solutions is an important factor The heat resource for geothermal pumps is with the economic background of each shallow ground under the Earth’s surface. location, and is also explored. In this layer, the ground temperature is consistently warmer than the air temperature in the winter, and is colder than the air temperature in the summer. Introduction This temperature difference allows for the transfer of heat to or from the surface to the ground, for both heating and cooling

purposes. A closed loop system consists of back up to the water storage area, loops of pipes laid vertically (boreholes overnight periods, where demand for from 50m to 120m) or horizontally (depth electricity is low. Hydropower accounts of approx. 1.5m) that circulates a liquid, for approximately 6.7% of all of the usually water or mix of water and world’s power production. [5] antifreeze [3]. Length and depth depend on the heat transfer load required. As the fluid Country Background flows through the ground it comes into an Australia equilibrium by either drawing heat from The area that we have selected for our the ground or transferring heat to the research is Cleve, South Australia. Cleve is ground. Then, this is received by a heat- a small agricultural town located along the pump that transfers the heat to air via edges of the Great Australian Bight. ducts, or to water for hydronic heating. An Located 529km west of the South open loop differs as it directly uses ground Australian capital, Adelaide, in the Eastern water that is sent to the heat pump, a heat Eyre Peninsula, Cleve is a very dry area transfer occurs, and then the water is with many native wildlife. [6] The land in disposed of or returned to its source. Direct the area is very fertile and appropriate for expansion geothermal heat pumps make the needs of the local farmers and sheep use of copper pipes which have refrigerant, herders to supply and sustain produces. such as R-410A, flowing inside. They are The town has a population of around 941 theoretically more efficient as one step of and has a strong community presence [7]. heat exchange process is removed [4]. The community has a high employment Hydro or hydroelectricity, is a process of rate, with only 2.1% of the locals generating power using the flow of water unemployed in the community. The to spin the blades of a turbine. Factors average income for a person aged over 15 contributing to the amount of electricity years is $593 which is under the Australia generated are the height of the water above median of $853, with a majority of the the turbine, speed of the water flow as well occupations in the harvesting and planting as the volume of the water. There are large sector [7]. and small scale methods of producing The town has an average max temperatures hydroelectricity however the large plants stay above 18 degrees during the colder require dams which hold irrigation or months and during peak summer periods, drinking water but can have negative temperatures maintain low 30s to high 20s effects on the environment such as the [8]. There is very little rainfall in the accumulation of plant material which region with only 400 mm per year falling releases methane after decomposing, the over an average of 59 days a year. blocking of fish pathways and disrupting Implementing heat pumps in this region other animals’ habitats. The water is not would help the locals maintain a consumed and simply moves through the comfortable environment to better aid the system. Hydropower plants are quick on community to operate in. starting up and shutting down, with For the members of Cleve, South Australia maximum power generation typically to live comfortably, an environment of 23 being reached at 90 seconds after startup. degrees centigrade would be an ideal In some instances water has been pumped indoor operating temperature. We can

estimate the rate of heat loss from the heat throughout the year. For both current transfer equation: single and proposed double glazed Q= UAs(Tindoors – Tambient) (eq.1) windows. Where Q is the rate of heat transfer, U is the U factor as provided in table 9-6 (Cengel and Ghanjar) and is the factor applied to windows to determine the resistance properties of a window system, As representing the surface area and TAbmient and Tindoors represent the ambient and indoor temperatures. To estimate the total rate of heat loss from the average household in Cleve, some assumptions have been made to better model the rate of heat transfer. We have This results in a total energy requirement assumed the total window area of a house of 11,890.8 kWh per year for single-glazed in this area is estimated to be 15m2. We and 5550.48 kWh used for double-glazed can assume that the heat transfer is in a to help maintain the internal temperature one-dimensional steady state process of a house at 23 degrees all year round. without any variance in thermal processes, With the assumption that the cost of the windows are single- glazed windows heating and cooling equating to with a double-door type wood-frame. $0.095/kWh, we can calculate the cost of a Using table 9-6 and assuming spacers are household as broken down below metal, we attain a U-factor of 5.57. A way to reduce the ambient heat loss/gain through the community, a suggestion would be for the community could invest in Vinyl-framed double pane windows with an air space of 6.4mm. This will give From the table above, we notice that there us a U-factor of 2.60. [9] is a savings of $50.2 made per household/ The ambient temperatures for Cleve are as month which a change to double glazed shown below: windows, which results in a net savings of $602.4 per year. Kenya There has been times in the past where Kenya’s main source of energy has been Hydroelectric Power as it has a history dating back to the 1920’s. Kenya is facing difficulties, such as drought, which are compromising its consideration as a viable source of renewable energy. If sustainable energy is not being used this means that Using this data, we can calculate the total supply must be met with other means of required energy for heating and cooling

power production, such as fossil fuel, negatives are that they are extremely costly which is undesirable as it increases and if not managed properly can take customer costs and is not good for the water supply away from areas in which it environment. However, hydro is desirable, is needed. Locals may also dispute as wind powered turbines are intermittent ownership of the land with which the dams sources of power, whereas hydro power is are constructed also. There is research constant and generators can be turned on being undertaken which looks at placing a and off, depending on the level of demand. dam on the Tana River, Ewaso Ng’iro The demand for power in Kenya is River and Lake Turkwel. Most expanding rapidly, which matches their communities around this region consist of expansion of economic growth, which mostly farming and livestock. These undesirably may mean that there is not locations have millions of civilians enough supply seeing the development of dependent on this water. more forms of generating power are not Households near the Tana River have the being invest in as much as required. One following mean temperatures throughout option which must be considered, is to the year, shown in the chart below. update and renovate existing hydro plants, to ensure that the water flows available are being as efficiently used to generate power as possible. [10-12] Kenya’s current overall demand for Power is around 1429MW, where currently 743 MW of which is produced by hydro and has the resources to produce approximately 6 GW. There is a potential of approximately 3000 MW max capacity of small, mini and micro hydro systems across the country which are more environmentally friendly The same assumptions have been made as but only 30 MW of it has been utilised. for Cleve, however energy requirements in Pico Hydro is a form of hydro which can Kenya are for 100 households. The be used in ‘mini grids’ and each module following chart shows us the heat gain can power between 15-20 homes. It is through single glazed window and the most suitable for areas which have double-glazed window throughout the moderate or high rainfall. There has been year. movements towards showing and teaching locals how to build and maintain their own pico hydro systems. [10-12] The main benefits of a water dam is that it provides clean power and improves irrigation. Draw tourists from improved infrastructure, assist with fishery production and opens opportunities for reforestation as well as more controlled water supply if the time and effort is invest in, to set it up. The

Hence the (2) line is followed in the monogram below, and a seasonal performance factor of 3.5 is assumed:

Comparing single and double glazed windows, we can see that heat gain is much higher for single glazed. March is also the month with the largest energy requirements. It is important to note that all heat values and system calculations for Results from the nomogram [13] are Kenya are for the population of 100 summarised in the table below: households. Area required Tube length Results and cost of the energy Single 550m2 1100m requirements are summarised below, Double 250m2 550m assuming $0.095/kWh. The following table summarises costs to implement each system, based on GeoClimates capital estimates [14]: Install cost Yearly Saving Single $22,000 $1,130 Double $11,000 $530 Hence, switching from single to double glazed windows saves $266.4 per month, Kenya which is $3,196.75 per year. From the results obtained it was evident that the power that we need for this System Design venture roughly needs to be 108kW, for Australia the 100 households. Therefore, we decided The piping material for a closed loop to use Pico hydros of 2 kW. The total horizontal heat exchanger would be high number of Pico hydros that was used is 54. density polyethylene. It is most suitable This is due to the high heat gain in months due to its high longevity, reducing like March. The cheapest Pico hydro can maintenance costs, and relatively good be purchased for $2800 therefore the conductivity [4]. From our calculations, minimum cost for the equipment for the we have a total heat loss of 15kW for project is $2800* 54 = $151200. The single glazed, and 7kW for double. The potential power generated is shown in the ground in Cleve is clay with sand like soil, chart below. favourable conditions for this application.

https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/g eothermal- energy/tech/geoheatpumps.html. [Accessed 08/10/2018] [2] Click Energy, “Geothermal Energy: How the New Renewable Works” 30 November 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.clickenergy.com.au/news- blog/geothermal-energy-how-the-new- renewable-works/. [Accessed 08/10/2018] From the chart we can observe that the [3] GHSP, “Domestic Ground Source Heat generated power is enough for the project. Pumps: Design and installation of closed- The potential power is nearly identical to loop systems (2007 edition)”. 2018. the heat transfer in March but more than [Online]. Available: enough for the project and other tasks as https://gshp.org.uk/documents/CE82- the year progresses on. But if the single DomesticGroundSourceHeatPumps.pdf. glazed windows were replaced by double [Accessed 9/10/18] glazed windows we can save a significant [4] Jay Egg and Brian C. Howard, amount of power as shown in the graph. Geothermal HVAC: Green Heating and

Cooling. 2011 The McGraw-Hill Comparison and Analysis Companies Inc

[5] Stacy Muise, Hydro Power. [Online]. As discussed earlier, the cost to implement Available from: the required system in Cleve would be https://www.studentenergy.org/topics/hydr approximately $22,000 per home with o-power. [Accessed 11/10/18] single glazed windows, and $11,000 per [6] Aussie Towns. 2018. Cleve, SA - home with double glazed windows. With Aussie Towns. [ONLINE] Available the savings that this provides, and the lack at: http://www.aussietowns.com.au/town/c of any current Government rebates to aid leve-sa. [Accessed 08 October 2018]. in the cost of installation, geothermal is an [7] 2016 Census QuickStats: Cleve. expensive form of renewable energy to 2018. 2016 Census QuickStats: Cleve. implement. On the other hand, [ONLINE] Available hydroelectricity in Kenya appears to be a at: http://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ much more financially viable venture since census_services/getproduct/census/2016/q the cost of installation of per household is uickstat/SSC40267. [Accessed 08 October approximately around $1600. And savings 2018]. that we can make up by switching window type is around $3200 per year. [8] Meat and Livestock Australia. Geothermal more individual and hydro 2018. Cleve Climate History. [ONLINE] more communal. Available References at: http://weather.mla.com.au/climate- [1] Renewable Energy World, history/sa/cleve. [Accessed 11 October “Geothermal heating from heat pumps”. 2018]. 2018. [Online]. Available:

[9] Çengel, Y.A. & Ghajar, A.J. (2015). https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals _Potential_in_Kenya. [Accessed 11/10/18] and Applications, 5th Ed., SI Units, [13] Reus, M and Sanner B., 2001. Design McGraw-Hill. of Closed-Loop Heat Exchangers. [10] Energy Regulatory Commision, International summer school On Direct Hydro Energy. [Online]. Available: application of geothermal energy, chapter https://renewableenergy.go.ke/index.php/c 2.5 ontent/27. [Accessed 11/10/18] [14] Geo Climate Systems. “Residential [11] Ministry of Energy, Small heating and cooling systems”. 2018. Hydropower Development in Africa. [Online]. Available: [Online]. Available http://www.geoclimate.com.au/resources/ http://energy.go.ke/hyrdo-power/. ResidentialInfoSheet.pdf. [Accessed [Accessed 11/10/18] 9/10/18] [12] Energypedia, Hydropower Potential in Kenya. [Online]. Available

Feasibility Comparison of Hydroelectric and Solar Energy in Remote Locations

Andrew Dickeson, Jack Day, Harsh Wardhan Bhatia, Hrithik Mehra

Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Keywords: Hydroelectric, Solar, Energy, Renewable, Sustainability Abstract natural gas, coal, and oil. Numerous studies have shown the harmful effect of these

sources of energies on the Earth’s This report studies the feasibility of usage of atmosphere leading to global warming and renewable energy for domestic purposes in climatic shift. Non-renewable sources of small villages. The locations chosen for this energies take millions and millions year to study are namely: Milparinka, Australia and form, with the current scenario where Namgo Village, India. These locations were demand of the energy is increasing at an chosen because of their different climates, alarming rate with ever growing population. with one being a tropical country and the Thus, need for an alternate source of energy other one with four seasons. By studying the has become a necessity. Renewable energy is practicability of usage of renewable energies the best possible solution for sustainable and in these locations, we can identify which environmental-friendly source of energy. If renewable energy source is more beneficially garnered proficiently renewable energy can and suitable location-wise. Due to solve all these energy crises without geographical issues, villages in remote areas depleting the environment. For this research generally have limited power supply. The we have selected two renewable energy renewable energy source to be studied are sources that is solar and hydropower energy. solar and hydropower energy. We assumed a Our main objective of this research is to relate scenario where we are required to maintain both systems and choose the best possible the temperature of a house at certain system in both the locations in Australia and temperature using solar and hydropower one in overseas. energy as an energy source. By calculating how much energy we can produce from each source we can identify which renewable energy is more feasible for that location, while assuming heat transfer to only occur through a window, in this project we also study the effect of using single glazed and Literature Review/ Theory double-glazed windows. background Solar energy Solar energy is generated when energy from Introduction the sun is converted into electricity or used to heat water, air or some other fluids. There are mainly two types of solar energy The main source of energy that we are using technologies that are solar thermal and solar now a days are non-renewable, such as photovoltaic solar thermal -it is the

conversion of solar radiation into thermal electricity generation in more than 160 energy. Thermal energy is carried by water, countries worldwide countries worldwide air or other fluid to use it directly for heating or to generate electricity, solar thermal electricity is usually designed for large scale power generations in which solar radiation is concentrated on a small area to get maximum efficiency. Solar-photovoltaic- in this method sunlight is directly converted into electricity using photovoltaic cells. This kind of systems can be easily installed on the rooftops or can be integrated into the designs itself. This system can also be used to concentrate the sunlight using mirrors to small area for large scale Figure 2: Hydroelectric power system centralized power. Description of Australian location The annual solar radiation falling on (Milparinka) Australia is approximately 58 million Petajoules (PJ), approximately 10000 times Australia’s annual energy consumption. ● It is a small settlement in North West in New South Wales about 250 km north of broken hill on silver city highway. ● According to 2016 census it had a population of about 77 nearly 1.4 people per 25 dwellings ● It was discovered in 1870 during gold rush and gold was found in the year 1880. ● High scarcity of water and a very arid region with full of solar irradiation. ● In summer, temp can reach 50 degree Celsius and with only reliable water Figure 1: Solar power system source, that’s an oasis on the road Hydropower energy between broken hill and tiboobura It uses the force or energy of moving water to ● Solar panels are pretty easy to install generate power. Hydropower is generated in this area as they can be put on the when falling water is channeled through top of the buildings or can be water turbines. This falling water creates integrated onto the design of pressure on the blades of the turbines and thus buildings and designs itself. rotates the shaft and drives an electric ● The chosen solar panels are not cheap generator, converting the motion into to manufacture. Therefore, the cost of electrical energy. Hydropower is the most this system is quite high. One panel advanced and mature renewable energy costs up to $2500. Due to this high technology, and provides some level of cost, it is not feasible to expect the

town to foot the cost, and as a result Description of the overseas location (Namgo, the local or state government would India) need provide some financial backing in order for the project to be possible. ● It is located in the Namsai district of ● Solar panels are able to be ordered Arunachal Pradesh, latitude-27.14, from the manufacturers and longitude-93.61 transported to the area of use. ● According to the census in 2011 the population of the village was 46, with approximately 11 dwellings. Official language is English ● Main occupation of the people living there is agriculture ● It is about 8.92 km’s from the Lohit River, the Lohit River is a tributary to the Brahmaputra River which rises in the Eastern Tibet and comes from China to India. ● Building a hydropower plant isn’t an easy process, sometimes it can take Figure 3: Australian Solar Radiation years to build depending upon the terrain, furthermore cost of building a hydropower plant is very high. ● Building a dam in the river adversely affects fauna and flora and disturbs the aquatic life in the water body. ● To build in Namgo is a bit difficult as all building materials have to be transported to the site. Because the population of Namgo is low, an arrangement for the workforce has to be made as well consideration made Figure 4: Solar electricity generation that the build will be very labor- intensive work. Heat Loss and Window Glazing

In order to calculate the total energy usage of each town, there are a few key factors to consider. It is not reasonable to assume that every house will have heating and cooling, and that it will be set for a constant temperature of 23 degrees all year around. Figure 5: Solar energy consumption However, for the sake of calculations for this case scenario, this has been assumed. Then, based on data found for both India and

Australia, 40% of the total energy usage per In order to calculate the heat loss from each home is consumed by heating and cooling house, assumptions needed to be made. The alone. If the following equation is used, the first of these assumptions is related to finding total power requirement for each town can be the values of the U-factor, the heat transfer obtained. coefficient, for both single and double-glazed ( ) windows. = The assumptions are as follows for the 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃� 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ℎ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 windows: = ( ) 0.4 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝐷𝐷𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ● Double Door installation with a total With𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 77𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 people∗ and 25 dwellings, the above area of 15m squared formula can be used to obtain the total energy ● Single glazed 3mm glass window required for Milparinka in Australia with wood frame 5406 ℎ 25 ( ) = 337,875 ℎ/ ● Double glazing with metal spacers 0.4 with no coating and a 6.4mm spacing. 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∗ 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 There is no published data on the number of This will result in a value of 5.57 For U single dwellings in Namgo, but it is known that glazing and 3.20 U for double. there are 46 residents. Assuming roughly 4 When calculating heat loss from each people per residence, that means there are 11 dwelling, heat loss was defined specifically dwellings. as the heat that leaves the house. However, 10923 ℎ data for both the heat loss and gain is 11 ( ) = 300,382.5 ℎ/ provided as a comparison as it determines the 0.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 total costs for heating and cooling throughout ∗ 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 This shows that Milparinka requires 1.12 the year. times more power than Namgo and this will The method used to find the heat loss rate for need to be considered when determining the each location started with sourcing output required for each energy production temperature data for the chosen locations. method, as well as potential population in the The minimum and maximum temperatures near and distant future. for all of the days of specific years were Both locations in India and Australia found online, Namgo’s 2017 data from experience extreme temperatures, with Accuweather and Milparinka’s 2014 data Milparinka experiencing temperatures as through Australian Bureau of Meteorology. high as 47 degrees and as low at 3 degrees, The temperature data was modelled as a sine and Namgo experiencing temperatures as low function in MATLAB. A sine function was as -10 degrees and only as high as 25 degrees. chosen to approximate the behavior of the As such, they both require heating and temperature during the day as just using the cooling in order to maintain the house at 23 minimum and maximum temperatures for 12- degrees all year round. However, Namgo hour periods would produce an overestimate requires very little cooling as there are only a of results and using the average temperature handful of days where the temperatures of a certain day would produce an would reach above 23 degrees and as such, underestimate of results. the house will almost never go above the set The minimum and maximum temperatures point. A logical step here would be to not were used to determine the amplitude and the install cooling due to the fact that it will be a center line about which the daily temperature wasted cost and would only complicated the oscillates, and the period being set to 24 heating and cooling system. hours. Then, at each hour increment over a

24-hour period, a temperature was calculated and inputted into the heat loss equation to determine the amount of energy that is transferred through the window during that hour. Each hour increments result is then added up to find the total heat transfer for that day.

= ( ) 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑈𝑈 ∗ 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 There were two methods undertaken in the analysis of the data.− 𝑇𝑇One𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 method where only Figure 6: Namgo heat loss throughout year (2017) the heat leaving the room was modelled, as Oppositely, when looking at Milparinka it is such any outdoor temperature above 23 seen that during summer there is virtually no degrees in not included as this would provide heat loss as even the minimum temperatures a heat gain. Secondly, both heat loss and gain are above the set point for certain days. There were included to show the total heat change, is heat loss during the Australian winter, and therefore total heating and cooling cost however, the outdoor temperature does not can be calculated. Once the daily heat loss reach as low as Namgo. was calculated, it is depicted on a graph below along with a second showing heat loss and gain. Another assumption that was made was to introduce a ‘dead band’ within our model. A dead band in this context in a temperature range around the set point of 23 degrees in which the heater and/or air conditioner is not turned on to affect the internal temperature. This was added as a common-sense assumption, as it is impractical to turn on your heater to heat up your house by 1 degree Celsius. A dead band of 3 degrees was Figure 7: Milparinka heat loss throughout year (2014) chosen as an appropriate value. When looking at the combined heat loss and Analyzing the data that was returned it is seen gain graph, the story is much different. In this that due to the low temperatures in Namgo, case, there is a large heat change throughout there is a large heat loss throughout the year the year for both locations with a lull in simply due to the temperature difference Australia during autumn and spring with from inside to outside. peak periods in the middle of summer and winter. With Namgo, there is an overall large heat change, but a distinctive peak in winter as there is a large difference between the set point and the maximum set point being up to 20 degrees below.

The actual savings due to double glazing is found to be: $1037.67 - $ 596.15 = $ 441.52 per year

for a 57.45 % saving for Namgo and

$513.57 - $ 295.05 = $ 218.07 per year

for a 57.54% saving for Milparinka.

Summary and Conclusion It was found, through research and the use of modelling and analysis, that while the village Figure 8: Milparinka Energy transfer 2014 of Namgo would use a large amount of power if the temperature of a house here was using Repeating the same process as before, it is a heater and air conditioner to keep the possible to calculate the effects and potential temperature inside at 23 degrees constantly, monetary savings by using double glazed it is not feasible to install a hydroelectric compared to single glazed windows. A new power plant in this location. U-factor value is gained based on the Conversely, installing solar power panels in parameter of the new window system, and the town of Milparinka, which experiences then recalculating and using the q heat loss high heats and strong sun, would be a well- values for each day and multiplying it by the researched and worthwhile investment. cost per KWh. Once this is done, the two windows total yearly energy costs can be compared, and the benefits of the double glazing can be seen.

Figure 9: Energy Transfer for Namgo 2017

References and Appendix Wikivillage.in. (2018). Village Website In India, Explore Villages of India, Best Village Sites In India, Wikivillage. [Online] Available at: https://www.wikivillage.in/village/arunachal- Bom.gov.au. (2018). Long-term temperature pradesh/namsai/chongkham/namgo [Accessed record. [Online] Available at: 6 Oct. 2018]. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/change/acorn- sat/#tabs=Data-and-networks [Accessed 5 Oct. C�engel, Y., Ghajar, A. and Kanog�lu, M. 2018]. (n.d.). Heat and mass transfer.

Anon, (2018). [Online] Available at: https://www.accuweather.com/en/in/namgo/3349 341/january-weather/3349341?monyr=1/1/2017 [Accessed 5 Oct. 2018].

The Verge. (2018). Inside India’s race to cool 1.3 billion people in a warming world. [Online] Available at: https://www.theverge.com/2017/9/14/16290934/i ndia-air-conditioner-cooler-design-climate-chang e-cept-symphony [Accessed 5 Oct. 2018].

Henley, J. (2018). World set to use more energy for cooling than heating. [Online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/ oct/26/cold-economy-cop21-global-warming- carbon-emissions [Accessed 5 Oct. 2018]. Figure 10: Temperatures in India

Quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au. (2018). 2016 Census QuickStats: Milparinka. [Online] Available at: http://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_ services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/SSC 12624?opendocument http://yourenergysavings.gov.au/energy/heating- cooling/understand-heating-cooling [Accessed 5 Oct. 2018]. Arena.gov.au. (2018). [Online] Available at: https://arena.gov.au/assets/2013/08/Chapter-10- Solar-Energy.pdf [Accessed 6 Oct. 2018].

Wikiedit.org. (2018). Namgo, Arunachal Pradesh. [Online] Available at: http://wikiedit.org/India/Namgo/100383/ [Accessed 6 Oct. 2018]. Figure 11: Temperatures in Australia

SOLAR ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ON RURAL AREAS Stephanie Reding, Dylan Hill, Keegan Carvalho, Tavsharan S. Dhillon Swinburne University of Technology Keywords: photovoltaic, solar, energy

Abstract definition, in which energy from the Sun/sunlight In this project we will explore the main is transformed into usable energy. Currently there differences for the implementation and operation are two main types of solar power conversion: of a solar energy system for a residential house on photovoltaic and thermal. Solar thermal energy is two different rural areas: Australia and India. where heat from the Sun is reflected onto a Using both empirical research and theoretical thermal receiver, which is then transferred to a calculations, the report discusses the uses and thermal energy storage system. efficiency of solar panels in these two different Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy converts sunlight climates. It was found that both locations would directly into electrical energy using photovoltaic benefit from the development of solar panels, and cells. These are then combined into a panel and hence a more commercially viable option which placed in direct sunlight (common places include would make it more affordable and convenient to rooftops, fields, planes, vehicles etc.) in order to use. It was also concluded that double glazing either use immediately or store the electrical windows are substantially more efficient at energy that is produced. Photovoltaic solar panels conserving energy than single glazed, retaining originated as photovoltaic-thermal collectors almost double the heat in both locations than during the 1960’s, where the collectors both single glazed windows. produced electrical energy and served as a Introduction thermal absorber to directly produce heat. As The main objective for this project is to compare opposed to using the electrical energy to produce key factors for the implementation of a housing heat, causing an unnecessary loss in energy solar energy system between Australia and India. during the transformation (Tiwari & Dubey, Both countries have high interest in solar energy 2010). These solar panels are still in use today, and at the same time both face different particularly in buildings with inclined roofs, challenges such as: climate conditions (monsoon primarily to help with water heating. season in India compared to dry season in These panels then progressed to PV cells with air- Australia), infrastructure (highway conditions collectors, which were designed to reduce the and transport methods), financial aspects, heat on the PV cells, reduce damage and to government funding and policies (previous convert this heat into useful energy. The main government rebate for solar panels in Australia) drawback for the new design was the low thermal and their differing accessibility to new conductivity of heat when compared to water. technology. Experiments were conducted on these by Solanki Literature Review et al. and it was discovered that the over Renewable energy can be defined as energy that efficiency that could be achieved under ideal is ‘produced using natural resources that are (indoor, direct artificial sunlight close to the constantly replaced and never run out’ (Australia panels, no wind or shadows) conditions was 50% Renewable Energy Agency, 2017). Solar energy (Tiwari & Dubey, 2010). This is still a is a form of renewable energy under this respectable amount, especially considering the

average efficiency in outdoor un-ideal settings is increase efficiency, whilst lowering number of approximately 25%. panels needed. As well as creating multijunction A more recent development saw transparent solar PV-cells. Which would increase the efficiency of panels being developed so that they could replace the panels, and lower overall costs as one panel windows in buildings, homes and cars. These can theoretically do the work of two or more with solar panels use a tin-oxide on the inner surface more junctions. of the window to conduct the current from the Third generation PV panels need more PV-cell. The cell itself uses a titanium oxide development and further research. However due coated in photoelectric dye. This allows light to to the popularity of first generation, commercial pass through the cell, whilst generating electricity companies are focusing on reducing these costs using ultraviolet light instead of visible and whilst increasing efficiency. This will increase infrared light like typical PV cells. These are their profits, and ideally increase the popularity currently not as popular as traditional solar of using solar panels to help reduce the damage panels, due mostly to their high costs, lower we have already caused to the environment by efficiency and that although they allow sunlight using non-renewable energy. through they don’t allow unobstructed views Australia Location: Melbourne from windows. That being said, the CIS tower in Australia is focusing its efforts for solar energy Manchester, England spent over $10 million on two fronts. According to Thornton (2015, p. 4) AUD when building their tower to put these the programs EUA (Environment Upgrade panels in, instead of windows. Agreement) and PPA (Power Purchase In terms of materials and developments for Agreement) are making cheaper the acquisition current PV panels, there are three main and implementation for solar installations that generations; first generation being large-area and would otherwise be out of the reach of the single junction (places where charged can be common public. produced due to separating positive and negative Recent Australian examples for government charges). Which requires high energy input and involvement include Australian Beyond Zero involve substantial labour costs to produce. These Emissions (Wright and Hearps 2010), Elliston et have been researched thoroughly and are almost al. (2012), and Australian Energy Market performing at their theoretical maximum of 33% Operator (AEMO) (2013). There have been many efficient. These are the most popular generation, other plans undertaken internationally, for accounting for approximately 90% of the example World Wide Fund for Nature production in 2007 (Tiwari & Dubey, 2010). (WWF 2011), Zero Carbon Britain (Kemp 2010), Second generation materials are applied in a thin Greenpeace International and European film to a supporting material such as glass or a Renewable Energy Council (Teske 2010), ceramic, which significantly reduce overall costs Jacobson and Delucci (Delucchi and and offer higher efficiency overall. Materials Jacobson 2011) and Budischak et al. (2012) which form the thin film are generally Cadmium (Palmer, G 2014, p. 13). telluride (CdTe), Copper indium gallium Melbourne is the city of focus for Australia. It has selenide, amorphous silicon and micro-morphous a population of 4,485,211 people (ABS 2016). silicon. (Hirshman, et al., 2008). Third generation Unfortunately the nearest solar farm is the 60 is still undergoing a lot of research and is MW Gannawarra Project, which is located in estimating efficiencies between 30-60%. These north-west Victoria (edify energy). Instead, the are still in development, and focus on main source of solar energy for consumers is concentrating sunlight into a smaller area to solar power systems that are connected to

households. The proportion of households in start to the year, as these are the periods of time Australia with solar panels present for energy with the most amount of high temperature and and/or hot water has risen slightly from 15% in sunshine, and with a lower amount of rainfall 2012 to 17% in 2015–16 (Household Income and compared to the winter months, as shown by Wealth, Australia 2017) these graphs: India Location: Sakri India is currently shifting focus for solar energy. India says it intends to launch a tender for 100 gigawatts of solar power, 10 times the size of the current largest solar tender in the world – another Indian project scheduled to open for bids next month (Safi 2018). India’s government has in place a renewable energy target of 227 GW for year 2022 which will be achieved, according to the Energy Minister RK Singh, using floating solar, manufacturing-linked solar and offshore wind projects (Saluja 2018). The city of Sakri is located on the state of Maharashtra and has only 21,674 habitants (Population Census 2011). Even though it is a small town it is home to the world’s largest solar power station (Agencies 2011). The 125 MW Shivajinagar Sakri solar PV Plant is the result of a deal between Frankfurt-based development bank, KfW Entwicklungsbank and the Maharashtra State Power Generation Company (Mahagenco) (Germany targets India solar 2012, p. 50). Sakri Solar Plant is the largest in the world and the total project covers an area of around 350 hectares of idle land that is In terms of infrastructure, as stated before, unsuitable for agriculture (Project Information Melbourne doesn’t have a solar plant for the Solar Energy - India 2016). purpose of providing power to customers. Instead it has many different private corporations that sell

solar power systems that can be installed to Comparison and Analysis Melbourne’s range of weather conditions is what provide power to households. Aiding in the push makes it so interesting. It has a mixture of both for cleaner solar energy, is the Government’s aid, hot and cold weather patterns. While primarily through the use of solar rebates (Clean Energy Regulator 2017). These are certificates that can split into the relevant seasons, Melbourne is notorious for having anomalies in terms of be obtained through registered agents, allowing weather. During summer, temperatures are the consumer to claim a discount for the cost of averaged to 45-26 degrees Celsius, while during the solar system. These certificates is basically a winter, it ranges between 24-4 degrees Celsius. commodity that can be used for trade, with the amount of electricity that is generated by the This means that the longest duration of sunshine would be located towards the late end and early system determines the amount of certificates

assigned to the consumer (Apricus Australia 2014). Through the Victorian Government’s push for solar power systems in Victorian households, this has created multiple jobs, not just in the government sectors that follow up on the rebate, but jobs such as the installers for the systems, as well as the different private companies that offer different packages. Sakri Max, Min, Average Temperature (World India’s Energy plan for 2022 is pushing hard for Weather Online 2018) Solar Energy due to the reduced prices. In India, distribution companies cannot back down purchase of power from renewable energy projects and the draft national tariff policy proposes mandatory renewable purchase obligation on states (Saluja 2018). Maharashtra Electricity Regulatory Commission (MERC) has fixed the rate of solar energy at Rs 17.91 per MW, but for this project, the rate would be Rs 12 per MW (Agencies 2011). The Government of Sakri Rainfall and Rain Days (World Weather Maharashtra only has 20% equity in the Dhule Online 2018) solar project since most of the project will be Comparisons funded by German Government in the form of concessional financing by KfW, one of the biggest German financial companies (Solar Photovoltaic Plant Sakri 2011). As part of the project new jobs and road infrastructure were created as well as electric distribution system for the new power plant. Sakri’s weather is characterized for having a very warm weather with temperatures ranging from 42-21 degrees Celsius, which makes it one of the regions with most sun throughout the year, even when Monsoon season comes from July to September each year as show on the graphs below:

Heat Loss Charts

Melbourne (Using Single glaze) Sakri (Using double Glazed)

Melbourne (Using Vinyl double glazed) In sakri the heat loss followed almost the same pattern for heat loss with double glazed windows reducing the heat loss to almost double. For instance in the month of December the heat loss fell from 442.815 to 245.655 after installing double glazed windows. Again the negative values define heat gain. Melbourne Single and double glaze comparison for heat loss

From The graph above it is observed that there is a drastic change in heat loss by switching from single glazed to double glazed. In July the heat loss was almost cut down to half by using double glazed windows. It fell from 793.725 to 440.325. The negative values shows heat gain. Sakri (Using Single glazed)

Sakri Single and double glaze comparison for heat loss

Conclusions The study conducted has proved that by using renewable sources such as solar energy or wind energy we can continue the advancement of our

era while still conserving the environment for our Weather Online, viewed 20 September upcoming generations. By considering the 2018, importance of solar power together with any for household use. While crucial supply of energy 5. ‘Rainfall and Rain Days’’ [graph], 2018, Sakri Monthly Climate Average, World these days depends on fossil fuels, it cannot be Weather Online, viewed 20 September denied that this era should come back to associate 2018, finish soon. Putting aside the immense energy is enough for us to begin searching for 6. Agencies 2011, ‘World's largest solar alternatives. Based on the calculations above we project to come up in Dhule, can conclude that using Vinyl framed double Maharashtra’, The Indian Express, 20 glazed windows is a better option rather than May, viewed 20 September 2018, using single glazed windows because of its ability With the advancement of technology we should 7. Census 2011, Sakri Population Census now focus on replacing all our non-renewable 2011, Population Census 2011, viewed sources to their identical counterpart renewable 20 September 2018 sources to help our planet and ourselves. http://www.census2011.co.in/data/town/ 526464-sakri-maharashtra.html Acknowledgements 8. ‘Solar Photovoltaic Plant Sakri’ 2011, We would like to thank the teaching team of German Missions in India, MEE40001 –Thermodynamics 2 at Swinburne teaching to help us comprehend the concept of 9. ‘Project Information Solar Energy - solar energy and other renewable sources to India’ 2016, Federal Ministry for produce energy. Economic Corporation and References Development, viewed 20 September 1. Palmer, G 2014, Energy in Australia 2018, News, Vol. 33, No. 1, p. 4-5. 10. Australia Renewable Energy Agency, https://arena.gov.au/about/what-is- 3. ‘Germany targets India solar’ 2012, renewable-energy/ [Accessed 28 09 Renewable Energy Focus, January- 2018]. February 2012, p. 50 11. Hirshman, W. P., Hering, G. & Schmela, 4. ‘Sakri Max, Min and Average M., 2008. Cell and Module Production Temperature’ [graph], 2018, Sakri 2007. Photon International, p. 152. Monthly Climate Average, World

12. Tiwari, G. N. & Dubey, S., 2010. 17. Australian Government Clean Energy Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Modules Regulator 2017, Claiming small-scale and their Applications. 1st Ed. New technology certificates, viewed 11 Delhi: Royal Society of Chemistry. October 2018, 13. Household Income and Wealth, Australia 16~Main%20Features~Case%20Study% 18. Solar Victoria 2018, Solar Panel Rebate, 20- viewed 11 October 2018, %20Slow%20Growth%20in%20Solar% es~14> 19. Weatherzone 2018, Melbourne Climate, 14. Safi, M 2018, ‘India's huge solar viewed 2 October 2018, ambitions could push coal further into 12 October 2018 20. Solar Technology International 2018, 2018, 15. Saluja, N 2018, ‘Renewable energy Times, June 5, viewed 12 October 2018, 21. Solar Accreditation 2014, How solar PV singh/articleshow/64461995.cms> 22. Holiday Weather 2018, Melbourne, 16. Consumer Affairs Victoria 2018, Solar Australia: Annual Weather Averages, Energy, viewed 26 September 2018, viewed 11 October 2018, services/solar-energy>

Appendix A: Calculations For comparison functions, we have a tendency to calculate the heat loss experienced by a residential building from every location mentioned above. We have a tendency to assume that heat is especially lost through single-glazed windows of 15m2 and alternative kind of heat loss area unit is negligible. Many alternative assumptions also are made: Heat loss through the window is in one-dimensional, steady state heat transfer occurs in the least time, and finally, constant and uniform thermal conduction and heat transfer constant throughout the heat transfer. Since uniform thermal conduction and heat transfer constant were assumed in which case U will be uniform throughout our calculations. U issue is outlined because the rate of warmth loss through a unit surface of space of a window per unit temperature distinction between the inside and outdoors so heat loss of the house can be expressed as:

Ql = UA (Ti – To) ● Here U represents the overall transfer constant. ● Ti and To represents the inside and outside temperature of the environment respectively. ● A defines the total area of the window. ● The U factor value of a 3mm thick single glazed glass window is 5.57 W/m2 .°C and for vinyl frame double glazed window the U factor turns out to be 3.09 W/m2 .°C. (Table 9-6, p.573 (Cengel and Ghanjar)

Summary of Assumptions: ● Maintain 23°C inside the house with 15m² window area. ● Vinyl frame window. ● U factor for single glazed 5.57 and Double glazed 3.09 W/m²K. ● Electricity Cost is $0.095 in Australian Location. Sakri Single and Double Glaze

Melbourne Single and Double Glaze

Powering Remote Zones with Solar

Ayeshan Bandara, Kevin Semmens, Suvenan Pradeep Perera, Deep Sheth Swinburne University of Technology Keywords: Energy Consumption, Solar Power, PV panels, Pallai, Killnochchi, Miles, Queensland

electricity through the heat of the sun. Abstract For over 10 years, photovoltaics has been one of the quickest developing The purpose of this paper is to research ventures with development rates well and analyse the feasibility, capability and past 40% for each annum. This design a stand-alone solar power development is driven not just by the system to power a rural town in Australia advancement in materials and handling and Overseas. The towns that have innovation, yet by market presentation been chosen are Miles in the state of programs in numerous nations around Queensland, Australia and Pallai in the the globe and the expanded Killnochchi district in Sri Lanka. These unpredictability and mounting fossil areas both have a population of vitality costs. In spite of the negative approximately 1600 habitants and are effects of the financial emergency good candidates for a solar power which begun in 2008, photovoltaics is system due to their geographical as yet developing at an uncommon location and environment. pace. Introduction

The little segment of the sun's energy that achieves the earth in one year is roughly 10,000 times the energy utilization of mankind amid that equivalent period. Retained in the climate and on the surface of the earth, it is in charge of the temperature go that empowers our differing biological Figure 1: Worldwide PV production from 2000- 2010 (Source: Navigant Consulting, Photon communities to exist, and furthermore International, 2015). for a huge segment of the accessible inexhaustible and fossil vitality supplies. For the two locations selected for the Solar energy is a form of energy which is this research paper PV technology is produced by the heat and light of the sun the most suited as it is the most which uses photovoltaic cells to convert modern, efficient and mainly cost this energy to electricity or heat air, effective solar power generation water. As per the International Energy method available. The price of PV solar Agency, solar thermal power stations are panels have gradually dropped by more the least expensive alternative in MW- than a factor of 10 over the last 30 scale for creating power from direct years. sunlight based radiation monetarily and establish a column for the long haul overall power supplies. Use of photovoltaics is one of the most effective method of generating electricity among the other methods of generating

must travel, type of installation and the difficulty of installation. Most common solar electric systems range from 1 to 6 kW, but 3-6kW system being the most used today. The average consumption of an all-electric equipped household which include central air conditioners, electric space heaters, electric water heaters and electric stoves the monthly electric Figure 2: Price experience or learning curve for consumption would range from 2000- silicon PV modules. (Source: Solar Energy, 2013). 3000kwh per month. To satisfy this kind In figure 2 the straight line on this log-log of demand the solar electric installed plot represents a learning rate of 25% should be at least 10kW. In other and the actual data follow the supply and homes in which natural gas stoves and demand fluctuations. there are no electricity consumed for The Asia and Pacific Region water heating or space heating a much demonstrates an expanding pattern in smaller system would suit. The system photovoltaic power framework can be low as 3-4kW range as the establishments. There are various average electricity consumption would purposes behind this improvement, be around approximately 400-500kWh going from declining framework costs, per month. This system would be quite increased mindfulness, good similar to a system that would be used arrangements, and the supported in Pallai, Sri- Lanka as the power utilization of sun oriented control for consumption is in that range or lower in country charge ventures. Nations for most occasions. example, Australia, China, India, To design a completely stand-alone Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, South power system for the two locations the Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, The Philippines highest consumption must be and Vietnam demonstrate an considered. This value should be the exceptionally positive upward slant, highest value regardless of the time of because of expanding administrative the year. responsibility at the advancement of sun There are 3 types of solar electric powered vitality and the creation of systems: (1) grid connected, (2) grid sustainable cities. connected with battery back-up and (3) off grid. The first system can be used to Method power a households’ some or all of the To determine on the size, complexity of electrical consumption. Since it is grip the solar power system, the electrical connected any excess electricity are demand of the two locations should be given back to grid running the meter in considered. There are also some other reverse. The second system is the important factors that need to be same but has a battery back in case the considered. The distance the installer main grip goes down. The last system is not connected to any utility grid and

completely autonomous. The system will 9am to 3pm. This portion is where the also have a backup battery system to radiation of sun is 80% of its daily provide electricity at night and on cloudy radiation dependent on the season. days. The most easily calculated solar When considering a system with a electric system to size is the grid battery, the size of the battery must be connected system. cautiously calculated. Most battery packs give 3-5 days of electricity for a system depending on the size of the ( ) battery chosen. = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ Location in Australia – Miles, QLD 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 Miles is a small town that is located on the Western Region of Queensland (QLD). It is 339 km North West of Brisbane via the Warrego Highway. In the 2011 Census, Miles had 1854 residents and 831 private residences. It has maximum mean temperature of 33.1°C during the month of January. In Figure 3: Grid Connected Solar Electric System the month of July, it has a minimum (Source: Chiras, 2010) mean temperature of 3.7 °C. In 2016, This calculation provides the result of the population was 1746. Which consist system for 100% efficiency which in of 402 families. Median monthly reality is impossible as there no PV household income is $4949.00 ($1140 system that can be 100% efficient. The weekly). Main income around the area common losses for a PV system is from based on technical related professions. 22-25% which is due to many factors like Australia has 8 climate zones from hot voltage drop because of the resistance humid summer to hot dry summer, generated in wires, dust or other external warm temperature to cool temperature substances on the solar panel and and in the end alpine. Each climate inadequacies other components in the zone has different geographic features system. Shade is also a major factor for such as wind patterns and height above the performance of the solar system. The sea level. Climate change will have a efficiency of the system can go down by considerable impact in the northern part 25% due shade. Site assessors use of Australia such as increase in various tools and devices along with temperature, rainfall will be intense and geographical data to determine the tropical cyclones will grow. In 2030, the location and the elevation angle of the annual average temperature will rise up solar panels. to 0.5 to 1.3 Celsius. In 2090, the For the best performance of a PV system warming temperature will go up to 4.9 the solar panel array should be Celsius. unshaded for at least three hours on either side of the solar noon which is from

Location in Sri Lanka – Pallai, Killinochchi

In 2016, the population of Pachchilaipalli area was 12637. This is equal to 3914 families. When considering the small town Pallai, estimated number of families live in this area is 510 with a population of 1200. Generally whole Kilinochchi area is a dry land when compared to the Figure 4 Electricity Accessibility/Distribution of Sri whole country. Main income for most Lanka (Source: Ministry Of Power and Renewable families, is from agriculture through Energy Performance Report, 2017) paddy fields. The demography, also the Government Policies of Australia economic background were vastly affected by lengthy civil war & the The Queensland Government had tsunami in 2004. After the resettlement implemented a Renewable Energy Plan upon the end of civil war; has reduced the (2009) in not only to achieve the proportion of agricultural based income national greenhouse gas emissions but still remains the highest. 2016 target (60% below 2000 levels by statistics shows the mean monthly 2050), but also to increase renewable household income in this area is Rs.31, energy infrastructure in Queensland. 576 (equal to $257.00 in 0.0081Rs./$ Comparison between two locations rate).

Sri Lanka has three main climate zones Geographically, both locations are not – Dry, Intermediate and Wet zone. far away from equator, also when Killinochchi is located in the northern comparing country profiles, they both region of Sri Lanka in the dry zone. It mapped with relatively high irradiance mainly has two seasons – dry and wet throughout the year. Which means they seasons. Most of the time of the year it both have high potential of solar energy has dry season that mostly occurs production. between February to September. The Although these two locations have very wet season takes place between October similar population; the energy to January. requirements vary to a higher degree. Government Policies of Sri Lanka The energy expectation & utilisation seems to be proportional to the

economy in these two locations. For Currently, energy throughout Sri Lanka is e.g.; a microwave oven is an essential heavily reliant on coal and petroleum. domestic consumer in Australia, but Sri .Currently 95% of Kilinochchi has Lankan economic background Electricity access, and so that small substitutes or avoids this necessity. percentage that does not would benefit from the expansion greatly. Theoretical Calculations

In this section, a common need of a 2000 house hold, which is cooling when you Engery are living a very hot environment. The 1000 (W) calculation was done which is shown in the appendix part of this research paper 0 f… s… a… Double Glazed Singlea… Glazed n… d… m… m…

for the power requirement to keep a jul jan oct jun 0 house hold at a constant 23 C. This was Figure 6: Monthly heat gained to a house through a done for houses with double glazed and single window in Miles. single glazed windows. Assuming that Similarly after analysing the data from 2 the window area is 15m and the U-factor Pallai Killinochi, we found that the for the windows taken from table 9-6 results are quite similar. page 571(Çengel, Ghajar, and Cengel, 40 2014). 30 20 • Window area 15m2 10 • U factor is 3.2 W/m2∙K (doubled glazed) 0

• U factor is 5.57 W/m2∙K (single glazed) Jul Jan Jun Oct Apr Feb Sep Dec Aug Nov Mar May Temperature (Celcius) Temperature = ( ) (1) Mean max Mean Min Req Temp This rate of heat gained by the windows 𝑄𝑄̇𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑈𝑈𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜 Figure 7: Monthly weather forecast of Pallai was calculated using the formula (1). The against required household temperature. outdoor temperature was found from the yearly weather forecast of the selected According to the figure 9, the regions. temperature in pallia does not go below 23OC. Therefore having proper heat loss management is quite important. According the figure 10 shown below. It clearly depicts the difference in heat loss due glazing in windows. There is 57.4% loss in heat for the temperatures in that environment. Accordingly the savings Figure 5: Monthly weather forecast of Miles against per month is $26.81 which turns out to household temperature be $321.67 saving per year. According to figure 7, it can be assumed (Appendix-2) that only cooling is essential since the 1000 0 mean temperature is mostly above 23 C. 500 . From figure 8, using double glaze windows reduces the rate of heat gain (W) Energy 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 through the windows by 57.4%. Accordingly the savings per month is Single glazed Double Glazed

$24.55 which turns out to be $249.6 saving per year. (Appendix-2) Figure 8: Monthly heat gained to a house through a single window in Pallai.

Proposed Size of the Solar Power Cost of the System and Payback System The proposed size for a solar PV system in From this study it was known, that the socio- Miles is 6 kW. After researching about the economic background of two countries cost, usage and rates for our system the demand different power requirements per following results were gathered. The household. Also, the geological location average installation price for a 6 kW Solar prompts the different capabilities of power PV module is $7914 in Miles, Queensland. generation. These two conditions have been The area for the panel that is required will 2 matched in power calculations to propose the be around 40 m . Each panel will produce size of the solar system. To provide 300 W. So, the total amount of panels that uninterrupted power throughout the year, Miles will need 6kW & Pallai will need 3kW rooftop solar systems per household. Refer appendix for calculation details. According to the calculations; the proposed sizes have Table 1: Cost of System Installation (Australia) been vastly increased to maximize the energy harvesting & minimizing the payback period. are required for 6 kW are 20 panels. The single glazed & double pane window

comparison; also provide possible optimisations to the system, that can either be The average annual electricity bill in used for a smaller scale system to reduce the Queensland is $1686.88.Cost of electricity capital or more upper scale system to reduce per kWh is $0.240. The table below shows the payback period in Miles, Queensland. Payback Period- Miles 6 Years the payback & later earnings. After applying the formulae for determining the size of the solar system in Pallai (Sri Lanka), the answer that was obtained was 3 kW. The cost of 3 kW in Sri However, the physical application will Lanka is around $ 5215 AUD by using the require & depend with the roof space of each conversion rate of 0.008 AUD dollar to 1 Sri Lankan Rupee, this conversion is from house. Since remote Australian architecture th th is well stretched out with the landscape; there 9 of October to the 10 October 2018. The area of the panels will be similar to the would not be complications of installing 6kW 2 system. 6kW solar panel system requires 40 Australia, which is around 40 m . In total, sqr meters of roof space to install 24 panels. 12 panels are required in Pallai, Sri Lanka. If this target become challenging; the Cost of 3 kW Solar PV Module $ 5215 calculations also shows, that such home can downgrade the system to 5kW, which is still Watts produced by one panel 250 W capable of achieving the goal.5kW system No. of panels required ‘(3000/250)’ 12 Panels will require, 20 panels, which covers 32 sqr meters of roof space. When considering Sri- Table 2: Cost of System Installation (Sri Lanka) Lankan proposal, 3kW system is much lean & easy to accommodate in any small-scale Payback Period- Pallai 10 Years house. It is 12 panels & only requires 20 sqr Please refer to Appendix 3 for more meters of roof space. For this spacing study, detailed calculations and data. 1.6 x 1.0 sqr meters, standard panels have been taken in to account.

Conclusion and Recommendations g/av?p_stn_num=042023&p_prim_ele ment_index=0&p_comp_element_inde Through the research done in this project, it x=0&redraw=null&p_display_type=stat has been quite clear that solar power is the istics_summary&normals_years=1981- future. Pallai and Miles are very good 2010&tablesizebutt=normal> candidates for solar because of their irradiance levels as well as overall 6. Weather Zone 2018, ‘Miles Annual temperature and climate throughout the year. Temperatures And Rainfall’ [graph], The two remote areas will have their own Miles Climate, viewed 6 October 2018, power regardless of the main grid. Even http://www.weatherzone.com.au/climat though the initial investment is quite high as e/station.jsp?lt=site&lc=42023 the payback is quite considerate this project would be a feasible solution for both areas. 7. Ministry of Power and Renewable Energy 2017, Performance 2017 And Programmes for 2018, viewed 5 References October 2018, and Income Expenditure Survey, viewed 28 September 2018, 8. Clean Energy Council 2018, National 2018, Accounts 2016, viewed 28 September 2018, 9. Ministry of Power and Renewable Electricity Distribution, viewed 7 October 2018, 3. Australian Bureau Of Statistics 2016, energy begins’, Sunday Times Sri Lanka/PressReader.com, viewed 7 4. Bureau Of Meteorology 2018, ‘Global October 2018, Solar Exposure (MJ/m^2)’[image], Daily 11. Aussie Towns 2018, Miles, QLD, viewed 3 October 2018, 5. Bureau Of Meteorology 2018, Climate Monthly Climate Statistics, viewed 6 October 2018, 12. Solar Choice 2018, Solar power

eatures/141431/solar-power-electricity- sri-lanka> 13. Khmsolar 2018, Product Pricing, viewed 3 October 2018, 15. Chiras, D 2010, Solar Electricity Central, viewed 4 October, viewed 3 October 2018,

Appendix 1: Average Temperatures for Miles - Queensland and Sri Lanka

Appendix 1: Climate Statistics of Miles, Australia (Source: Weather Zone)

Appendix: Average Min and Max Temperature of Kilinochchi , Sri Lanka (Source:Weather and Climate)

Appendix 2: Theoretical Calculations

Appendix 3: Cost of System and Payback Tables and Figures

SAVINGS - Australia Cost of Electricity per kwh $0.24 Average production of electricity 20.2 kWh Cost of Electricity ($) $4.85 70 % of energy used Saving per day $3.40 Saving per year $1,238.66

Average feed-in credit rate per kwh $0.08 Average production of electricity 20.2 kWh

Energy sent back to the grid 30%

Earning with sending to grid $0.48

Total savings per day $3.88

Total savings per year $1,416.20

Payback Period 6 Years

SAVINGS – Sri Lanka Cost of Electricity per $0.07 kwh Average production of 13.7 kWh electricity Cost of Electricity ($) $0.96 70 % of energy used Saving per day $0.67 Saving per year $245.02 Average feed-in credit $0.18 rate per kwh Average production of 13.7 kWh electricity Energy sent back to the 30% grid

Earning with sending to $0.74 grid

Total savings per day $1.41

Total savings per year $514.65 Payback Period 10 Years 62

Hydroelectric Power And Solar Energy In Varying Remote Towns Sebastian Acosta, Yusuf Yusuf, Matthew Sanders, Craig Edwards Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Australia

Keywords:Sustainable energy, Renewable energy, Hydro-power, Solar power

kilometres North of Alice Springs. At the census in August 2016, Abstract Canteen Creek had a population of 181 [5]. The 190-kilometre This report gives an insight into the potential implementation journey to reach Canteen Creek is along a gravel/dirt road that is of sustainable energy in remote locations in both Nepal and subject to flooding [6]. This warrants Canteen Creek to be defined Australia. Canteen Creek near Tennant Creek in the Northern as a remote location within Australia. Territory was chosen for the location for the Australian site. It has a population of 181 people and one road leading to the town. Feasibility of constructing a solar plant in the town was investigated and the solar exposure and power usage of the town was analysed. Collected data across several years revealed that the average daily high temperature was 34.8°C and that Canteen Creek has an average daily solar exposure of over 6 kWh/m2. Using this information and making some assumptions, it was then possible to calculate the required size of the solar plant was 80 m2.

A town called Mirmi in Nepal was selected due to the Figure 1: Image of Canteen Creek geological differences it presented to Canteen Creek. It is located Canteen Creek has a long-term average high and low approximately 174 kilometers from Kathmandu and near the base temperature of 34.8°C and 21.7°C respectively [7]. The rainfall of the Himalayas. It is on the junction of two significant rivers of within the Canteen Creek region is classified as ‘Arid’ with ‘low Nepal that provides the power for a hydro power station nearby. rainfall’ [8]. This means the Canteen Creek region has little to no The weather of the region plays a significant role on the water rain and is too dry to produce vegetation [9]. The closest Australian flow, particularly during monsoon season, and like Canteen Bureau of Meteorology weather station to Canteen Creek is at Creek, accessibility is an issue. The main finding in Mirmi is that Epenarra, which is approximately 40 kilometres North-West of energy & cost saving is directly proportionate to the outside air Canteen Creek. The annual average for daily solar exposure for temperature. 2015, 2016 and 2017 are 6.1, 6.0 and 6.3 kWh/m2 respectively [10]. This theoretically makes Canteen Creek an optimal location to 1. Introduction produce solar energy. In recent years, the world is adapting to the implementation of However, producing a large-scale solar power plant in Canteen renewable energy due to the positive effects to the environment and Creek would create some obvious problems. As mentioned, the limited supply of non-renewable energy. In this report a Canteen Creek is a very remote location with a very small comparison will be established between producing solar power in population. Therefore, problems would exist, such as transporting the Australian outback and producing hydro-power in the the required resources to set up a large-scale solar power plant in mountains of Nepal for remote villages. Canteen Creek, along with the running and maintenance required for such a plant. Therefore, Canteen Creek isn’t an ideal location Renewable energy is obtained from natural processes such as for a large-scale solar power plant. However, one of solar power’s hydroelectricity, wind power, wave power, solar energy and benefits is a large-scale plant isn’t required to produce solar energy. geothermal energy that do not involve the consumption of exhaustible resources such as uranium and fossil fuels. However, For a town with a population of less than 200, a very small- it is estimated that only 8.4% of global electricity generation is scale power generation system could be introduced to power the obtained through renewable energy sources [1]. However, the small town. A small power generation plant could be used to power global renewable power generation estimation can range up to the whole town, or several individual sets of panels could be used 12.1% of the total power generation in 2017 [2]. Solar power is on each building. However, it could be difficult to get a technician produced by converting the energy generated from the heat and out to all the individual properties. Therefore, this proposal will light of the sun to electricity. recommend a single power station to ensure the operation and maintenance of the system is centralised. A larger system of cells Australia is suitable for solar power as it has the highest solar compared to panels on individual buildings would also allow the radiation per meters-squared of any continent. It is further angle of incidence to the cells be maintained constantly at estimated that over two million Australian homes have solar maximum due to the ability to rotate them. It is also recommended systems installed on their roof [3]. Meanwhile, Nepal has the that some of the town’s residents are properly trained to deal with opportunity and potential to significantly expand its hydropower any of the aforementioned maintenance issues related to the solar generation as it is estimated that 84,000 MW can be produced, power system due to the remoteness of the town and the time it however their current production is only 753 MW [4]. would take for a specialist to reach it.

3. Mirmi, syangja district, Nepal 2. canteen creek, Northern Territory, Located in the Western region of Nepal, Mirmi is a town Australia situated in the Syangja region. The distance from Mirmi to Canteen Creek, also known as Owairtilla is a remote town in Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal is approximately 174 Northern Territory, Australia, and located approximately 550 kilometres [11]. It has been difficult to find an approximate number for its population however the Western region of the Syangja 63

district is estimated to have a population of 324,855 people [12]. Figure 4: Average daily high and low temperatures for each month in Mirmi is a town of great significance since it is well-known for Mirmi being close to and ideally home for the Kali Gandaki, a Hydroelectric Power Station. 4. Solar power For a power station of this size, a number of photovoltaic cells is suggested. These cells produce electricity via a transfer of light photons to a semiconductor material that then releases electrons, producing an electric current. The semiconductor material is treated with other materials that are both positively charged and negatively charged, creating an electric field that is used in an electrical circuit [17]. Therefore, the more solar energy that the cell is subjected to, the greater the transfer of electrons and the more power produced.

Figure 2: Map of Mirmi’s surroundings Nepal’s topography provides steep mountainous regions with flowing rivers that showcase the potential future reliance on hydropower resources. With a population of 28.9 million people and 205 people living per square kilometre, only 40% of the population have access to electricity [13]. Nevertheless, 90% of the Figure 5 – A photovoltaic cell with sunlight hitting the cells causing an country’s electricity is generated by hydropower plants indicating electron transfer through a circuit. that hydropower is vital for the economic growth of Nepal with Benefits of this type of system compared to larger scale solar lower carbon generation. Estimations show that Nepal has plants include the ease of installation given the remoteness of the hydropower potential of 40000 MW while close to only 600 MW town, the lack of operation and maintenance required by skilled of hydropower has been developed. [14] [15]. Research into the technicians and it is simple to add more panels if required. It is nearby Kali Gandaki river shows that the average flow rate is 2000 however much harder to store energy provided by photovoltaic m3/s with a reservoir volume of 7.7 cubic metre. However, during 3 cells, although recent improvements in large scale battery major flood events (when the flowrate exceeds 2000 m /s) the technology has improved this. Canteen Creek has a very high solar power plant is taken out of operation and the gates are opened to exposure value all year round, especially during summer as shown pass the flood through the reservoir at maximum velocity [16]. in Figure 6.

Mean Daily Solar Exposure 8

Mean Daily Solure Solure Daily Mean 0 Exposure (kWh/m^2) Jul Jun Oct Apr Feb Sep Dec Jan Aug Nov Mar May

Figure 3: Energy Consumption in Nepal Figure 6: Average daily solar exposure for each month in Canteen Creek, Nepal is known for its summer monsoon and winter seasons. with a minimum in June and maximum in January Its warmer season stretches from April to July throughout the year. It is estimated that the average house in Canteen Creek has 3 Its colder season stretches from October to February. Nepal occupants, this would result in there being 60 houses in the town. experiences high levels of heavy rainfall during its summer The average power usage for a house in the Northern Territory uses monsoon season (roughly between June and September). Flash on average 9643 MWh per year (26.4 kWh per day) [18]. This flooding is a large factor to the reason why most off-the-river equates to Canteen Creek’s 60 houses requires 581,794 kWh per projects go out of operation momentarily. It’s essential that year [19]. Due to the intense heat during summer, the usage of efficient ways of harnessing that power is utilised. appliances like air conditioners are much higher with average maximum temperatures reaching 37.9°C in January. However, average low temperatures only average 7.4°C during winter, which results in increased heater usage [20]. Therefore, the seasonal breakdown of energy usage in the town can be seen in Figure 7.

kWh Summer Autumn Winter Spring Required Solar Cell Area Per day 28.5 27.4 22.5 27.3 Per year 2568 2517 2072 2486 80 Figure 7 – Seasonal breakdown of energy usage per household per year and day in kWh showing the minimum during winter and maximum during summer. 60

40 Therefore, the energy requirements for Canteen Creek can be (m^2) represented visually in Figure 8. 20

Mean Daily Energy Usage 0 Required Solar Solar Area Cell Required Jul Jun Oct Apr Feb Sep Dec Jan Aug Nov Mar 2000 May

Figure 9: Required area of solar cells at the plant for each month to power 1500 Canteen Creek. Analysing the graph, it becomes clear that despite lower 1000 electricity usage during winter months, the solar panel area is a (kWh) maximum during June with 75.04 m2. This is due to the lower solar 500 exposure during these cooler months. Therefore, allowing for some error percentage, it is recommended that 80 m2 of solar panel should be installed at the power plant to power the entire town of Mean Mean Daily energy usage 0 Canteen Creek. Jul Jun Oct Apr Feb Sep Dec Jan Aug Nov Mar May 5. Hydropower Figure 8 – Mean daily energy usage for a 3-person house in the Northern Territory over the course of a year, showing the minimum in July (winter) and The method of generating power or electricity through the maximum during January (summer). movement of water is referred to as hydropower. Channelled water falls through turbine blades that drive the generator through a shaft According to the Bureau of Meteorology, the weather station system. Motion is converted to electrical energy, hence located near Canteen creek at Epenarra annually has an average 2 hydropower. Hydropower is sustainable, advanced and when the daily solar exposure of 6.3 kWh/m . This obviously varies climate is suitable, it is a reliable source of power generation. depending on the time of the year, with a minimum in June of 4.6 2 2 Other sustainable sources of energy such as wind power is limited kwh/m and a maximum in November of 7.4 kwh/m . This can also by the amount of wind that is present that day, while solar power be seen graphically in Figure 6. Consequently, this means that the is also limited by the amount of solar exposure. The design of dams power generated by the power station will be at its lowest during provides a constant flow of energy from the water [23]. winter when the power consumption is lowest. This corresponding power supply and usage demand is another reason why solar is Hydro plants facilities can be categorized into three sizes: most suitable for Canteen Creek. Large (greater than 30 MW), small (between 100 kW and 30 MW) or micro (less 100 kW). In most cases there are also three main After the power requirements and solar exposure of the town types of hydropower, however this report will focus on are found, the size of the solar array can be determined by using impoundment which is the most common type of hydropower. the efficiency of the solar cells. A plant of this size could expect to Impoundment involves creating a large reservoir of water and be about 14% efficient [21]. Components that affect the efficiency passing the captured water through turbines in a generator [24]. In of the plant include the temperatures of the cells (as they work order to calculate the amount of energy a hydroelectric dam better at low temperatures), the amount of light reflected away generates it is required to know the distance the water falls and the from the cell, the internal efficiency of the cell including the quality quantity of flowing water. construction and materials used, and finally the angle of incidence, which in this case will always be 90˚ due to a motor turning the The following formula can be used; panels to face the sun [22]. Power = Height of dam x River flow x Efficiency Where is the required energy per month, is monthly solar exposure, is solar power plant efficiency and is the required Where, the power is the electric power, measured in kilowatts. area of the 𝐸𝐸solar panels 𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚 The height of dam is the distance the water falls measured in 𝜂𝜂 𝐴𝐴 meters. The river flow is the amount of water flowing in the river, = measured in meter-cubed per second. And finally, the efficiency is = 1450 = how well the turbine and generator convert the power of falling Therefore, for the month𝐸𝐸 of𝑄𝑄 June𝑚𝑚 ∗ 𝜂𝜂 where∗ 𝐴𝐴 , 138.0 / , = 0.14, the solar cell area required is: water into electric power. Usually this number is between 60-90% 𝑚𝑚 [25]. 2 𝐸𝐸 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ 𝑄𝑄 1450 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ℎ 𝑚𝑚= 𝜂𝜂 = = 75.05 138.0 0.14 𝐸𝐸 2 The results𝐴𝐴 per month can be visually displayed𝑚𝑚 in Figure 9, 𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚 ∗ 𝜂𝜂 ∗ showing the required solar cell area to power Canteen Creek.

Figure 10: Diagram demonstrating the method of impoundment hydropower. 65

6. Population of Canteen Creek is 181 7. The outside temperature is taken as the average for its 6. comparison and analysis of respective month Geographical aspects 8. Air space in double glaze window is 6.4 mm Canteen Creek is located in the Northern Territory known as 9. The cost of electricity for heating/cooling is the Barkly tablelands. It is accessible by plane or by car, although $0.095/kWh (AUD) both are remote and the only populated town in the area is Tennant 10. Negative heat loss is considered heat coming in the Creek with a population of about 3000 [26]. It is very hot during house the day time, in particular summertime and cold at night, with the variation in temperature providing challenges in design and 11. Positive heat loss is considered heat leaving the house accessibility. The tablelands themselves are very flat and dry, so 12. Heating/cooling will be used 24h per day many sustainable power sources such as hydro power are suitable 13. Savings per month (31 days in the average month) for the region.

However, Mirmi can be considered the complete opposite. It is Rate of heat transfer sample calculation: located near the base of the Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world. It gets very cold during the winter months, fairly = ( = 5.57 15(23 6) warm during summer, and rains consistently during its monsoon = 1420.35 season between June and September. The town is at the junction of 𝑄𝑄 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ∗ − two main rivers in Nepal which provide a constant flow of water Cost saving sample calculation:𝑊𝑊 all year round. The nearby town of Pokhara experiences solar 1. Convert W  kWh (per month) exposure of 5.44 kWh/m2 on average per day [27], far below that 2. Multiply this value by $0.095kW/h of Canteen Creek. = 526.14 Both are tough to access, but for different reasons. Canteen Creek is a very long drive on rough roads from any major city and => 391.4 / a flight in to Tenant Creek or Alice Springs still requires significant 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ( 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔) =𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤391.4 $0.095𝑊𝑊 road access. Mirmi has better roads leading to it but mountainous 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ = $37.188 terrain and possible flooding pose potential risks. 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘ℎ ∗

It is clear that because of the significantly different geological conditions of the towns, a common form of renewable energy would be impossible to implement. Despite such differences in A) Canteen creek: single vs double glazed conditions, both towns have similar accessibility issues that would require lots of planning, resources and money to construct and maintain renewable energy systems large enough to sustain them. Mirmi is the capital of hydro-electricity of Nepal as it is graciously blessed with the near perfect geographical conditions for this type of power generation to be utilised. This region also hosts a wide range of temperatures throughout the year. Mirmi can reach lows of just 2°C during the winter months but can also reach highs of 35°C during summer. This allows for the glaciers to provide vast amounts of water to flow through its rivers and therefore generate huge amounts of power through its hydroelectricity plant

To compare the two locations in an analytical manner, the Fig. 11: Maximum vs minimum temperatures in Canteen Creek following calculation was used to find the total rate of heat transfer: Canteen Creek experiences extreme temperatures all year round. With a maximum of Q (dot) is the total rate of heat transfer, U is overall heat transfer 42°C during summer and a low of 18°C during winter. coefficient and A is the area of the window. For the majority of the year, the temperature remains In order to calculate the heat loss for each location, an average is above 23°C which is why a fan or an air-conditioner taken for the corresponding month (taken from recorded maximum has to be used in the house. and minimum temperatures). Once a graph is established with the temperatures, the heat loss can be carried out for the single glaze, and the double glazed window. Keeping in mind that the temperature differences at each scenario is the same, the only thing that changes is the U factor for single & double glaze. The following assumptions also had to be made for the heat loss equation to stay consistent. Assumptions: 1. House to be maintained at 23°C 2. Total window area in the house is 15 m2 3. U-factor value = 5.57 W/m2K (single glaze) 4. U-factor value = 3.2 W/m2K (double glaze) 5. Population of Mirmi is 205 Fig.12: Heat loss per house in Canteen Creek 66

However, this is all relative when comparing single vs The Heat loss can be observed to be all in the double glazed windows. E.g. the more energy you negative section of the graph, meaning that the use, the more money you save and vice versa. direction of the heat loss is coming into the house. This validates the choice of a cooling appliance to be the main choice during the year in Canteen Creek.

B) Canteen creek: single vs double glazed

Fig.15: Savings of Canteen Creek vs Mirmi

Summer in Canteen Creek is between November and Fig 13: Maximum vs minimum temperatures Mirmi March, whereas summer in Mirmi is between the

months of June and September. This is interesting Mirmi hosts a wide range of temperatures throughout because Canteen creek makes the majority of its the year. As low as just 2°C during the winter months savings during summer, whereas Mirmi makes most and can also reach as high as 35°C during summer. its savings during winter. A correlation can be The temperatures aren’t as high as Canteen Creek, established that as the outside air temperature is however here they do fall well below 23°C. The hot further away from 23°C (both above and below), a summer months are few, and the months where the higher energy & cost saving can be made. However, temperature falls below 23°C are greater. This at the same time you are also paying for more requires an appliance that does both heating and electricity. In conclusion, the money saved is all cooling for added versatility. directly proportionate to how far the outside

temperature is from inside house temperature (23°C).

Comparison of Average Daily Temperatures for Each Month Between Canteen Creek And Mirmi 50 C ° 40 Fig 14. Table showing energy & money saved in Canteen Creek & Mirmi The total money saved for Canteen Creek is $285.1, 30 and the total money saved for Mirmi is $241.4. The 20 main contributing input for this factor is the outside 10 Temperature temperature. Because Canteen Creek has such 0 extreme temperatures, complying with our assumptions, the cooling appliance has to be turned Mirmi Canteen Creek on 24h/ day. Because the temperatures in Mirmi are more temperate and closer to 23°C, the appliances Figure 16: Comparison of daily high temperature for each month between don’t have to use as much power to maintain the Canteen Creek and Mirmi constant house temperature.

7. [9] Oxford University Press 2018, arid, Oxford University Press, viewed 4 Conclusion & recommendations October 2018, . Extensive research was undertaken on the viability of powering [10] Commonwealth of Australia, Bureau of Meteorology 2018, Monthly mean Canteen Creek in the Northern Territory and Mirmi in Western daily global solar exposure, Commonwealth of Australia, Bureau of Nepal with solar power and hydropower respectively. It was found Meteorology, viewed 4 October 2018, that the average temperate in Canteen Creek was 34.8°C and . calculated that Canteen Creek requires 581,794 kWh per year to [11] AM. 2018. Mirmi, Nepal - Facts and information on Mirmi - power the town. By studying photovoltaic cells, it was calculated Nepal.Places-in-the-world.com. [ONLINE] Available at: that a solar plant that covers 80m2 would theoretically be capable http://nepal.places-in-the-world.com/8002166-place-mirmi.html. [Accessed 07 October 2018]. of powering Canteen Creek all-year round. However, the [12] AM. 2018. Syangja in Gandaki Zone in Western Region in Nepal - practicality of this concept would also need to be considered. As Information on Syangja - Nepal.Places-in-the-world.com. [ONLINE] Canteen Creek is extremely remote and the residents aren’t Available at: http://nepal.places-in-the-world.com/1282734-region2- considered highly skilled, there would be high costs associated syangja.html. [Accessed 07 October 2018]. with installing the power plant along with maintaining and running [13] Hydropower in Nepal. 2018. Hydropower in Nepal. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.ippan.org.np/HPinNepal.html. [Accessed 07 October 2018]. the plant. [14] AM. 2018. Places in Nepal - find information on all places in Nepal - Nepal.Places-in-the-world.com. [ONLINE] Available at: Mirmi was also considered and it was found that it has a range http://nepal.places-in-the-world.com/. [Accessed 07 October 2018]. of different temperatures annually and requires appliances that can [15] Nepal Hydropower Development Program | Fact Sheet | Nepal | U.S. do both heating and cooling. Agency for International Development. 2018. Nepal Hydropower Development Program | Fact Sheet | Nepal | U.S. Agency for Therefore, in conclusion it was found that Canteen Creek could International Development. [ONLINE] Available at: theoretically be completely powered by a 80m2 photovoltaic cells https://www.usaid.gov/nepal/fact-sheets/nepal-hydropower-development- solar plant all-year round. However the practicality would also program. [Accessed 07 October 2018]. have to be considered, such as the high installation costs of the [16] Nepal - Kali Gandaki | International Hydropower Association. 2018. Nepal - Kali Gandaki | International Hydropower Association. [ONLINE] plant as well as the potential training of residents to maintain the Available at: https://www.hydropower.org/case-studies/nepal-kali-gandaki. plant in an optimal condition. [Accessed 07 October 2018]. [17] NASA, How do Photovoltaics Work. Viewed 7 October 2018, . 7. Acknowledgements [18] Australian Government, Australian Energy Regulator, Understand and compare your home energy usage, viewed 7 October 2018, Acknowledgements to all the MEE40001-Thermodynamics 2 teaching staff. The team would like to explicitly thank the subject’s convenor and tutor Dr. Durul Huda for inspiring the research [19] World Data, Energy consumption in Australia, Viewed 7 October 2018, throughout the semester into the potential of introducing . sustainable energy to power rural villages in Australia and Nepal. [20] Commonwealth of Australia, Bureau of Meteorology 2018, Monthly mean The efforts from the other teaching staff of Professor Akbar maximum temperature, Commonwealth of Australia, Bureau of Rhamdhani, Dr. Reiza Mukhlis and Dr. Hasnat Jamil along with all Meteorology, viewed 4 October 2018, . [21] Kirpichnikova, I. M., Maliugina, A. A., 2016. The Energy Efficnecy of Photovoltaic Power Plants. 2016 2nd International Conference on Industrial Engineering, Applications and Manufacturing (ICIEAM). 8. References . [1] BP Global 2018, Renewable energy, BP Globalm viewed 4 October [22] Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Solar Performance and 2018, . efficiency>. [2] Kilvert, N 2018, New renewable energy capacity double fossil fuel growth in [23] Lost Earth Adventures. 2018. Nepal Weather - Climate Chart - Travel record breaking 2017: UN report, ABC News, viewed 4 October 2018, Advice - Country Info. [ONLINE] Available at: . October 2018]. [3] Australian Renewable Energy Agency n.d., Solar energy, Australian [24] Chambers, A. (2004). Hydroelectric. In Renewable Energy in Renewable Energy Agency, viewed 4 October 2018, Nontechnical Language (pp. 147–171). Tulsa, Oklahoma: Pennwell . Corporation. [25] How Hydropower Works. 2018. How Hydropower Works. [ONLINE] [4] International Hydropower Association 2017, Nepal, International Available at: http://www.wvic.com/content/how_hydropower_works.cfm. Hydropower Association, viewed 4 October 2018, [Accessed 07 October 2018]. . [26] Centre for the Government of Queensland, Barkly Tableland. Viewed 11 [5] City Population 2017, Canteen Creek (Northern Territory), City Population, October 2018, . viewed 4 October 2018, . [27] Pondyal, K.N., Bhattarai, B. K., Sapkota, B., 2011. Solar Radiation Potential at Four Sites of Nepal. Journal of the Intitue of Engineering. Viewed 11 [6] Remote Recruitment 2018, Canteen Creek, Remote Recruitment, viewed 4 October 2018, https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/JIE/article/view/5944 October 2018 . [7] Meat and Livestock Australia 2016, Climate History, Meat and Livestock Australia, viewed 4 October 2018, . [8] Northern Territory Government of Australia 2017, Population and water data NT remote communities, Northern Territory Government of Australia viewed 4 October 2018, . 68

Appendix:

Application of Renewable Energy Supply in Remote Australia and Malaysia

Jake Minogue, Calvin Soon Chee Yung, Goh Jie Ren Swinburne University Of Technology, Australia

Keywords: Flinders island, Kudat, Tidal energy, Wind energy

of the cheapest and reliable source that is Abstract available easily. A total of 258057 gigawatt Lack of electricity and energy poverty in rural hours of electricity was generated in Australia in areas aggravate the poverty of developing 2016 out of which 63 percent was from coal countries such as Malaysia & Australia. which shows that it is important to reduce Australia's vast coastline features countless Australian dependency on coal by utilizing other islands varying greatly in size and remoteness, renewable sources that are available in this makes energy supply to these small Australia. [11] In this report, we are using both communities a significant challenge. Flinders tidal energy for Malaysia and wind energy for Island is an island off the north coast of Australia as alternate source for electricity Tasmania, in Bass Strait. Energy has always generation. been provided to the island via diesel generators. This makes the community very Introduction reliant on weekly fuel deliveries that can be Australia is a great region for harvest wind unreliable in poor weather and is sensitive to energy as its source of energy. For the area at fuel availability and prices. Integration of Flinders Island is able to generate one of the renewable energy into Flinders Island would be highest wind-speed among other rural area. a great step forward for the community and Figure below displays the potential of wind would ensure the future of the island. In energy as renewable energy source in Malaysia, only 7.3% of the whole population of Australia. Malaysia lives in Sabah, most of them are settled in rural areas which placed on around For this project, we have selected Flinders coast of the state. Kudat is the place we taken Island where it is 54 km away from Tasmania. in concern for the proposal which is placed This island is stated with the amount of 300 between upper north-region from Kota people living in the main settlement. This island Kinabalu. Renewable energy sources are has an average wind-speed of 21-25 km/h considered as the best alternative electricity which able to provide at least 25% of the main supply and able to reduce energy poverty of island’s electricity generated. Meanwhile, Kudat rural areas where power grid extension through is a rural region at the tip of Borneo which is difficult regions, terrains near shores or in coasting with sea with decent wave cycle. This jungle or forest which is impossible to access gives tidal energy to be the source of the efficiently and economic. In this study and renewable energy for this region. report, the potential for applying renewable sources – tidal energy and wind energy – for Therefore, the mobility and easy-access of tidal remote and rural electrification is investigated, energy generator has become the first choice mainly targeted on the poverty and rural areas as a renewable energy source at this region. near the north coast area in Kudat. In this research, the study understands the total power Description supply needed to generate the rural area Flinders Island, Australia houses and Malaysian policies of rural Flinders Island is a Remote island, situated in electrification by applying tidal renewable Bass Strait, 54 km north of the tip of Tasmania energy sources are interpreted and explained. and 151 km southeast of the tip Wilson’s The main electricity production source in promontory in Victoria. The 2016 census states Australia is through coal. [11] Around 73% of the population of Whitemark, Flinders Islands the electricity is generated from coal as it is one main settlement, to be 300 people living in

approximately 192 residences [1], however, for The islands average annual rainfall is around simplification and even comparison with Kudat 750mm. this rain makes its way off the islands Malaysia, the number of residences will be central granite mountain range via a network of taken as 100. small creeks and tributaries, where it then spills into Bass Strait. Currently, Base load power is supplied to Flinders Island via Diesel Electric generators. This means that the community is completely reliant on fuel delivery from the mainland, and energy prices are depended on the price of diesel.

Australians are currently using over 9,000 kWh per year per capita. This is very high for a developed Nation, when compared to the 5,400 kWh per year per capita that Europeans are using. Currently well over 70% of Australia’s energy supply is by means of fossil fuels, compared to just 50% in Europe [3]. Figure 1: Map of Flinders Island Kudat, Malaysia. Given Flinders Islands low latitude on the Kudat is located at the tip of Borneo, which is planet, average temperatures are very low, with 190 km north from Kota Kinabalu. It is the state temperatures rarely breaking into the 20’s. capital of the northernmost point of Borneo as maximum temperatures in summer are usually well. average around 22 degrees, while lows in winter average around 6 degrees [2].

Figure 3: Map of Kudat

Figure 2: Temperature Profile, Flinders Island The average temperature for Kudat is around 26 - 28 degrees which is quite warm comparing Average annual wind speeds on the island with Flinders Island as Kudat is located close to are 21-25 km/h. This significant average wind the earth’s equator. [7] speed is due to its position in an area known as the Roaring Forties, a zone between latitudes of 40 and 50 degrees. This zone is known for its impressive wind currents due to the absence of land masses to interrupt air flow, a trait well known by sailors of the last few hundred centuries.

The area is at low risk to natural disaster events such as cyclones and earthquakes, making tall wind turbines a viable option for the island. Figure 4: Temperature Profile, Kudat

The average annual wind speeds is 10 - 12.3 June to August, with temperatures in excess of km/h. The usual windier part only last for 3.7 23 degrees uncommon and short lasting months while the rest of the months are throughout the year. Kudat however, lies just experiencing more calmer wind. Winds are above the equator and experiences average blown from the west for 4.6 months then temperatures well above 23 degrees all year proceed to change in opposite direction for 7.4 round. This means that most energy is used to months [7]. This area has a sea elevation of at run air conditioners to cool living spaces. most 2m tall. Sabah is greatly known by the name of Land below the wind, because it has a Flinders Islands peak energy requirements very low risk of having natural disaster such as during the coldest times of the year are around earthquakes, drought and also typhoon. 110kW. To allow for some growth in population, Therefore, this area makes a decent spot for as well as growth in the energy usage of the tidal wave generators. community, a 250-300 kW system would best suit. This would provide ample heating and Currently, Kudat is still relying non-renewable cooling energy and provide some surplus at energy to generate electricity, due to times that could be put into battery storage, or government restrictions on the renewable sold to neighboring small islands to generate energy impacts that will affect on the wildlife revenue and help pay off a renewable system. environment. Kudat is known a tourist spot due to the flora and fauna found at this area is rare, easily disrupted and changes effectively with the environment. Even so, it has been told that Kudat has become a potential area for various renewable energy source.

Analysis Energy Requirements For this paper the energy used at each location is assumed to be only energy required for Figure 5: Heat loss, Flinders Island heating and cooling of the homes within the community. It is also assumed that each house The technology for sustainable energy primarily through 15 square meters of single development can be considered an efficient glazed, wood framed double door type application in order to reduce energy poverty windows. Heat transfer to and from the house, whenever they are conducted based on an and thus the energy required to maintain the appropriate national policy. Nevertheless, interior temperature (assuming 100% power grid extension through difficult regions conversion of electrical energy into thermal such as, terrains near the beach or in the thick energy for simplification) can be calculated jungle is not economic and feasible. Due to using the widow heat transfer equation: huge cost amount of associated transmission loss and distribution, grid power supply in Q = U As (Tindoors– Toutdoors) Where Q is the rate of heat transfer, U is the remote areas are not economically possible. heat transfer coefficient (determined by the More than half of the household in the remote window type), as is the surface area of the area of Kudat are not supplied with a 24 hour of windows and the two Temperatures are the guaranteed electrical energy. However, the off- temperatures indoors and outdoors. grid electricity, which we focus on renewable The two locations considered both have very tidal energy technology helps providing a new different climates, and thus, very different opportunity to expand the capacity of rural energy requirements. Flinders Island, being electrification and provides great advantages very low in latitude, has a colder average for the community as a cost-effective strategy climate than Kudat. The residences there and reliable source of energy that is predominantly require energy to heat their sustainable. Moreover, the installation of tidal homes, especially in the winter months from energy sources, technical and social issues

should be considered to avoid any project disintegration and failures. Energy Selection Flinders Island Many forms of renewable energy could be As these remote places are still having issues applied to the community on Flinders Island, with shortage of electricity supply. The ocean however some are far more appropriate than surrounding the countries able to provide others. plentiful source of renewable electrical energy Given the high mountain range through the to rural areas. Tides are long-period waves that centre of Flinders Island, significant pressure result in the cyclical rise and fall of the ocean's head for a hydroelectric system could be surface together with horizontal currents. Tidal possible. Unfortunately the island receives only energy, is a form of hydropower that converts moderate rainfall, and lacks a large, high the energy of the tides movement into altitude catchment area with river that has electricity. The benefits of tidal energy have reliable flow. This renders a hydroelectric over other renewable energy sources is that it system inappropriate. has relatively greater predictability regular With Australia's position on the centre of a large cycles and availability yet are largely unaffected tectonic plate, the country and its islands and by the weather condition. At coastal area, it is territories enjoy high geological stability, this estimated that tidal energy could generate makes sinking an effective geothermal plant in electricity at 1 Terawatt per week, the the area economically and physically difficult equivalent of the current installed capacity of all [4]. hydropower dams in the world. Biomass energy is also unsuitable, very little activities (Agriculture, forestry) that produce biomass materials are carried out on the island, leaving limited plant matter to supply energy production. Finally wind power. The Island receives predictable and significant winds due to its position in an area known as the Roaring forties. This makes a medium size wind turbine the perfect choice this community.

Energy Selection Kudat Figure 6: Sources of electricity generated in Tidal energy is generated by using barrages Malaysia much like a dam, only that it is much bigger in size but also lighter. The flow can either be used According to Figure 6: energy sources in to turn turbines or it could be used to push fluid Malaysia are supplied with only five main which generates the turbine. Tides contain both sources – natural gas, coal, oil, hydro and solar potential energy, related to the vertical PV. This shows that Malaysia are still mostly fluctuations in sea level, and kinetic energy, relying on non-renewable energy sources that depending on the horizontal motion of the water are not sustainable [8]. Coal with about 26k column. Turbines can be located individually or GWh has the highest contribution in electricity in an open fence configuration therefore it does production and the highest contribution in air not restrict the flow of water, which reduces the pollution. Despite being properly equipped with environmental impact. The benefits of tidal sustainable energy sources, the capacity, energy have over other renewable energy especially for the solar and biomass energy sources is that it has relatively greater which is underutilized. Malaysia has an predictability regular cycles and availability yet abundant sustainable resource to replace non- are largely unaffected by the weather condition. renewable energy such as coal and has Tides can be predictable over all time-frames, extensive potential for using tidal renewable and waves have a forecast horizon up to three sources in rural area and those places that are times more than wind. However, due to tidal not connected to the national grid. cycles and turbine efficiency, a conventional

tidal barrage is producing only 25% of the A site nestled in the gap of the mountain range capacity it would have if it was running above the main settlement of Whitemark is continuously. This lead to a relatively high cost most appropriate. This gives the turbine direct of infrastructure in comparison with electricity wind coming from the west, but also the ability produced for household in rural areas. But in turn into winds from the east. Being in a gap in countries such as Malaysia, the tidal resources the mountain range also increases wind are considerable and a technically harvestable velocity through the turbine, allowing greater part of the resource, in area close to the coast energy generation in low wind conditions. This such as North coast of East Malaysia. The Location is approximately 7km from the potential amount of power generated by tidal is township, across relatively clear terrain, tremendous, but the challenges of harness is minimising costs in transmission lines as well as huge. Tidal is renewable and predictable, it has reducing transmission losses. low operating cost and less negative visual impact on the society and the surrounding Generally, commercial wind turbines cost sustainability. The environmental impact could, between 1.3 and 2.2 million dollars per MW of however, be difficult to reach as mudflats and rated power installed [6], this would make a the ecosystem of the beach could be affected. 200kW system on flinders island cost in vicinity Tidal energy system only works when the tide of $360,000 to install. Even if the system only is coming in or going out so alternative supply runs at half capacity for the year, the savings in might be provided for 24 hours electricity energy costs would see the system paid off in supply, but in the North coast of East Malaysia, less than 5 years. tides are constantly moving up and down which gives a continuous energy supply for household near the shore [9].

Figure 8: Potential location for wind turbine, Flinders Island.

Application, Kudat Tidal energy technologies use a barrage such Figure 7: Kudat is the top 9 potential spot for as a dam or other barrier to harvest energy from tidal wave energy. the height difference between low and high tide. Power is generated via tidal turbines, most of it Application, Flinders Island came from hydropower design, such as bulb A 200kw wind turbine is on the medium to turbines that are usually located in the barrage, smaller end of the scale, when it comes to large and their commercial feasibility has been well scale energy generation. These turbines ship established through power plant. Improving very compactly, and only require standards technologies developed for tidal range power trucks to transport. A turbine can easily be generation including tidal reefs, tidal fences, ferried from Port Welshpool to Flinders Island tidal lagoons and low-head tidal barrages which and trucked to site. A common 60t crane is the could provide up to 254MW. Moreover, hybrid only large machinery required to install a applications are also forms of tidal range system of this size [5]. technologies that provide great potential if their design and classification can be combined with

the planning and design of new tidal energy Flinders Island would best benefit from infrastructure for coastal zones. upgrading its windows to double glazed. This is due to it having a higher temperature difference Power Generated from Tidal Energy: between inside and outside temperature. The Water volume will influence the tidal energy. effect of double glazing increases as this The energy generated by the tidal wave can be difference increases as shown in figure 11. represented by the formula below: Energy (E) = hρg where h is the height of the tidal wave (m), ρ is the density of water (1025 kg/m3) and g is the universal gravitational force (9.81 m/s). The formula stated will calculate the barrage area and the tidal of the ocean four times per day. The derived formula to calculate generated energy is: Power (P) = (E x (A x H) x 4) / T where E is the potential energy (J), A is the Figure 11: Energy costs and savings, Flinders barrage area (m2), H is the difference in tidal Island. height (m) and T is the duration calculated per day (s). High amplitude tidal wave will be the In the colder months the money saved, and thus best location to have a barrage dam. the energy saved is far greater. While the effects at Flinders Island are greater, both Comparison locations would definitely benefit from The two locations have very different energy upgrading of single glazed windows to double requirements due mainly to their different glazed units. climates. The temperate climate of Kudat means that residences mainly use the energy Conclusion for cooling, as temperatures rarely drop below Both locations are excellent candidates for a 23 degrees for any extended period of time. renewable energy system. A tidal system would Flinders island is quite the opposite, requiring supply ample base load energy for the most of their energy for heating homes, in the residents of Kudat, Malaysia. Kudat has the colder climate of southern Australia. required tidal swells, as well as coastline that lends itself to the application of this energy. Flinders Island would most benefit from a wind system. A medium size 200 kW turbine would take up a small footprint and minimise destruction of the local environment. The turbine would provide more than enough power at most times, and would be well paired with a battery system to supplement power generation during rare low wind times. Upgrading windows to double glazed units have a major effect on the energy requirements of the Figure 10: Comparison of energy requirements homes in these communities, reducing heat at each location. loss and in turn, energy consumption of the communities by up to 40%. Flinders islands energy requirements peak in the middle of winter, whereas Kudat peaks in April. The relatively constant energy requirements of kudat make it a good candidate for tidal energy that is very constant and reliable year round.

Reference “Infrastructure and Rural Development in Malaysia,” 2016. [Online]. Available: [1] Australian Bureau of Statistics, “2016 www.cirdap.org.sg. [Accessed 05 09 2018]. Census Quickstats” Accessed 5 September 2018. [Online]. Available: [10] ‘Figure 4: The tidal water energy http://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ce generation’ ‘Figure 2: Map showing nsus_services/getproduct/census/2016/qui potential locations for tidal energy along ckstat/SSC60745 Sabah and Sarawak coastline’ [2] Weather Zone, “Flinders Island [table][image], in Kamran, Andrew & Azhaili Climate” Accessed 30 August 2018. in 2016, ‘Mapping of Tidal Energy Potential [Online]. Available: based on High and Low Tides for Sabah http://www.weatherzone.com.au/climate/st and Sarawak’, p. 4, p. 3. ation.jsp?lt=site&lc=99005 [3] WorldData.info, “Energy consumption [11] Origin Energy Limited. 2018. Electricity in Australia” Accessed 30 August 2018. generation in Australia. [ONLINE] Available [Online]. Available: at: https://www.worlddata.info/australia/austra https://www.originenergy.com.au/blog/abo lia/energy-consumption.php ut-energy/energy-in-australia.html. [4] Geoscience Australia, “Other [Accessed 11 September 2018]. Renewable Energy resources” Accessed 30 August 2018. [Online]. Available: http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific- topics/energy/resources/other-renewableenergy-resources [5] United Nations Industrial Development Organization, “Wind energy: Mid-sized wind turbine” Accessed 1 September 2018. [Online]. Available: http://www.unido.or.jp/en/technology_db/1 685/ [6]WIndustry, “How much do wind turbines cost” Accessed 1 September 2018. [Online]. Available: http://www.windustry.org/how_much_do_w ind_turbines_cost

[7] Cedar Lake Ventures 2018, Average weather in kudat, Malaysia, all year round – weather spark, Cedar Lake Venture, Inc, viewed 12 September 2018, < https://weatherspark.com/y/130292/Avera ge-Weather-in-Kudat-Malaysia-Year- Round>.

[8] Ministry of Rural and Regional Development, “Rural Electricity Supply (BELB),” 2015. [Online]. Available: http://www. rurallink.gov.my/electricity. [Accessed 05 09 2018]

[9] Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific,

Appendix Appendix 1: Energy Breakdown of Flinders Island

Appendix 2: Energy Breakdown of Kudat Malaysia

Analyse and Feasibility of Small Scale Sustainable Energy Systems Majeed Habibi, Adam Bordignon, Savan Patel Swinburne University of Technology- Australia Keywords; Wind Energy, Solar Energy, Marla, Sheykhali

Abstract This paper is to develop a study in order to analyse the feasibility and design of a sustainable energy system for a country town in Australia and Overseas. The two nominated residential places are Marla in South Australia and Sheykhali village in Parwan province, Afghanistan. These areas both have a population of approximately 100 residents and both are suitable cases for this research. This researches will study solar for the Australian town and wind energy for the overseas location. The research specifically is on energy sources requirements and availabilities for both solar and wind energies at the specified locations.

Solar Energy and Energy Storage in Isolated Towns Alex Baensch, Yash Patel, Peter Fouad, Shailesh Maharjan Swinburne University of Technology Keywords: Solar power, Photovoltaic, Energy Consumption

Abstract In this report, the utilization of solar power along with energy storage is researched and then analysed concerning domestic use in two rural regions; Halls Creek, Western Australia and Ranchita, Mexico. Both locations suffer from relatively high power costs and frequent blackouts as well as having very sunny climates, which is why we are researching the viability of a solar power system with adjacent storage. The relationship between energy usage and the effect of incorporating single pane and double pane windows is also studied as well as the effects it has per household.

ANALYSIS OF WAVE ENERGY COMPATIBILITY IN RURAL LOCATIONS IN AUSTRALIA & INDIA Daniel Holder, Alexander Brown, Lydia Greenland, Jack Cain Swinburne University of Technology, Australia Keywords: Wave Energy, Tides, Technology

Abstract The intention of this report is to investigate, analyse and assess the practical and financial viability of installing wave powered energy systems in two rural locations, Karumba in Australia and Kadekodi in India. This paper will outline the process of electrical energy production through wave energy, provide a basic analysis of energy consumption for the selected locations and extensively assess the realistic practicality of such a project. The given sites have been chosen due to their similarity. Both of which are situated on the coast of their respective countries, with similar temperature conditions.

FEASIBILITY OF SOLAR ENERGY IN MALAYSIA AND AUSTRALIA Farhan Islam, Hamza Firasat, Saad Rasool and Malik Zain. Swinburne University of Technology Keywords: Solar Energy, Photovoltaic Cells, Renewable Energy

Abstract Technology has been improving daily in conjunction to the increase in human population, at the same time, fossil fuel is depleting day by day. This creates a reason that it is essential to find and replace convectional energy to sustainable energy. The reason for the introduction of sustainable energy according to Plan for a cleaner environment (2016) is to transform world’s electricity sector to cleaner and more diverse source and also to support growth and employment in the renewable energy source.[ ] The main objective of this report is to determine the feasibility of affordable renewable5 energy service, solar energy- photovoltaic cell to heat and cool rural houses, low-income and developing country. The two locations that were chosen for the implementation of sustainable energy are McLaren Flat, Adelaide, Australia with estimation of population approximately 600 and Sungai Muntoh, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia with the population approximately 2000. This research methodology includes energy source requirement and availabilities, transportation availability to transport equipment, geographical aspects, government policies and economic values.

Analysis of Sustainable Energy Source to Remote Locations

Conor Cochrane, Jarrod Donohue, Jarrad O’Brien Swinburne University of technology Key Words: Nuclear Energy, Reactor, Uranium

Abstract The need for sustainable energy is becoming ever more essential, with the growing environmental concerns and the increasing energy demand being two of the major motivators. This report examines the practicality of the implementation of a sustainable energy source in two separate locations. Nuclear energy was chosen to be implemented in Central Queensland Australia, and Hebei China. This report explores the difference in government policies between the two locations. It also analyses the effect environmental factors, such as availability of resources and geographical aspect, will have on the application of this energy source.

A FEASIBILITY STUDY OF THE APPLICATION OF SOLAR ENERGY FOR HEATING AND COOLING IN REMOTE COMMUNITIES Joel Yip Sze Quan, Deshan De Silva, Rashan Fernando, Syed Baqir Raza Naqva Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Keywords: Solar Tracking, Renewable Energy, Sustainable Energy, Solar Capability, Concentrated Photovoltaic

Abstract This paper explores the feasibility of applying a sustainable renewable energy source to remote communities. The two locations chosen as case study are based in Australia and Sri Lanka. The general domestic process considered in this paper is to maintain a standard home at a constant 23 degrees Celsius whilst only considering heat loss through single- glazed windows of a total of 15 cubic metres. The effectiveness of the single-glazed window is then assessed through the introduction of the usage of a double-glazed window under similar operating conditions. It is found that the double-glazed window option could provide 42.59% reduction in overall heat loss, translating to further cost savings in terms of domestic energy demands for heating and cooling. 42.

ANALYSIS OF WAVE ENERGY’S APPLICATION IN AUSTRALIA AND MALAYSIA

Kieran Carlow, Huu Phuoc Le, Sachila T. J. Weerasekara Bamunu, An Khuong Nguyen Swinburne University of Technology Keywords: Solar panel, heat transfer, wind turbine, geographical issues, wind movement

Abstract The following report documents the research and conceptual implementation of a sustainable electricity source for a small town in Australia and overseas. The locations chosen for this study are: Stanford, Australia and Bau, Malaysia. These locations were chosen because they have different climates, with one being a tropical country and the other one with four seasons. By finding out the practicability of usage of renewable energies in these locations, we are able to determine that renewable energy supply has lots of advantages by location-wise. Due to geographical problems, villages in remote areas normally has limited electricity supply, therefore using renewable energy sources as power source is particularly helpful for them. The renewable energy supplying to be studied and compared alternative energy and wind energy. We tend to use the quantity of renewable energy collected and harvested for every location as a basis for comparison functions. The analysis methodologies using are as follow. We assume a plan where we are required to maintain the temperature of a house at certain temperature using wind or solar energy as our energy source. By calculating how much energy can we gather and how much is required, we can clearly identify which renewable energy is more useful at Stamford and Bau. While understanding heat transfer to only occur through the window, we took the chance to also study the outcome of using single-glazed window and double-glazed one on the energy needed to maintain house interior temperature. By examine the results, it can be seen that the usage of double-glazed window minimizes the energy requirement significantly.

FEASIBILITY STUDY OF HYDRO AND SOLAR POWER APPLICATIONS IN AUSTRALIA AND KENYA

Kurt Cosson, Joel Pinxt, Brendan Sonka, Dhakwaan Nizam Swinburne University of Technology Keywords: Hydroelectricity, Solar, Renewable Energy

Abstract The prevailing condition of the current global environment is affected through the use of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are a low-cost energy source which, when consumed, emit large quantities of emissions into the atmosphere. These emissions are a major source of air pollution largely impacting the global climate. Unsustainable methods of energy supplies which have been, and are largely used, require a usage reduction in order to limit the effects on the environment. The current global rate of emissions is posing a significant threat to the longevity of our current environment. In order to limit the effects that fossil fuels are having on the environment, development and infrastructure is required to provide renewable and sustainable energy sources. Currently, the most commonly used renewable and sustainable energy generation methods are solar, wind, and hydroelectric. These methods are reliant on uncontrollable conditions such as cloud coverings for solar panels, wind conditions for wind turbines and rainfall for hydroelectric. In an energy generation proposal, a study of two small towns of approximately 100 residents in both Kenya and Australia is to be examined. The energy usage of both towns are calculated to determine if a renewable and sustainable energy source could provide power to the township in a feasible way. In determining the energy needs of the township, energy losses to the environment through heating and cooling practices will be calculated and ways of retaining energy will be determined.

Photovoltaic Solar In Remote Communities Mark Kemp, Michael Giaccotto, Kyle Braun, Tajinder Singh Swinburne University of Technology

Abstract This report investigates the feasibility of renewable energy sources replacing the current form of power generation in two different remote locations. The two chosen locations are Timber Creek, Australia and Bangali, Kenya. These locations were selected due to their similarly hot and sunny climates, and their ability to meet the prerequisites for a remote location with low population numbers. It was decided that this study would primarily focus on the viability of using a combination photovoltaic cells and a battery bank to generate and store energy respectively. The research methodology used to garner this information, included an analysis of energy requirements (due to heat gain in both single and double-glazed windows), cooling design, and PV array and battery sizing. The chosen designs were selected based upon the maximum energy requirements to provide cooling in the worst-case scenario, designing for a scenario in which there is the highest recorded temperature and the lowest recorded solar exposure.

SOLAR PV PANEL USAGE IN SMALL RURAL COMMUNITIES FEASABILITY STUDY

Sam Nettleton, Nathan Purcell, Matthew Poynton, Liam Flanagan Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Abstract This report aims to investigate the feasibility of renewable solar energy in rural areas of both Australia and Malaysia where currently electricity is generated via fossil fuel means. The town we inspected is Broke (~100 people), a small town located in the Hunter Region of New South Wales of Australia, and an isolated rural town in Malaysia, Tuba (~100 people). The feasibility of solar renewable energy in these locations was evaluated as well as the applications and practices for this source of energy, focusing primarily on the geographical locations of each community. It was determined that the Malaysian town of Tuba, had the greatest potential for photovoltaic cells, due to its high solar irradiance all year round, but lacked the wealth needed by the public to fund the infrastructure required. Broke, also featured a similar functional solar irradiance during the hotter months of the year. Due to the wealth and payback periods in Broke, it remained a feasible installation location. Further, an analysis was carried out to determine the heat loss due to the presence of single glazed windows in a stipulated household. Expanding this investigation, the same household was analysed with double glazed windows installed and the resultant cost saving was determined to be $2373 per year in Broke and $1854 per year in Tuba. Concluding the report is a short discussion on the geographic aspects affecting the transfer to sustainable photovoltaic cell alternatives which concludes that both locations geographically are more than suitable for reliable large array installations.

Wind Energy and Microgrid Power Distribution for Remote Communities Charles Dunn, Boyd Hillman, William Niven, Simon Prien Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Abstract This report seeks to study the viability of installing a wind based power grid in similar sized locations in Australia and Kenya. The required capacity, costs and social impact will be compared and discussed with opportunities and areas of difficulty highlighted. Through modelling of the energy consumption in houses from the two countries, a wind power supply and microgrid system was designed. Heating and cooling energy consumption for the houses in Australia and Kenya, with both single and double glazed windows was analysed with monthly costs detailed. This paper concludes that wind energy system would be profitable if implemented in Australia with a calculated payback period of 10 years with current electricity prices. The system detailed in Kenya has a payback period of 24 years and would experience difficulties with maintenance costs over this duration. It should be noted that a smaller scaled down version of the renewable system could be achievable with humanitarian or Government subsidy, a system which could easily be scaled up as demand for electricity grows.

Analysis of Solar and Geothermal Energy in Australia and Iceland

Anthony Claxton, Robert Wibberley, Shehan Athauda, Walid Issa Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Keywords: Geothermal, Solar, Sustainable Energy

Abstract It was required in a remote area of both Australia and Iceland to analyse the feasibility of providing enough renewable energy to power a small town. In Australia the selected town was Cowaramup which is located in WA and we planned to provide power by solar energy. In Iceland the town was Vik which is one of the southern most points in Iceland and geothermal was the chosen power source. We also estimated the heat loss of a hypothetical home in both Vik and Cowaramup that had either single or double glazed windows. The graphs of the home show that during the winter nearly half the original heat would be lost when using double glazed windows which created a significant amount of money saved.

There are a number of benefits to switch over to renewable energy but a major limitation is the cost of purchasing and installing a renewable energy source. The latter calculations investigate these costs and provide all necessary information along with reliable sources to how they were reached. The calculations show that both geothermal and solar are feasible investments as they only have a minor number of years to payback the purchasing and installation cost. It is important to note that to reach these results general assumptions were made such as: the use of national averages and approximate installation costs based on the cost per power generated. Along with the calculations a brief discussion is also provided on the implications of these results and why certain limitations have potentially prevented our chosen renewable energy from taking place.