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U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice National Institute of Justice R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f Jeremy Travis, Director April 2000 Issues and Findings in the Heartland: Discussed in this Brief: The use of , which mi- Methamphetamine Use grated from the West Coast to the Midwest and affected Omaha among other cities, is also being in Rural Nebraska detected in rural areas of Ne- by Denise C. Herz braska. The appears to be penetrating not only the cities of the Heartland, but its rural coun- A decade ago, methamphetamine was ing in their State. NIJ’s Arrestee Drug ties as well. commonly believed to be limited to Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) program had Key issues: NIJ’s ADAM (Arrestee the West Coast and a few other, isolated shown that for Omaha this concern was Drug Abuse Monitoring) program areas. Recent evidence shows that sub- well founded. Use of the drug by people revealed that use of this powerful stantial proportions of arrestees in several arrested and booked was higher there large urban areas of the West and Mid- than at many other ADAM test sites. With was increasing among arrestees in west are using the drug.1 Increasingly, 8 percent of adult male arrestees testing several of the program’s test sites. the problem is coming to the attention of positive for meth in 1995, Omaha ranked Among those sites was Omaha, policymakers and law enforcement na- fifth among the 23 sites. Although the fol- where in the period 1990 through tionwide. (See “The Federal Government lowing year the rate dropped to just over 1998, the proportion of adult male Responds.”) 4 percent, in 1997 and again in 1998 it arrestees who used the drug rose surpassed the 1995 figure, rising to 10 from less than 1 percent to more Methamphetamine has generated concern 2 than 10 percent. To find out percent. The upward trend in Omaha is because of its ready availability and the even more evident when data from the whether meth was also penetrat- severity of its effects on the user. It is ing rural Nebraska, use patterns period 1990 through 1998 are analyzed. cheaper than , it is easy to manu- were measured in four rural coun- Between those two dates, the proportion ties and the findings compared facture, it produces a longer lasting of male arrestees who tested positive for with patterns in Omaha, the “high,” and its short- and long-term ef- methamphetamine rose from less than 1 State’s major urban area. fects can be extreme. The feelings of percent to more than 10 percent.3 and increased energy the drug Key findings: In several respects, initially produces may be followed by Although ADAM data confirmed the use the rural counties resembled the , , memory loss, con- of methamphetamine in Omaha, the ex- city in the use of methamphet- vulsions, and other effects. Long-term tent to which it was penetrating rural Ne- and the characteristics of users: and heavy use are often associated with braska remained unknown. Information , and prolonged use may lead gathered by law enforcement about pos- ● in general was to or death. (See “Life session and trafficking suggested that use more widespread in the city, but or Meth?”) might be as extensive in rural areas as in there were few rural-urban differ- Omaha—if not more so. For example, the ences in use of methamphetamine, In Nebraska, policymakers and law en- number of arrests for possessing and sell- forcement officials were concerned that ing methamphetamine and of the continued… methamphetamine use might be increas- R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Issues and Findings continued… as measured by the results of uri- The Federal Government Responds nalysis testing of arrestees. C oncern about methamphetamine the implementation of a national strategy ● The drug of first choice among prompted Congress to pass the Compre- for responding to methamphetamine use. arrestees in both the city and the hensive Methamphetamine Control Act in The task force emphasized that the strategy counties was marijuana. In the city, 1996. Under the aegis of the act, the Meth- to be developed should be comprehensive the drug of second choice was Interagency Task Force was and interdisciplinary. That is, it should fully cocaine; in the rural areas, that established, with the mission of studying integrate the work of the various levels of distinction was held by metham- methamphetamine use in the United States government—local, State, and Federal part- phetamine. and reporting the findings to Congress. ners in law enforcement, health, education, Cochaired by Attorney General Janet Reno and other disciplines—and should be based ● Use patterns in the rural areas and Office of National Drug Control Policy on scientifically sound research, best prac- were similar to those in the city. Director Barry McCaffrey, the task force tices, and programs that have proven “what There were no significant differ- comprised experts in prevention and educa- works.” ences in the proportions of tion, treatment, and law enforcement who arrestees who said they ever used represent local and State government as The report, Methamphetamine Interagency meth or in frequency of use. The well as the Federal Government. Task Force: Final Report, Washington, D.C.: proportions who said they were U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Na- dependent on the drug, needed Between 1998 and 1999, the task force tional Drug Control Policy, U.S. Department treatment, and were receiving it explored and documented the Nation’s of Health and Human Services, U.S. Depart- were also the same irrespective of methamphetamine problem and developed ment of Education (January 2000), can be area. Users in rural areas were as an advisory report that outlined a set of prin- downloaded from the NIJ Web site: http:// likely as those in the city to say ciples, needs and recommendations, and www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij. meth is cheap and easy to obtain. research priorities. The aim was to inform

● Meth users irrespective of area were more likely to be white than drug by Federal and State interagency ● Is methamphetamine trafficking in members of another racial/ethnic drug enforcement task forces increased rural Nebraska different from what group. Users in the rural counties were younger than those in the dramatically statewide in the period 1995 it is in Omaha? to 1998. To corroborate these findings city, a finding that appears consis- The study was conducted in four rural and to find out whether levels of use tent with the fact that in the city counties—Madison, Hall, Dawson, and among arrestees in rural Nebraska age at first use was higher. Scotts Bluff—in October and November matched those in Omaha, the Rural 1998. Methamphetamine use among ● In certain respects, criminality Nebraska ADAM project was launched. was greater in the rural areas. arrestees in these counties was compared Arrestees in the rural areas were with use in Omaha, the State’s major just as likely as those in the city to Rural Nebraska ADAM urban area. (Details of the study method manufacture meth, but were more A pilot outreach project of the National are in “Measuring Meth Use in Rural likely to be involved in selling it. Institute of Justice’s ADAM program Nebraska.”) Meth users in the rural sites had (see “ADAM Outreach”), Rural Nebraska more prior offenses than those In several respects the findings confirmed ADAM was designed to answer three in Omaha. On the other hand, what officials had suspected. Rural questions: amount of illegal income and Nebraska looked much like the city of amount of money spent on drugs ● Is methamphetamine use by arrestees Omaha. Although drug use in general were higher among Omaha was more prevalent among arrestees in arrestees. in rural Nebraska different from what it is in Omaha? the city than in the four rural counties, Target audience: Local policy- when it came to use of methamphetamine, makers and law enforcement ● Are methamphetamine users in rural there were few rural-urban differences. officials, particularly in rural Nebraska different from those in One major distinction was that meth counties; researchers; providers Omaha? appeared (after marijuana) to be the drug of treatment and related services.

2 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f of choice of arrestees in rural Nebraska—more widespread than cocaine. There were no rural-urban Life or Meth? differences in the proportions of arrestees who said they had ever used M ethamphetamine (“meth,” B and C and HIV. Prolonged use may lead meth. In the same way, arrestees in “speed,” “crystal,” and “ice” are to brain damage or death. rural areas were just as likely as those among its more than 170 street names) is a powerful central nervous system Meth is relatively easy to manufacture. in Omaha to say meth was cheap and The ingredients, which include , lye, readily available, as likely to manufac- stimulant. A synthetic form of amphet- amine that is chemically similar to rock salt, lighter fluid, propane, match ture it, and more likely to sell it. , it can be smoked, snorted, sticks, and drain cleaner, are fairly easy to orally ingested, or injected. It produces obtain. This explains why the drug is of- Extent of methamphetamine an initial feeling of and elation, ten “cooked” in homes, motels, public use along with a variety of adverse reactions. storage lockers, and vans. Because many High percentages of methamphetamine of the chemical ingredients are extremely Substance abuse in general was found users have reported such problems as dangerous, the manufacturing process is to be more common in Omaha than paranoia, , and violent very hazardous and creates the risk of in rural areas of Nebraska. That is, behavior. fire, explosions, and release of toxic when it came to the use of any drug,4 gases. Waste left in illegal labs poses risks arrestees in Omaha were more likely The “” and “high” the user experi- to the environment.* ences are believed to result from the than those in the rural counties to test release of high levels of into * Most of the information about methamphet- positive (see exhibit 1). Analysis of areas of the brain that regulate feelings amine is from Meth Matters: Report on Meth- the urine samples provided by the of pleasure. One reason for meth’s popu- amphetamine Users in Five Western Cities, by arrestees revealed that more than half larity is that its effects are longer lasting S. Pennell et al., Research Report, Washington, of those in Omaha had used one or than those of cocaine. Long-term, the D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National drug can lead to addiction. Abusers more drug, compared with 26 to 38 Institute of Justice, May 1999 (NCJ 176331); often experience , , percent in the four rural counties. and 1998 Annual Report on Methamphet- , extreme paranoia, mood amine Use Among Arrestees, Research Report, swings, hallucinations, and homicidal The story is not the same for metham- Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, and suicidal thoughts. Injection can phetamine. In levels of meth use, the National Institute of Justice, 1999 (NCJ increase the risk of transmitting hepatitis differences among the rural counties 175660). were greater than between the rural counties and Omaha. The rural-urban difference was not statistically signifi- cant, but in two counties—Hall and Dawson—arrestees’ use of meth Exhibit 1. Level of methamphetamine use by arrestees, rural and urban Nebraska was higher than in the two others— Madison and Scotts Bluff (13 percent Madison Hall Dawson Scotts Bluff Omaha and 14 percent, compared with 6 and County County County County (Douglas County) (N=50) (N=46) (N=42) (N=138) (N=174) 3 percent). Urinalysis Positive for % % % % % The similarity between urban and Any drug (excluding rural areas in methamphetamine use and )* 26 30 29 38 54 becomes clearer when it is compared Methamphetaminea 613143 7 with the use of other drugs, site to site. Cocaine*, a – 7 12 18 25 In all sites, rural and urban, arrestees Marijuana* 20 22 19 29 38 used marijuana more than any other * Difference between rural counties and Omaha significant at P=< .05. drug. For cocaine, there is a distinc- a.Difference among rural counties significant at P=< .05. tive picture. Arrestees were much more likely to test positive for cocaine

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Exhibit 2. Characteristics of arrestees who use methamphetamine, rural and urban Nebraska ADAM Outreach Madison Hall Dawson Scotts Bluff Omaha County County County County (Douglas County) A DAM Outreach, a component of NIJ’s Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitor- Percentage Who Ever 36% 26% 35% 26% 23% ing (ADAM) program, measures Used Meth (N=27) (N=14) (N=17) (N=40) (N=47) substance abuse among special popu- Use History lations of arrestees in particular States. Examples of such populations are Age at first use 18.6 18.1 18.1 19.2 21.1 arrestees in suburban and rural areas, Used in past 12 months 56% 43% 71% 40% 60% Native Americans, and members of Used in past 30 days 30% 29% 41% 28% 49% the military. They are groups that the Average number days 5.6 8.8 5.3 6.3 6.9 ADAM program does not ordinarily used in past 30 days reach. Outreach data are obtained during a collection period separate Percentage Who Used Meth from the quarterly collection that is Every day 33 36 41 23 11 standard in the ADAM program. 2–3 times a week 11 14 18 12 11 The Rural Nebraska project described Weekends only 19 21 12 3 6 here was the first ADAM outreach Less than once a week 7 7 12 22 24 program. In addition to measuring the Less than once a month 4 7 12 – 6 use of methamphetamine use among Other/don’t know 26 14 6 40 42 arrestees in rural and urban Nebraska, it aimed to test the feasibility of the Percentage Who Say They Use Meth By outreach component of the ADAM Snorting1 59 36 35 25 45 program. By 2002, all 35 ADAM sites 15 21 12 23 19 will be collecting outreach data. Injecting 19 7 24 10 11 Combination* 4362922– in Omaha than in any of the rural (Missing Data) – – – 20 25 sites. It appeared to be the drug of 1. P=< .10 second choice in urban Nebraska, * P=< .05 while in the rural sites this distinction was held by methamphetamine.

Scotts Bluff was the exception to the learned from urinalysis: There was were similar. In both these sites, rural pattern. Here, arrestee drug use no statistically significant difference be- arrestees were more likely to snort the was more a reflection of what was hap- tween the rural counties and Omaha in drug, while arrestees in Madison, Hall, pening in Omaha: The rate of cocaine the proportion of arrestees who said they and Dawson were more likely to use use was higher than in the other rural had ever used methamphetamine (see a combination of methods, including counties. It is difficult to explain this exhibit 2). injection. anomaly, although proximity to Denver may be a contributing factor (see In two characteristics of drug use, Need for drug treatment. Some exhibit 7). there were rural-urban differences. arrestees said they felt dependent on Arrestees in Omaha tended to be methamphetamine and needed treat- Use patterns. Arrestees were asked slightly older when they first used the ment. But the arrestees from rural ar- about their history of methamphetamine drug than those in the rural counties. eas were neither more nor less likely use, their current level of use, and There were also differences among the than those in Omaha to say so. And the ways they use the drug. Here the sites in ways of taking methamphet- despite the feelings of dependence and findings were similar to what was amine. Again, Omaha and Scotts Bluff need for treatment, almost no arrestees

4 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f were receiving treatment at the time had participated in some type of treat- Characteristics of they were interviewed for the Rural ment program, with arrestees in Scotts methamphetamine users Nebraska ADAM project. Bluff more likely than those in any To fill out the picture of methamphet- other site to have done so. Overall amine users, the study included ques- There were significant differences (except in Scotts Bluff), a larger tions on race/ethnicity, age, marital from site to site in the proportion of percentage of arrestees said they status, education, and similar charac- arrestees who had ever been treated needed treatment than were currently teristics. The analysis focused not for substance abuse. Some said they receiving it or had ever received it. only on rural-urban differences but

Measuring Meth Use in Rural Nebraska M ethamphetamine use by arrestees Collecting data. Information about meth tion in some sites, the distribution of in four rural counties was compared with use among arrestees was obtained with the race/ethnicity, gender, and age in the use in Omaha. The data were obtained methods used in NIJ’s ADAM program.a sample was not different from that in on the basis of voluntarily provided Urine samples are taken from booked the general jail population at the time. urine samples and interviews with the arrestees who volunteer to participate, and arrestees. confidential interviews are conducted to a. For details of the ADAM method of collect- learn about such topics as history of sub- ing information about arrestee drug use, Choosing the rural sites. Four coun- stance abuse. For this study, a supplemental see 1998 Drug Use Forecasting: Annual ties—Madison, Hall, Dawson, and Scotts questionnaire about meth in particular was Report on Adult and Juvenile Arrestees, Bluff—were the rural sites chosen for administered.b Research Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. comparison with the city. The rural char- Department of Justice, National Institute of acter of the counties was confirmed on Data were collected in a 2-month period in Justice, April 1999, NCJ 175656, 5–11. the basis of population size and eco- October and November 1998. Convenience nomic base. All four are small compared sampling rather than random assignment b. The addendum was adapted from the one with Omaha, the population center of was used. Arrestees who were released on used in Meth Matters: Report on Metham- Douglas County, which numbers close bond were not necessarily included in the phetamine Users in Five Western Cities, by to half a million people. All four are also pool of people considered eligible for the S. Pennell et al., Research Report, Washing- more racially/ethnically homogeneous study. The size of the sample in the rural ton, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, than Omaha. The economic base of the sites was between 50 and 150 arrestees National Institute of Justice, May 1999, selected counties is agriculture and, (10 to 40 percent of the jail population) NCJ 176331. more recently, manufacturing and and 200 in Omaha. Despite low representa- meat processing, whereas Omaha’s economy centers largely on services and manufacturing. Population and racial/ethnic distribution, rural and urban Nebraska

The rural sites were also selected on the Madison Hall Dawson Scotts Bluff Omaha basis of their widely differing geographic County County County County (Douglas County) representation of the State: They are in the west, central, and northeast sections Population 34,585 51,851 23,183 36,109 443,794 (see exhibit 7—map of Nebraska). Time Race/Ethnicity % % % % % was another selection criterion. All four White 95 92 94 77 84 counties were able to test and interview Hispanic 2 4 6 15 3 enough arrestees to produce a useful African American 1 <1 <1 <1 11 study sample in a relatively short period. Native American 1 <1 <1 2 1 A third criterion was presumed preva- Other 1 3 – 6 1 lence; that is, law enforcement activity suggested that levels of methamphet- Note: Population data are based on census projections for 1997. amine use were high in these sites.

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Exhibit 3. Criminal involvement of methamphetamine users and nonusers, rural and urban Nebraska Madison Hall Dawson Scotts Bluff Omaha County County County County (Douglas County) Criminal Offense/History Non- Non- Non- Non- Non- users Users users Users users Users users Users users Users (N=51) (N=27) (N=39) (N=14) (N=33) (N=17) (N=109) (N=40) (N=155) (N=47)

Arrested on felony charge 18% 22% 31% 21% 36% 24% 20% 23% 34% 45% Have prior offenses 29% 63%* 21% 43% 36% 59% 51% 62% 39% 43% Average number of 1.6 3.5* 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.4 1.8 1.9 prior offenses*

* P=< .05 also on differences between users educated than nonusers; that is, more Involvement in crime. Involvement and nonusers. likely to have their high school di- in crime was measured by the serious- ploma or GED. But between rural and ness of the arrestee’s current offense Demographics I—Race/ethnicity, urban Nebraska, there were no signifi- and whether there were prior offenses. age. The racial/ethnic identity and cant differences in the educational No statistically significant differences age of meth users and nonusers in the attainment of meth users. were found either among the four rural rural areas and in Omaha were com- sites or between the city and the rural pared. Without exception, among Demographics III—Income and sites in the proportion of arrestees racial/ethnic groups, white arrestees drug money. Perhaps not surpris- charged with a felony and the propor- were more likely than Hispanic ingly, when it came to illegal income, tion who had at least one prior offense. arrestees to use meth. Users in the meth users earned more than nonus- However, the average number of priors rural counties appeared to be slightly ers. This was the case only in the rural was higher in the rural sites than in younger than those in Omaha: Two- sites, however; in Omaha, the amount Omaha (see exhibit 3). The user- thirds to three-fourths of those in the of illegal income earned by meth users nonuser comparison revealed that non- rural sites were 18 to 27 years of age, was no greater than the amount earned users of meth were as likely as users whereas in Omaha less than half were by nonusers. Again, it may be no sur- to have been involved in previous in this age category. Comparing the prise that the amount of money spent criminal activity as measured by num- ages of users and nonusers reveals that on drugs was higher among users than ber of priors, with Madison County the in Madison and Hall counties, users nonusers. This was the case in three of only exception. There, users had been tended to be younger, whereas in the the four rural sites. arrested slightly more often than other rural areas and in Omaha, the nonusers. difference between the two groups was In the amount of illegal income and not significant. amount of money spent on drugs, there was considerable difference between The meth market Demographics II—Marital status, Omaha and the rural areas, with the When it came to buying methamphet- housing, education. In marital sta- rural counties much lower on both amine, arrestees in rural Nebraska tus and housing type, there were few counts. Dawson County was the sole were much like their counterparts in differences, either among all sites or exception. Here the average amount Omaha. Most bought it from a friend between the rural sites and Omaha. spent on drugs was higher than in or family member; the primary source Whether the arrestees used meth or Omaha. This is because in Dawson a was likely to be white rather than a not, they tended to be single and to small number of offenders reported member of another racial/ethnic group live in private-sector housing (rather amounts as high as $2,500, skewing (see exhibit 4). When meth was un- than public housing). In education, the results or perhaps offering evi- available, arrestees said they either there was one statistically significant dence that methamphetamine use is went without it or bought it from difference: In Dawson and Scotts more visible in that county. another dealer. Arrestees in the rural Bluff counties, meth users were better

6 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f areas were more likely than those in Exhibit 4. Buying methamphetamine, rural and urban Nebraska the city to have ever bought meth.5 Madison Hall Dawson Scotts Bluff Omaha Availability. Evidence about quality, County County County County (Douglas County) price, and availability indicates that (N=27) (N=14) (N=17) (N=40) (N=35) methamphetamine was as prevalent in %%% % % rural areas as in Omaha. Irrespective Ever bought meth1 78 93 71 61 54 of area, arrestees were more likely to Source say that the quality had recently de- Friend/family 44 43 47 44 31 clined than to say it either increased Work – 7 – – 6 or remained the same and also more Dealer 33 43 18 15 11 likely to say the price had stayed the Other/missing 22 7 35 41 52 same rather than risen or fallen (see Source’s race/ethnicity1 exhibit 5). Arrestees in rural areas African American – – – 3 3 considered meth easy to obtain, as did Hispanic 30 36 12 18 11 arrestees in Omaha. In fact, hardly White 48 57 35 31 40 any arrestees said the drug was very Other/missing 22 7 53 48 0 difficult to obtain. They also saw meth What do you do when source unavailable? as more available or just as available at the time they were interviewed as it Different source 22 21 35 26 11 was the previous year. This response Friend 22 7 – 8 3 was consistent with the finding of easy Do without 30 57 29 26 37 availability: The flow of this drug was Other 25 14 36 41 49 unabated. 1. P=< .10

Selling and manufacturing. Arrestees in the rural areas were more likely to sell methamphetamine than were those in the NIJ Reports on Methamphetamine city. In the city, about one-fourth of the arrestees said they sold meth, in N IJ’s ADAM program continues to National Institute of Justice, May 1999, contrast to one-third in Scotts Bluff track the use of methamphetamine and NCJ 176331). County, almost one-half in Madison other illicit substances. The most recent ● Methamphetamine Use Among Adult and Dawson counties, and nearly two- findings are in the 1999 Annual Report on Drug Use Among Adult and Juvenile Arrestees: Findings from the Drug Use thirds in Hall County (see exhibit 6). Arrestees, Research Report, Washington, Forecasting (DUF) Program, by Thomas E. This finding in particular appears to D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Feucht and Gabrielle M. Kyle (Research in be further evidence of the role of Institute of Justice, April 2000 (NCJ Brief, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department methamphetamine in Nebraska’s rural 181426). The publication can be down- of Justice, National Institute of Justice, areas. It may also, however, be the loaded from http://www.adam-nij.net or November 1996, NCJ 161842). result of intensive law enforcement copies can be obtained by calling the ● 1998 Annual Report on Methamphet- National Criminal Justice Reference targeted at meth markets in Omaha. amine Use Among Arrestees (Research Service at 800–851–3420. Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Depart- When it came to percentages of Other NIJ publications on methamphet- ment of Justice, National Institute of arrestees who said they manufactured Justice, 1999, NCJ 175660). the drug, there were no city-county amine are: ● differences and no differences among ● Meth Matters: Report on Methamphet- The Rise of Crack and Ice: Experiences the rural counties. Hall County amine Users in Five Western Cities, by in Three Locales, by Marcia R. Chaiken was the sole exception. There, no S. Pennell et al. (Research Report, Wash- (Research in Brief, Washington, D.C.: U.S. arrestees said they made metham- ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Department of Justice, National Institute phetamine. of Justice, 1993, NCJ 139559).

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Implications for drug control Exhibit 5. Methamphetamine quality, price, and availability, rural and urban Nebraska in rural areas Madison Hall Dawson Scotts Bluff Omaha The Rural Nebraska ADAM pilot County County County County (Douglas County) outreach project offers quantitative (N=27) (N=14) (N=17) (N=40) (N=47) evidence that, measured by data from %%% % % arrestees, the use of methamphet- How meth quality changed in past yeara amine, the availability of the drug, and many user characteristics in Worse 44 57 59 36 31 Nebraska’s rural areas are much the Better 7 14 – 18 6 same as in the State’s urban center. Same 4 7 12 8 11 A particularly striking finding is that Don’t know 45 21 29 38 51 methamphetamine was the only drug b In past year, price of meth has whose use in rural areas rivaled urban Gone up 11 14 6 15 6 rates. Whereas in Omaha, arrestees’ Gone down 4 7 35 5 6 use of marijuana and cocaine was Stayed the same 30 57 18 36 29 much higher than in the rural sites, Don’t know 55 21 41 44 59 there were no significant rural-urban How easy is it to get meth?b differences in use of meth. Arrestees in the rural areas who used meth were Very easy 48 79 59 44 37 indistinguishable from their counter- Somewhat easy 22 7 12 7 3 parts in Omaha in several respects, Somewhat difficult 4 7 – 10 11 among them their use patterns and Very difficult – – – – 3 their involvement in distribution and Missing 26 7 29 39 46 manufacturing. Compared with a year ago, how available is meth now?b In general, when it comes to providing More available 26 43 29 26 23 assistance for crime-related problems, Less available 4 14 35 10 9 rural areas are often neglected. It is Same availability 19 21 – 21 9 true that drug use and crime are typi- Don’t know 52 21 35 43 60 cally higher in urban areas, but their a. Asked of users only. impact is still substantial in rural b. Asked of buyers only. areas, as this pilot project has shown. Yet, because most Federal and State funds are typically allocated to urban Exhibit 6. Methamphetamine distribution and manufacturing, rural and areas, officials in rural areas must urban Nebraska seek local sources to fund needed services. To be sure, the size of urban Madison Hall Dawson Scotts Bluff Omaha County County County County (Douglas County) areas justifies their receiving a large (N=27) (N=14) (N=17) (N=40) (N=47) portion of the funding pie, but, as this %%% % % study demonstrates, rural areas face Ever sold 41 64 47 31 23 problems similar to those of the cities methamphetamine1 and have similar needs for services. Ever made 11 – 12 8 9 methamphetamine Enforcement and treatment policies. Two specific policy areas 1. P=< .10 of interest are drug enforcement and treatment. Currently in Nebraska, interagency drug task forces operate

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influence the prevention and control Exhibit 7. The four “rural Nebraska ADAM” sites strategies developed by practitioners.

SOUTH DAKOTA The Rural Nebraska project seems to suggest also that studies of rural areas might benefit from the applica- IOWA Scotts Bluff NEBRASKA tion of qualitative as well as quantita- County Madison County tive methods. Conducting research in rural areas requires devising innova- WYOMING Douglas County tive ways of obtaining information. For that to happen, the ethnographic Hall Omaha County approach might be useful if we are to fully understand the nature of the Dawson County drug markets in these areas and the COLORADO preference for certain drugs over others. Denver KANSAS Notes

6 1. An ADAM study conducted in 1996–1997 throughout the State. Their deploy- plays a critical role. Data from projects showed that in five cities in the West, between ment is based largely on like this one can help rural communi- 7 and 40 percent of meth users among arrestees intelligence gathered by law enforce- ties justify their requests for resources tested positive for the drug. Pennell, S., et al., ment agencies or on information ob- from local, State, Federal, and private Meth Matters: Report on Methamphetamine Users in Five Western Cities, Research Report, tained by law enforcement in other sources. The data can also inform dis- Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, ways. Although these methods can ef- cussions of proposed changes in the National Institute of Justice, May 1999, NCJ fectively reduce accessibility to meth- way drug users are processed by the 176331, 1, 6–7, 21–22. amphetamine, there are opportunities criminal justice system and provision 2. The ranking was based on urine tests. 1998 for better deployment. For instance, of drug treatment for offenders. Annual Report on Methamphetamine Use task forces operating in one area of Among Arrestees, Research Report, Washing- ton, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Nebraska may displace methamphet- Research Institute of Justice, 1999 NCJ 175660, 5. amine to another, rural area. But because the task forces have limited Scientifically based research is an 3. Ibid., 5, 7. means of measuring displacement, essential component of public policy 4. In the ADAM program, arrestees are tested they may assume success and not development. This approach can be for 10 drugs: , , , cocaine, marijuana, metha- respond to the displacement until the successful, however, only to the extent the researchers ask the appropriate done, , opiates, PCP, and markets are entrenched in the new propoxyphene. The method is Enzyme area. Data collection projects similar questions, study the appropriate Multiplied Immunoassay Testing (EMIT™). populations, and use the appropriate to NIJ’s ADAM program could help 5. In the categories used to measure meth local authorities to better identify their methods of data collection. Research markets, a substantial amount of data was miss- problem and help drug enforcement conducted under the auspices of the ing. This is largely because of the number of arrestees who said they had used or bought agencies to respond more quickly. ADAM program and its Outreach projects illustrates the strength of the meth at one time but no longer did so. In these cases, it was difficult for them to respond on Treatment providers and their clients approach, as it can bring to light em- the basis of current use of meth. in rural areas can benefit from better pirically based findings about one 6. These task forces are funded by the HIDTA information about the extent and type of the populations most at risk for (High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area) program of drug use. In planning and imple- substance abuse: arrestees. Those of the Office of National Drug Control Policy. menting treatment programs and re- findings can be and have been used Under the program, certain areas of the country that are experiencing severe drug trafficking lated criminal justice programs (such by policymakers and in turn can receive Federal assistance to help control the as drug courts), needs assessment problem.

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Findings and conclusions of the research Denise C. Herz, Ph.D., is a Professor Howell, and Mike Prather in Madi- reported here are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official position or in the Department of Criminal Jus- son County; Sheriff Terrill Perkins policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. tice, University of Nebraska at and Joel Dalton in Hall County; Omaha, and director of the ADAM Sheriff Gary Reiber and Dottie The National Institute of Justice is a program’s Omaha site. The research Anderson in Dawson County; Sheriff component of the Office of Justice for this study was funded by grants James Moore, Ron White, and Mike Programs, which also includes the Bureau from NIJ (98–IJ–CX–0065); the Of- Moreno in Scotts Bluff County; and of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice fice of Community Oriented Policing Police Chief Donald Carey and Rick Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Services, U.S. Department of Justice; Power in Omaha for allowing the Victims of Crime. the Nebraska Midwest HIDTA (High ADAM program access to their fa- Intensity Drug Trafficking Area) cilities. Data collection would not This and other NIJ publications can be program (17–PN–WP–553); and the have been possible without the com- found at and downloaded from the NIJ Nebraska U.S. Attorney’s Office. mitment of the Omaha ADAM staff: Web site (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij). Steven Wilmes, who coordinated NCJ 180986 The support and assistance of and supervised Rural ADAM data Thomas Monaghan, U.S. Attorney for collection; and Ben Castinado, Lupe the Nebraska District, and his staff, Hickey, Alex Castro, Edna Castro, were essential in making this study and Jose Guerrera, who conducted possible. The author also wishes to the interviews in the rural sites. thank Sheriff Vernon Hjorth, Terry

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10 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Percent of Adult Arrestees Testing Positive for Methamphetamine Use, 1995 to 1999

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Northeast West/Southwest New York, NY Omaha, NE Men 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 Men 7.8 4.3 9.7 10.2 7.8 Women 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Women 10.3 4.9 13.3 13.6 11.1 Philadelphia, PA Albuquerque, NM** Men 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.2 Men – – – 3.4 5.1 Women 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 Women – – – 2.4 8.9 Washington, DC Denver, CO Men 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.9 Men 4.1 2.9 5.0 5.2 3.0 Women 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 – Women 3.2 0.7 4.6 4.6 2.4 South Laredo, TX** Men – – – 0.0 0.2 Atlanta, GA Women – – – 0.0 0.0 Men 0.4 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.4 Women 0.6 0.0 0.7 – 0.8 Las Vegas, NV** Men – – – 13.8 16.2 Birmingham, AL Women – – – 24.3 17.9 Men 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.0 0.1 Los Angeles, CA Women 0.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.9 Men 5.8 4.1 4.7 8.0 8.9 Dallas, TX Women 11.3 12.3 8.9 11.8 12.0 Men 2.2 1.2 2.6 3.3 2.5 Phoenix, AZ Women 3.7 1.5 2.8 4.0 3.2 Men 22.0 11.1 16.4 16.4 16.6 Ft. Lauderdale, FL Women 21.7 14.0 25.6 22.4 14.3 Men 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.4 Sacramento, CA** Women 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 Men – – – 24.6 27.6 , TX Women – – – 29.2 32.4 Men 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 Salt Lake City, UT** Women 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.0 0.1 Men – – – 20.3 24.8 Miami, FL Women – – – 31.4 34.1 Men 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 San Antonio, TX Women* – – – – – Men 1.1 1.7 1.7 2.0 1.8 New Orleans, LA Women 2.5 2.8 2.4 1.7 1.4 Men 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 San Diego, CA Women 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.0 Men 36.0 29.3 39.6 33.2 26.0 Oklahoma City, OK** Women 40.2 31.3 42.4 33.3 30.6 Men – – – 8.0 8.7 San Jose, CA Women – – – – 11.3 Men 16.3 12.1 18.4 19.7 24.4 Midwest Women 23.6 22.2 24.9 21.1 31.6 Chicago, IL Tucson, AZ** Men 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.0 Men – – – 4.0 5.8 Women – – – 0.0 0.0 Women – – – 2.5 9.6 Cleveland, OH Northwest Men 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Anchorage, AK** Women 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Men – – – 0.0 0.5 Des Moines, IA** Women – – – 0.0 0.0 Men – – – 10.2 14.0 Portland, OR Women – – – 24.2 22.4 Men 18.1 11.8 15.9 18.1 19.8 Detroit, MI Women 19.7 13.5 20.7 22.3 24.8 Men 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 Seattle, WA** Women 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Men – – – 6.4 9.0 Indianapolis, IN Women – – – 5.2 9.5 Men 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.8 0.6 Spokane, WA** Women 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.5 Men – – – 15.8 20.1 Minneapolis, MN** Women – – – 22.0 26.6 Men – – – 0.8 1.1 Women – – – 0.0 2.5

* Data on women not collected at this site. ** New ADAM site in 1998. Note: Data are from NIJ’s Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring program. Data collection in St. Louis was temporarily suspended in 1999; Honolulu replaced St. Louis in 2000 as the 35th ADAM site.

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