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Home , Champaran Satyagraha

AND POLITICS (1919-1947)

SUMIT KUMAR PACHAURI

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ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION

One of the largest movements of liberation The Indian national movement was against colonialism and imperialism was definitely one of the greatest mass the Indian freedom struggle. For countries movements ever seen in modern times. It that refuse to accept foreign dominance was also a popular and multi-class and exploitation, the battle continues to be movement that galvanised thousands of an effective and strong source of people from different ideologies into the inspiration for countries that value liberty, struggle for freedom and brought a great equality, freedom, dignity and democracy. imperial power to its knees. It was In order to eliminate and devastate the essentially the consequence of a undemocratic foundations of colonialism, fundamental conflict between the interests neo-colonialism, feudalism, radicalism and of the Indians and the colonialism of various types of secret oppression and England. The Indian people could see that violence, the Indian freedom movement was retreating economically and offers modern and ideal patriotism and undergoing an underdevelopment process. nationalism models that can be embraced The sentiment of nationalism among the and followed. It is widely accepted that in Indian people was encouraged and keeping the Indian national movement first increased by this anti-colonial ideology. and foremost non-violent, Gandhi played a The development of modern nationalism, major, vital and crucial role. In order to as in any other nation, is closely associated make India separate from British servitude, with the anti-colonial era in India. People he passionately and vigorously accepted began to demonstrate their unity during the and applied his philosophy and policy of period of their struggle with the British. non-violence. Although every group or class of

individuals felt that under imperialism they 212 | P a g e

were being persecuted, the effects of that his upbringing was imbued with the colonialism were felt in a different way. traditional Jain teachings of mutual attempted to combine toleration, non-damage to humans and these groups within one Congressional . movement altogether. In the freedom Gandhi was profoundly influenced in his movement, Gandhi conceived and early years by the tales of Shravana and introduced his non-violent that expressed the value of system, rejecting all kinds of violence for reality. He learned from these storeys and the purpose of achieving India’s freedom. through his own experiences that among But unity did not come easily, as the supreme values are honesty and love. elsewhere, without facing conflicts. Mohandas married Makhanji Kasturba in A single person is frequently linked to the about the age of 13. Gandhi later went on making of a nation in the history of to disclose that at that age, the marriage nationalism. For example, we relate did not mean anything to him and that he Garibaldi (1807-1882) to the creation of was just happy and excited about wearing Italy, George Washington (1732-1799) to new clothes. But then, as the days passed, the American War of Independence, and his feelings for her, which he later Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) to the fight to acknowledged with regret in his free colonial rule from Vietnam. In the autobiography, became lustful. Gandhi had same way, Mahatma Gandhi has been also admitted that because of his mind regarded as the "Father" of the Indian wavering towards his new and young wife, nation. he could not focus anymore in school.

MAHATMA GANDHI (1869-1948) Gandhi went to the Inns of Court in London and maintained his beliefs. His Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born obsession with the spiritual side of the into a Hindu Modh family in Porbandar, teaching of Jesus Christ goes back to his Gujarat, North West India, on 2 October early meetings in Britain. He was one of 1869, generally known as "Mahatma" England's most true companions, and this (meaning 'Great Soul'). His father was was evident more than once in his lifetime. Porbandar's chief minister, and the Gandhi eventually realised that he was not religious devotion of his mother suggested destined to be an attorney. At this mental 213 | P a g e

moment, to the benefit of an Indian seller, injured. Gandhi was persuaded by this he got an invitation to go to South Africa. massacre to start crusading for Indian Gandhi was asked for legal advice to assist independence. him and he accepted. GANDHI AND THE INDIAN Gandhi finds himself in another country in NATIONAL CONGRESS 1893. He saw people there treated with Gandhi gained a reputation as a nationalist, disdain by his brothers. In awful words, he thinker and activist after his long stay in was directly insulted. He was thrown out South Africa and his agitation against the of a train compartment on one occasion for racist policies of the British. Gandhi was travelling in a compartment held for the invited by , a Whites. He was beaten for walking on senior leader of the Indian National roads barred by Asians. Gandhi chose to Congress, to join India's fight against remain in South Africa under the above British rule for independence. Mohandas conditions and to help people recover their Karamchand Gandhi was extensively self-esteem and fight for their rights. He directed by Gokhale about the prevalent set up the Indian Congress in Natal to political situation in India and also about combat racism because of the mistreatment the social issues of the time. He then of Indian immigrants and to build up the joined the Indian National Congress and concept of self-purification and nonviolent led many agitations, which he called civil resistance "satyagraha." Satyagraha, before taking over the leadership in 1920. In 1915, Gandhi returned to India in a victorious way. Gandhi was stunned right SATYAGRAHA after his arrival by the congestion and After his arrival in India, the Champaran misery he faced and decided to work for Agitation in 1917 was Gandhi's first major these oppressed people. He wanted a day success. The British landlords forced the of dissent against the (1919) peasants of the region to grow , that allowed the British to arrest everyone. which was a cash crop, but the market for Thousands of protesters have gathered in it was declining. To make matters worse, different cities, yet the protests have they were forced to sell their crops at a become brutal. In Amritsar, approximately fixed price to the planting firms. For 400 people were killed and 1,300 were 214 | P a g e

support, the farmers turned to Gandhi. leaders challenged his move. Gandhi Gandhi took the administration by surprise managed to amass the vote of Muslims in and was successful in winning concessions spite of the opposition of many politicians. from the authorities in pursuit of a But all his efforts evaporated into thin air nonviolent agitation strategy. This as the Khilafat Campaign ended abruptly. movement marked the arrival in India of GANDHI’S NATIONAL MASS Gandhi! MOVEMENTS (1920-1947) KHEDA SATYAGRAHA Mahatma Gandhi played a big part in India's independence. The basis for As Kheda was struck by floods in 1918, achieving independence from the British farmers asked the British to ease the was his peaceful ways and smart payment of taxes. When the British techniques. Dandi March, Quit India refused to pay attention to the applications, Movement, Non-Cooperation Movement, Gandhi took the farmers' case and led the Movement, Gandhi has protests. He ordered them to refrain from been consciously moulding and defining paying any taxes, no matter what. Later, the path of the national freedom struggle the British gave in and approved the under the Gandhian era banner for more revenue collection to relax and gave than two decades. Vallabhbhai his word. THE CAMPAIGN FOR NON- POST COOPERATION (1920) WORLD WAR I With the Non-Cooperation movement, the During their fight in World War I, Gandhi Gandhian era of the Freedom Movement had decided to support the British. began. At the special session of the However, as promised earlier, the British National Congress held in Calcutta in refused to grant independence after the September 1920, the decision to initiate war, and was initiated as a consequence of the movement as an enthusiastic mass this Khilafat Movement. In order to fight movement was reiterated and again against the British, Gandhi realised that accepted at its December 1920 Nagpur Hindus and Muslims would unite and session. urged both groups to demonstrate solidarity and unity. But many Hindu

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In 1920, with the non-cooperation ACHIEVES IN THE NON- movement, a new stage in the history of COOPERATION CAMPAIGN India's struggle for independence was The campaign for non-cooperation was opened. In light of the ideals of non- perfectly focused on non-violence. Several violence and boycott, on August 1, 1920, known figures, such as this campaign was officially dispatched. (1889-1964)2, Motilal Nehru (1861- THE CURRICULUM FOR A NON- 1931)3, (1865-1928)4, COOPERATION MOVEMENT etc., gave up their legal practise and joined the movement. Many students in The Non-cooperation Campaign indicated government educational institutions gave a complex failure to comply with the up their studies. National organisations administration's regulations and controls. have been founded, such as Gujarat For each of the Indians, a request was Vidyapitha, Kashi Vidyapitha, made to Rendering their names, refusing to Vidyapitha, and the National College of go to the functions of government and . semi-government, boycotting the English courts, schools and universities, supported In the midst of the Prince of Wales' visit to or governed by the legislature, and India on 17 November 1921, the most boycotting the elections to be held for the fabulous achievement of the boycott committees, as proposed by the 19191 programme was seen. The Indians with Reform Act ... First and foremost, it was black flags welcomed him. A countrywide assumed that this would be enough to Harte has been detected and more than claim the need for more prominent 60,000 people have been identified. improvements in the nation’s The individuals were convinced that administration to the government. ’s achievement would be delayed Nevertheless, it was decided that if this without non-cooperation. A boycott of scheme failed to overthrow the elections was the strongest part of the non- government, people would refuse to pay cooperation campaign. In the elections to taxes. the Councils, which were reformed under the Government of India Act of 1919, the Congress did not assign any candidate to

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challenge the decisions to be contested. repressing brutal protests would be very Even, a significant number of voters did easy for the government, as citizens would not cast their ballots. The English not have the strength to struggle against an government has reacted to the restrictions. all-powerful government. The Congress and the organisation of In his case, the Congress Working Khilafat were found unlawful. Top Committee passed a decision halting the Congressional pioneers and a significant campaign. The sudden removal of the number of average citizens were caught campaign, however, came as a shock to the and put behind the counter. Open meetings people. Numerous leaders have questioned and processions have been declared Gandhi’s decision, such as Lala Lajpat unconstitutional. Rai, Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, etc. In February 1922, Gandhi sent a final Similarly, in March 1922, the British request to Lord Reading, the Governor- government arrested Gandhi on charges of General and Viceroy of India, to revoke all spreading alienation against the oppressive laws that he would dispatch to government and sentenced him to six years another satyagraha within one week. It in prison. Since Swaraj, as Gandhi had would ask the general public not to pay guaranteed, was not achieved within a taxes. The incident at Chauri Chaura year, the movement was clearly a failure. (1922)1 occurred before Gandhi propelled The significance and validity of the non- the suggested Civil Disobedience cooperation campaign, however, can not Campaign, for which Mahatma Gandhi be ignored. suspended the non-cooperation movement. THE MOVEMENT'S MEANING AND Horde violence has taken place in Chauri PERFORMANCE Chaura in the Gorakhpur district of . The police opened fire on the Gandhi's non-cooperation movement was swarm, and the goaded crowd charged and such a mass movement that it was never burned down the police station, causing seen before or after the Great Uprising of twenty-two policemen to die. Gandhi was 1857. A chief who had the courage to fight troubled by the news of this incident. He face to face was unexpectedly seen by felt that people were not ready for a non- India. As the British educator and author violent campaign yet. He also realised that

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Marjorie Sykes suggested, Gandhi had mass character by the sponsorship of "the gift of battle". Muslims.

The movement’s success was a complete In other words, for people at all levels, the shock to the British government and a non-cooperation movement was a serious great encouragement to the Indian people test, especially in terms of their self- who, during this uprising, achieved reliance and knowledge of their political substantial results. For example, because rights. of the boycott project, Indian mill-owners In the entire country, the non-cooperation won a decent advantage economically. movement evoked a remarkable eagerness. Imports of sugar from Britain have The non-cooperation movement was the decreased markedly. Imports of English first non-cooperation movement ever cotton products decreased within six without arms, according to Dr. Tara months. Yet, iron imports have decreased Chand, an Indian archaeologist and by 50 percent. historian specialising in the Ancient The influence of Congress and the History and Culture of India. It gave a new movement rose among the masses in terms appearance to the desire for liberty of the of politics. The non-cooperation general population. It marked the movement definitely showed that the beginning of a new period in the historical support and sensitivity of large sections of context of the independence movement in Indian society was mandated by the Indian India. National Congress. The movement was THE CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE prevalent in the nation as well. The facts MOVEMENT (1930-1931) can confirm that a few places were more According to the Indian historian Bipan complex than others, but there were few Chandra, who specialises in modern that by any way displayed no activity. India's economic and political past, "The On the other hand, the Muslim investment 1930-31 civil disobedience movement in the movement and the preservation of marked a critically significant stage in the mutual peace was also an amazing development of the anti-imperialist achievement. The movement was given a struggle."

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Indeed, Mahatma Gandhi turned out to be Gandhi’s eleven-point final suggestion very dynamic in India’s legislative was dismissed by Lord Irwin. Reacting to problems during the First World War. this, Gandhi undertook the Gandhi propelled a few movements from 12 March to 6 April across Gujarat focused on reality, love and non-violence from Ahmadabad to the Dandi salt works. shortly after the National Movement’s A colossal, prevalent reaction evoked the authority went under his influence. He Salt March. Swarms decided to make salt started the Civil Disobedience Campaign all over the place and to sell it directly, in 1930 after the when the farmers avoided paying their and the suspension of the Non- property charges. In spite of the fact that Cooperation movement. According to this Gandhi never embraced their line, the campaign, with gentle dissent and mindset, popular radicalism that it generated further he obtained the policy of disobedience to roused militant revolutionaries in Punjab the demands of the English government so and Bengal. that the path to India's independence could MOVEMENT GROWTH AND be opened up. PROGRESS THE HISTORY OF THE CIVIL In its first stage (1930-31), the civil DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT disobedience movement had a more Mahatma Gandhi sent an ultimatum to significant influence than the non- Lord Irwin (1881- 1959), the Viceroy of cooperation movement ten years earlier. India, on 31 January 1930. Though The colonial government was almost keeping a strategic distance from any paralysed in various areas by the notice of constitutional reform, Gandhi resignations of some officials in the reiterated a range of common demands, villages. There were lingering notably a decrease in military spending, a demonstrations that were mostly large- 50 percent reduction in land tax and the scale. The total number of arrests has risen abolition of the salt tax and the monopoly to over ninety thousand. As of the month of its sales by the government. Gandhi of May, the government cap turned out to made it clear that civil disobedience was be detectably harsher. The worldwide the only way out if his requests were press has commonly documented incidents refused. of police violence against unarmed 219 | P a g e

Satyagrahis. In spite of this, the movement was the civil disobedience movement. remained non-violent in general, testifying Sadly, on the other hand, the presence of to Gandhi's pervasive influence on both Muslims is actually declining. Congress and the masses. GANDHI - IRWIN PACT The civil disobedience movement is However, though smothering the primary different from the non-cooperation duration of the civil disobedience movement in many ways. There was much campaign, talks persisted with the more limited participation by teachers, the government of Lord Irwin. Political parties civilised intelligentsia and the working were invited to a Round Table conference class. As the strongholds of the civil in November, 1930. As Congress declined disobedience movement, the major cities, to go to the conference, there was no need including Bombay or Ahmadabad, for a meeting. In January, the Second emerged. In addition, the popularity of the Round Table Meeting was held, 1931. movement in the countryside was Meanwhile, the leadership of Congress prominent. It has also influenced new released Gandhi from prison. On the districts. Khan Abdul Gaffer, who came to condition that the government would be recognised as Frontier Gandhi, forced withdraw the repressive laws and release his devotees into a monstrous revolt in the the political prisoners, they decided to North Western Frontier Province. As they attend the meeting. wear red kurtas (a loose shirt), his followers were referred to as 'red shirts.' THE MOVEMENT STOPS The alliance he had made with workers In 1931, the replacement of the Viceroy and small landowners was known as the and the execution of (1907- (the servants of God). 1931)1 induced an air of failure in Gandhi Gaffer Khan became a loyal supporter of and other more youthful Indian pioneers. Gandhi and a leading member of In January 1932, Congress decided to Congress. revive the campaign. The English

The great participation of women for the government, of course, found a way to first time in a mass war was the other stifle the campaign and the British Prime specific aspect of the civil disobedience Minister, meanwhile, reported joint grants movement. In this respect, a critical trend in 1932. The campaign for civil 220 | P a g e

disobedience lasted up to 1934 and in that . January 26, 1930, was year it was suspended. celebrated as India's Day of Independence. But it was not recognised by the British, The Campaign of Civil Disobedience was and they soon levied a salt levy, and Salt not successful. In any event, training to Satyagraha was introduced in March 1930 demonstrate their knowledge of their to oppose this change. With his supporters, political rights was useful for the people of Gandhi began the Dandi March in March, India. The civil disobedience movement, moving on foot from Ahmadabad to separate from the non-cooperation Dandi. The protest was fruitful and movement, increased the prestige of resulted in the March 1931 Gandhi-Irwin Congress among the masses. Pact. & SALT SATYAGRAHA (DANDI MARCH) NEGOTIATIONS OVER ROUND Mahatma Gandhi focused on settling the TABLE CONFERENCES wedge between the and the Gandhi was invited to round table Indian National Congress during the meetings by the British, following the 1920s. In 1927, the British appointed Sir Gandhi-Irwin Agreement. Although John Simon as head of a new commission Gandhi urged Indian independence, the for constitutional reform, generally British challenged the intentions of Gandhi referred to as the 'Simon Commission.' and asked him not to speak for the country The commission didn't even have a single as a whole. Many religious leaders were Indian. Agitated by this, Gandhi passed a invited by them and B. To serve the resolution in December 1928 at the untouchables: R. Ambedkar. To different Calcutta Congress, calling on the British religious sects, as well as the untouchables, government to grant India the status of the British promised many privileges. dominion. The British were to face a new Fearing that this move would further break campaign of non-violence in the event of India, Gandhi protested against this by non-compliance with this demand, with its Hastening. He came up with another aim of full independence for the nation. Satyagraha after learning about the true The British have opposed the motion. On intentions of the British during the second 31 December 1929, at its Lahore meeting, meeting, for which he was again arrested. the Indian National Congress unfurled the 221 | P a g e

announcement guaranteeing that England THE was fighting a war pushed by the notion of (1942) improving the world's peace. Furthermore, In the sequence of revolutions led by he claimed that the government would start Gandhi over the course of the freedom talks in compliance with the Indians' struggle, the Quit India movement or the wishes after the war. 1942 Revolt or 'August Revolution' of After refusing the requests made by 1942 was the most prevalent and powerful Congress, Gandhi uncovered his scheme to mass movement. The Second World War dispatch individual civil disobedience at was going on when this mass movement the Congress Working Committee meeting was arranged; the shadows of the Japanese in Wardha. Once again, as the most assault on India were making the sky dark successful way to combat against the and overcast. British, the weapon of Satyagraha has found widespread acceptance. In general, QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT: it was used as a symbol of rebellion BACKGROUND against the steady position held by the India was declared to be a part of this war British. A follower of Gandhi, Vinoba in 1939, with the start of the war between Bhave (1895-1982)3, was chosen by him Germany and Britain, as a constituent part to begin the movement. of the . Following this article, a decision condemning the hostile In all corners of the world, anti-war activities of the Germans was adopted by speeches flourished, with the Satyagrahis the Working Committee of Congress at its seriously appealing to the general public meeting on 10 October 1939. In the not to support the government in its meantime, the decision also claimed that attempts at war. This Satyagrahi crusade India should not be aligned with the war resulted in the arrest of nearly fourteen because there was really no distinction thousand Satyagrahis. The Viceroy between Nazi totalitarianism and English ordered the release of all the Satyagrahis imperialism. In response to this on December 3rd, 1941, and Congress proclamation, on 17 October, Viceroy recognised the need to review their Linlithgow (1887-1952) issued an

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programme. The campaign was, therefore, GANDHI'S 1942 CALL TO LEAVE withdrawn. INDIA

In Gandhi's call for the Quit India Gandhi proclaimed 'Leave India' as the movement, the Cripps' Mission and its war cry for the Indians immediately after dissatisfaction took on a vital role. Sir Sir left. "The involvement Stafford (1889-1952)1 was sent by the of the British in India is an invitation to English Government on 22 March 1942 to Japan to conquer India," Gandhi said. end the dilemma. In exchange for a "Their removal eliminates the bait" 3 promise of complete self-government after Understood by Gandhi the war, Cripps managed to keep India The time was ready to take on some solid loyal to the British war effort. The creation and fast operations. In Harijan, he began to of the Dominion and elections to be held write a series of articles where he urged after the war were promised by Cripps. people to move and resort to direct action. Cripps spoke to the Indian leaders about the plans and explained them. However, This announcement made in May 1942 his proposals were dismissed by Congress demonstrates Gandhi's restlessness, who and the mission proved to be a failure. guaranteed Swaraj within a year, and who Cripps himself had written the is excited and eager to see that his main recommendations, but for both Churchill aim of winning independence for India is and the Indians they were overly radical; soon achieved. "While the need for non- no middle solution was found. violence has always been repeated, Gandhi’s slogan of Do or Die reflects These plans, as indicated by Congress, Gandhi's militant mood," Sumit Sarkar only offered India a pledge that would be writes. realised in the future. Commenting on this, Gandhi said: "It is a post-dated search on a The Congress initially decided on the failing bank"2. The Congress pushed principle of a struggle at the meeting of the towards the Quit India movement, refusing working committee held at Wardha on 14 to participate in the war effort, while the July 1942. This resolution to go in for a British imprisoned almost the entire war was accepted by the All India leadership of the Congress during the war Congress Committee that met in Bombay time. in August. Gandhi made it clear in his 223 | P a g e

speech that "I am not going to be content CONCLUSION with anything short of full liberty." While the pre-Gandhia period was one of Perhaps he (the Viceroy) is going to creating national consciousness among the recommend the abolition of the salt levy, masses of the colonialist evils, the the evil drink. But I'm not going to claim Gandhian age of 'struggle-truce-struggle' anything less than freedom'2. Gandhi then was one of supporting the movement's caught up with Do or Die's popular appeal. pace through the phases of non- Here's the Mantra, the quick one I'm cooperation followed by civil sending you. You should imprint it on disobedience, ending with the movement your heart and let your every breath of Quit India. convey it. Do or Die is the motto. We shall In addition to Gandhi's non-violence either free or die in the effort to free India; ideology and Satyagraha strategy, it was we shall not live to see the continuation of the 'struggle-truce-struggle' method that slavery'. quickened and controlled the urge for In addition, Gandhi called on all parts of liberty and enabled India in 1947 to the general public, the rulers, the property achieve independence. During the period and affluent classes, to infer their wealth of Gandhi, we discovered a radical and and property from the workers in the fields moderate shift from a small minority of and factories and elsewhere, to whom freedom seekers to a mass organisation of power and strength essentially belong. In freedom seekers, and his most remarkable the view of Sumit Sarkar, Gandhi's above devotion was the fruitful methodology of description reveals his social radicalism struggle-truce-struggle in stages to and moves in Congress' ideology, at this preserve the rhythm of the movement. point people with the aspirations of Obviously, by a great number of non- communism and socialism have become violent methods, Gandhi was an part of the broad-based association of outstanding strategist of the 20th century Congress; on the other hand, the British mass political mobilisation method were also equally determined to pulverise motivated by self-confident mass rule. any Congressional campaign. The history of the world contains only a few examples of men and women who have led such dedicated lives that they 224 | P a g e

have had an influence even after they have by colonial rule for two centuries, to passed away. The name of one of these recapture their independence as well as greatest men is Mahatma Gandhi. The way their pride and integrity. he gave structure and character to the The most prominent achievement of struggle for freedom in India deserves a Gandhi was to inspire and train the masses big applause. He lost his own unique life in India, regardless of their variations in for his nation's sake. The estimate he religion, language, class, faith and sex, to obtained for himself, despite leading a fight entirely with the weapon of non- modest way of life, is quite important. violence against the colonial coloniser. In Although it was not the only justification participatory administration, there can be for India's independence, it is unreasonable no better example than this. He was to say that his non-violent protest did not renowned for his non-violent support the fight for Indian liberation. His demonstrations, inspiring speeches and nonviolent ways and non-violent tactics convictions during his nationalist played a significant role in achieving campaign in India (1920-1947) that this independence from the British state. approach would enable the British to leave Gandhi took as much time as possible, like India rather than use brutality and brutal other nationalist men in the world, to protests. formulate and build up his tactics to ensure When Gandhi was 78, India finally that his efforts had an impact. The achieved full independence in 1947. While successes of Gandhi were far more than some historians argue that independence pushing the non-violent struggle to achieve was inevitable with the financial crisis of the liberation of India. He was an amazing England after the world visionary with a widespread idiom who realised Indian society's syncretism as its Most of them accept that without the power, exceeding contrasts of faith, class, efforts of Gandhi, the champion of non- dialect and ethnic diversity. With violence, it would not have happened. tremendous success, he used it to unite the Today, Indians, anti-war protestors and people in the fight for liberty. He thus writers commemorate Gandhi as a reinforced the national identity of India memorable figure for the many significant and enabled the general population, eroded citations he gave. Gandhi has influenced

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the history of the United States less than  Geoffrey, White, "The Complete 20 years after his demise. It is said that Peerage", St. Catherine's Press, Martin Luther Ruler Jr. was profoundly 1959, 4. inspired by the non-violence reasoning of  Gregory, Claeys, "Mazzini, Gandhi, finding it to be the ultimate valid Kossuth, and British Radicalism", way to deal with the problem of race Journal of British Studies, July relations in America. 1989, 225-261.  Hugh, Chisholm, "bankim

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 Saritha, Nambarathil, "Indian National Movement", Social Scientists, 1977, 41.  Sastri, S., "History of the ", Sarvadeshik Arya, 1967, 1-2.  Solinger, Jason D., "Thomas Paine's Continental Mind", Early American Literature, 2010, 8.  Wallace Klippert., Ferguson, "The Renaissance in Historical Thought", AMS Press, 1981, 30.  Werner, A., "Life account of Giuseppe Garibaldi", Daily Herald, 1989, 68.  Yang, Allan, "The Khmer Rouge", Harvard International Review, 2008, 17-18.

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