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The Essence of the Inka: an Interdisciplinary Investigation of the Saqsawaman Landscape

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The Essence of the Inka: an Interdisciplinary Investigation of the Saqsawaman Landscape The Essence of the Inka: An Interdisciplinary Investigation of the Saqsawaman Landscape Justin A. Anspach Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Columbia University 2016 © 2016 Justin A. Anspach All rights reserved Abstract The Essence of the Inka: An Interdisciplinary Investigation of the Saqsawaman Landscape Justin A. Anspach This dissertation presents an interdisciplinary research project studying Inka engagement with the heavily modified ritual landscape of the 3000 hectare Saqsawaman Archaeological Park, located just north of the former imperial capital of Cuzco. First, through a close reading of cosmogenesis narratives, and a careful application of ethnographic comparison, I examine the nature of actors and agency in Andean and Inka thought and practice. Specifically, I bring up five themes - vitality, communication, identity, complementarity, and positioning - that are prevalent in Andean cosmology and that were therefore capitalized on in the built landscapes of the Inka. While prior research has focused on Inka stonework, I argue that it is the combination of stone with other elements - most notably water and the subterranean - that allows the most symbolically powerful deployment of landscape in epistemology and cosmology. This argument is supported by an archaeological examination that uses survey and GIS techniques to map the Inka efforts at landscape manipulation in Saqsawaman. The results show that the Inka focused their efforts on areas where a combination of stone and water, along with subterranean access and viewsheds of sacred landscape, allowed for a more symbolically rich engagement with their universe. The ethnographic research and the survey together show that while stone was an important and enduring element in Andean belief systems, it is actually water which was the most important element of the ritual practice that sustained the cosmological universe. As a result, administrative focus on bounded stone sites has allowed elements such as water, as well as areas outside these boundaries, to be designated as unimportant - a process that has led to the loss of a great deal of knowledge and understanding grounded in a more comprehensive view of the larger landscape. Table of Contents List of Figures and Tables vi List of Appendices x Acknowledgements xi Dedication xiv Part 1: Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Introduction 2 Introduction 3 Statement of Purpose 7 Research Hypotheses 10 Thesis 12 Significance and Contributions 16 Thesis Structure 22 Discussion of Quechua and Spanish terms 24 Chapter 2: Research Methods 26 Introduction 27 Textual Sources 30 Introduction 31 The Chronicles 33 Prior Research 39 Ethnographic Sources 47 Survey 56 Research Location 57 Survey Techniques 63 i What is a site? 69 Modern Techniques 71 Equipment and Calculations 72 GIS Questions 75 Conclusion 78 Part 2: Context 80 Introduction 81 Chapter 3: Central Highlands, Cuzco Valley, and Saqsawaman 82 Ecology, Geomorphology, Hydrology 83 Cuzco 87 Chapter 4: The History of the Inka 93 Introduction 94 Before the Inka 95 Early Inka 100 Imperial Expansion 106 Dynastic Civil War and the Spanish Conquest 111 Post-conquest 113 Part 3: Andean Thought and Practice 115 Introduction 116 Chapter 5: A New World View 118 The Subject of Stone 119 Materiality, Phenomenology, and the Andes 125 A New Ontology 128 Andean Actors and Agency 132 Wak'as and Zeq'es 135 Chapter 6: Andean Cosmogenesis 138 ii Andean Cosmogenesis 139 Andean Thought and Practice 144 A note on water 146 Chapter 7: Vitality/Camay/Being 151 Camay and Being 152 Transcendence 158 Chapter 8: Communication 162 Codified Knowledge 163 Khipu 164 Landscape 169 Performance 172 Movement 174 Conclusion 176 Chapter 9: Identity 178 Ayllu and Ancestors 179 Delineating/Connecting 181 Chapter 10: Complementarity 185 Moieties, Cycles, and Tinkus 186 Feeding Things 191 Chapter 11: Positioning 197 Hierarchy and Rank 198 Part 4: SAPP: A Case Study 202 Chapter 12: Introduction 203 Introduction 204 Initial Observations 209 Chapter 13: Preliminary Results 214 iii Introduction 215 Elevation 219 Slope 224 Aspect 229 Water 236 Roads 242 Chapter 14: Cluster 250 Average Nearest Neighbor 251 Kernel 253 Chapter 15: Water 256 Flow Accumulation 257 Kernel and Waterways 259 Sites, Kernel, Waterways 261 Watersheds 262 Dam 266 Chapter 16: Roads 271 Kernel and Roads 272 Least Cost Paths 274 Conclusion 278 Chapter 17: Tinku 279 Introduction 280 Water Tinkus 281 Road Tinkus 283 Water and Road Tinkus 284 All Tinku 285 Chapter 18: Viewsheds 289 iv Introduction 290 Ausangate 290 Huanacauri 297 Plaza de Armas 306 Combination 308 Conclusion 312 Chapter 19: Subterranean 313 Introduction 314 Caves 315 Fissures 318 Conclusions 321 Chapter 20: Solar 323 Solar Map 324 Part 5: Conclusions 329 Chapter 21: Conclusions 330 Results of the Survey 331 Cosmopraxis 339 The Essence of the Inka 344 Further Research 348 Bibliography 350 Appendices 366 Glossary of Terms 367 Field Notes Digest 369 Landscape Definitions for Survey 449 Site Chart 451 v List of Figures and Tables Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 - Location of study zone within Peru and the Department of Cuzco. Figure 2.2 - A map of sites within the Cuzco River basin reprinted with permission from D'Altroy, The Incas, 2d ed, 2015. Chapter 4 Figure 4.1 - Andean Chronological Sequence Figure 4.2 - Conventional dynastic sequence with associated relevant accomplishments Chapter 13 Figure 13.1 - Location of study zone within Peru and the Department of Cuzco. Figure 13.2 - Examples of the four categories utilized in the survey. Figure 13.3 - Elevation Summary Statistics Figure 13.4 - Scatterplot of Elevation by Category Figure 13.5 - Survey sites broken down by category and divided into three elevation classes. Figure 13.6 - Percentage of survey sites broken down by category and divided into three elevation classes. Figure 13.7 - Slope Summary Statistics Figure 13.8 - Scatterplot of Slope by Category Figure 13.9 - Number of Sites with Particular Slopes by Category Figure 13.10 - Percentage of Sites with Particular Slope by Category Figure 13.11 - Aspect Summary Statistics Figure 13.12 - An Example of a Carved Seat Figure 13.13 - The Four-part Division of the Cuzco basin vi Figure 13.14 - Number of Sites by Division Figure 13.15 - Number of Sites by Aspect Figure 13.16 - Aspects of Sites in Saqsawaman Figure 13.17 - Distance to Water Summary Statistics Figure 13.18 - Scatterplot of Distance to Waterways by Category Figure 13.19 - Number of Sites by Distance to Waterway Figure 13.20 - Percentage of Sites Located at 4 Distance Classes Figure 13.21 - (Adjusted) Percentage of Sites Located at 4 Distance Classes Figure 13.22 - Roads Figure 13.23 - Distance to Roads Summary Statistics Figure 13.24 - Scatterplot of Distance to Roads by Category Figure 13.25 - Number of Sites at Particular Distances from Roads Figure 13.26 - Percentage of Sites at Particular Distances from Roads by Category Chapter 14 Figure 14.1 - Average Nearest Neighbor Summary Figure 14.2 - Kernel Density Analysis with Ranked Sites Chapter 15 Figure 15.1 - Flow Accumulation Figure 15.2 - Waterways with Kernel Density Figure 15.3 - Waterways, Kernel Density, and Ranked Sites Figure 15.4 - Waterways and Watershed Boundaries Figure 15.5 - Waterways, Watershed Boundaries, and Ranked Sites Figure 15.6 - Watershed and Ranked Sites with Kernel Density Figure 15.7 - Slope of Waterways Figure 15.8 - Inka Dam Figure 15.9 - Inka Dam Figure 15.10 - Slope of the Waterways with Ranked Sites, Dam Location, and Kernel Density vii Chapter 16 Figure 16.1 - Roads with Kernel Density Figure 16.2 - Roads with Least Cost Paths Figure 16.3 - Roads with Least Cost Paths and Waterways with Kernel Density Chapter 17 Figure 17.1 - Waterway Tinku with Kernel Density Figure 17.2 - Road Tinku with Kernel Density Figure 17.3 - Water and Road Tinku with Kernel Density Figure 17.4 - All Tinku with Roads, Waterways, and Kernel Density Figure 17.5 - All Tinku with Kernel Density Chapter 18 Figure 18.1 - Location of Ausangate Figure 18.2 - Ausangate Viewshed with Ranked Sites Figure 18.3 - Ausangate Viewshed Summary Statistics Figure 18.4 - Ausangate Viewshed by Category Figure 18.5 - Percentage of Sites with a View of Ausangate by Category Figure 18.6 - Ausangate Viewshed with Waterways and Ranked Sites Figure 18.7 - Location of Huanacauri Figure 18.8 - Huanacauri Looking Towards Cuzco Figure 18.9 - Temple of Huanacauri During Inti Raymi Figure 18.10 - Vertical Stone with Offerings Figure 18.11 - Huanacauri Viewshed Figure 18.12 - Huanacauri Viewshed Summary Statistics Figure 18.13 - Percentage of Sites with a View of Huanacauri by Category Figure 18.14 - Huanacauri Viewshed by Category Figure 18.15 - Location of the Plaza de Armas viii Figure 18.16 - Number of Sites with Viewsheds by Category Figure 18.17 - Percentage of Each Category with Each Viewshed Figure 18.18 - Percentage of Each Viewshed by Category Chapter 19 Figure 19.1 - Caves with Waterways, Roads, and Kernel Density Figure 19.2 - Number of Caves by Category Figure 19.3 - Percentage of Caves in Each Category Figure 19.5 - Number of Fissures in Each Category Figure 19.6 - Percentage of Fissures in Each Category Chapter 20 Figure 20.1 - Solar Radiation Map with Ranked Sites Figure 20.2 - Scatterplot of Solar Radiation by Category Figure 20.3 - Solar Radiation Map with Waterways and Ranked Sites ix List of Appendices Glossary of Terms 367 Field Notes Digest 369 Landscape Definitions for Survey 449 Site Charts 451 x Acknowledgements Looking back now at the incredible amount of support I have received over the years makes the process of acknowledgement a daunting task, but here it goes. I know I will inevitably leave out someone, so if that is you, thank you so much for all of your love, kindness, and support.
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