Cardiovascular Actions of Cannabinoids and Their Generation During Shock
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J Mol Med (1998) 76:824–836 © Springer-Verlag 1998 REVIEW Jens A. Wagner · Károly Varga · George Kunos Cardiovascular actions of cannabinoids and their generation during shock Received: 20 May 1998 / Accepted: 24 August 1998 Abstract Marijuana is a widely abused recreational drug system and is thought to be responsible for the immuno- well known for its psychoactive properties. Cannabinoids, suppressant effects of cannabinoids. Recently, endogenous the active ingredients of marijuana, elicit their neuro- lipidlike substances have been identified, including ara- behavioral effects by interacting with the CB1 cannabinoid chidonyl ethanolamide (anandamide) and 2-arachidonyl receptor subtype, expressed primarily in the brain but also glyceride, that bind to cannabinoid receptors and mimic present in some peripheral tissues. A second receptor sub- many of the neurobehavioral effects of plant-derived can- type, the CB2 receptor, is expressed on cells of the immune nabinoids. Both plant-derived cannabinoids and the endog- enous ligands have been shown to elicit hypotension and bradycardia via activation of peripherally located CB1 re- ceptors. Possible underlying mechanisms include presyn- aptic CB1 receptor mediated inhibition of norepinephrine release from peripheral sympathetic nerve terminals, and/or direct vasodilation via activation of vascular can- nabinoid receptors. The latter may also be the target of endocannabinoids of vascular endothelial origin. Recent studies indicate that a peripheral endogenous cannabinoid system in circulating macrophages and platelets is activat- ed in hemorrhagic and septic shock and may contribute to the hypotension associated with these conditions via acti- vation of vascular cannabinoid receptors. The potential role of this mechanism in human shock conditions is under JENS A. WAGNER GEORGE KUNOS studied biology at the Universi- received his M.D. from Sem- investigation. ty of Düsseldorf and medicine melweis Medical University in at the University of Heidelberg Budapest, Hungary, and his Key words Cannabinoid · Hypotension · Blood pressure · in Mannheim, Germany. Inter- Ph.D. in pharmacology from Anandamide · 2-Arachidonyl-glycerol rupting clinical work at the De- McGill University in Montreal, partment of Cardiology/Angiol- Canada. He is currently Profes- ogy at the Klinikum sor and Chairman of the De- Abbreviations 2-AG 2-Arachidonyl monoglyceride · Mannheim, he is presently a partment of Pharmacology and EDHF Endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor · Deutsche Forschungsgemein- Toxicology at the Medical Col- GC/MS Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry · schaft postdoctoral scientist in lege of Virginia, Virginia Com- HU-210 (–)-11-OH-∆9-Tetrahydrocannabinol dimethyl- G. Kunos’ laboratory. His re- monwealth University in Rich- G search interests are cardiovas- mond, Virginia, USA. His heptyl · L-NAME N -Nitro-L-arginine methylester · cular regulatory mechanisms. research interests include cen- LPS Lipopolysaccharide · SR141716 A N-(Piperidin-1-yl)- tral neural and peripheral vas- 5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H- cular mechanisms of blood pyrazole-3-carboxamide HCl · THC ∆9-Tetrahydrocannab- pressure regulation, and the regulation of adrenergic recep- inol · WIN 55212-2 (R)-(+)-[2,3-Dihydro-5-methyl-3- tor gene expression. [(4-morpholinyl)methyl]pyrrolo[1,2,3-de]1,4-benzoxazin- 6-yl]-(1-naphthalenyl) methanone J.A. Wagner · K. Varga · G. Kunos (✉) Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia of Virginia Commonwealth University, P.O. Box 980613, Richmond, VA 23298, USA 825 such ligand, arachidonyl ethanolamide, was isolated from Introduction porcine brain in 1992 [23] (see Fig. 1). The term “anand- amide” was coined from the Sanskrit ananda, meaning Next to alcohol, marijuana is the most widely used recre- “bliss” or “happy,” and the chemical designation “amide.” ational drug in Western countries. The major psychoactive The name “anandamide” initially included two related constituent of the marijuana plant, cannabis sativa, is ∆9- molecules with similar binding affinities for cannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC; Fig. 1). The characteristic receptors: N-docosatetraenoyl ethanolamide and N-homo- neurobehavioral effects of THC in humans include analge- γ–linolenoyl ethanolamide. Because most of the follow-up sia, euphoria, and acoustic hallucinations, whereas in ro- work so far has concentrated on the originally isolated ara- dents the classical tetrad of hypothermia, antinociception, chidonyl-ethanolamide, the name “anandamide” is used to catalepsia, and hypomotility is considered diagnostic for designate this substance (Fig. 1). cannabinoid action [1]. Although the main focus of con- As with the plant-derived THC, anandamide binds to temporary cannabinoid research has been on these neuro- cannabinoid receptors [24, 25], inhibits adenylate cyclase behavioral effects and the underlying cellular/molecular via an inhibitory G protein [24], and inhibits voltage-gated mechanisms, it has long been known that cannabinoids al- N-type calcium channels [25]. Anandamide and other can- so have immunomodulatory [2] and cardiovascular actions nabinoids have also been found to modulate the voltage-de- [3–9]. This review concentrates on the cardiovascular ef- pendent potassium A current [26] and to activate inwardly fects of cannabinoids and on the putative role of endo- rectifying potassium channels via CB1 receptors coupled to cannabinoids as a novel class of cardiovascular regulators. a pertussis toxin sensitive G protein [27]. Cannabinoid re- Other aspects of cannabinoid research are briefly summa- ceptor mediated cellular responses also include the pertus- rized, and the reader is referred to several excellent in sis toxin-sensitive activation of mitogen-activated protein depth reviews, as cited in the text. kinases [28], the activation of a neuronal form of focal ad- Cannabinoids have been catapulted onto the center hesion kinase [29], and the mobilization of arachidonic ac- stage of biomedical research by several key discoveries id [30], blocked by the CB1 receptor antagonist N- during the past decade. First, specific cannabinoid receptor (piperidin-1-yl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl) binding sites have been identified in the brain and in some -4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide HCl (SR141716 A) peripheral tissues, with properties characteristic of the su- [31]. Although anandamide also binds to transfected CB2 perfamily of G protein coupled receptors [10]. Subse- receptors, it does not activate them [32, 33]. quently, two such receptors have been cloned: the CB1 re- More recently the demonstration of stimulation-in- ceptor, originally discovered in brain [11, 12] but also duced, calcium-dependent release of anandamide from present in some peripheral tissues [13, 14], and the CB2 re- neurons in the brain has strongly suggested that anandam- ceptor, first identified in macrophages in the marginal zone ide has a neurotransmitter or neuromodulatory function of spleen [15] and also found in the tonsils, thymus, mast [34, 35]. This has been further supported by findings that cells, and some blood cells [16]. The human CB1 receptor neurons can both synthesize and degrade anandamide. It has a molecular weight of 52.8 kDa and contains 472 ami- was first thought that the biosynthesis of anandamide oc- no acids (Table 1; for review see [16]). In a recent study a curs via enzymatic condensation of arachidonic acid and cannabinoid receptor with about 50% sequence identity ethanolamine [36, 37]. Subsequent findings indicate, how- with the human CB1 receptor was discovered in leech, in- ever, that anandamide is most likely generated from a pre- dicating that this signaling system has been conserved dur- cursor phospholipid, N-arachidonyl phosphatidyl et- ing evolution [17]. The amino acid sequence homology hanolamide, by phospholipase D-catalyzed cleavage that between the human CB1 and CB2 receptors is only about yields anandamide and phosphatidic acid. N-Arachidonyl 44%, and the CB2 receptor is also smaller than the CB1 re- phosphatidyl ethanolamide, in turn, may be generated by ceptor (360 amino acids, 40.2 kDa), due to a shorter third the action of an N-acyltransferase which catalyzes the intracellular loop and C-terminal tail. The gene locus des- transfer of arachidonic acid from the sn-1 position of ignations for the CB1 and CB2 receptors are CNR1 (hu- phospholipids to the amine group of phosphatidylethanola- man, on chromosome 6 [14, 18]; mouse, on chromosome 4 mine (reviewed in [38, 39]). [19]) and CNR2 (mouse, on chromosome 4 [20]). The The enzyme anandamide amidohydrolase, which is capa- messenger RNA for a splice variant of the CB1 receptor – ble of catalyzing the synthesis of anandamide at exception- termed CB1A – has also been identified [21], although ally high substrate concentrations [40, 41], is mainly respon- there is no evidence as yet whether this message is trans- sible for the biodegradation of anandamide and other lated. In Chinese hamster ovary cells stably transfected unsaturated N-acylethanolamides, resulting in the release of with either CB1 or CB1A receptor mRNA, cannabinoids free arachidonic acid [36, 42, 43]. Inhibitors of this enzyme, were found to inhibit forskolin-stimulated cAMP accumu- including the serine protease inhibitor phenylmethyl lation, although the effects elicited via CB1A receptors sulfonylfluoride, have been shown to increase the apparent were smaller than those triggered by CB1 receptors [22]. binding