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Index

Page numbers in italics indicate figures.

Abinnaeus, archive of, , ,  Aphrodisias, – Actium, battle of, ,  Appian, ,  administration, – Arabs Adrianople, battle of, , , , – as allies,  adventus,  enslavement of Malchus by,  Africa Islamic conquests, , , n economic importance, – Arausio, battle of, ,  mutinies in, – Arbogast, ,  nomadic raiders,  Arcadius, ,  recruitment in, – Arch of Constantine, ,  soldiers’‘wives’,  archaeological evidence,  worship of local deities,  for impact of Gothic War,  see also Bu Njem; Egypt; Numidia; Vandals for military diet, – age of soldiers, n,  Neupotz plunder finds, – aggression and bloodshed in Roman culture,  for Republican land-holding patterns, Agrippina the Elder,   alae, ,  for sacking of cities, – Alaric the Goth, ,  for women and children in military bases, Alesia, siege of, ,  ,  Allectus,  archers, , , –,  Allia, battle of the, – Syrian auxiliaries’ religious practices,  allies Arian heterodoxy, , ,  foederati,  Armenia Italian (socii), –, n, – armies of Justinian,  Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus,  campaign of Paetus,  Amida, siege of, , , – campaign of Severianus,  Ammianus Marcellinus, , , , , ,  as recruiting ground,  Anastasius (emperor), , , , , n troops under Tigranes,  Anatolia armour defeat of Antiochus III,  cross-cultural influences, ,  Gothic raids on,  evidence about, , ,  military-civilian relations, – self-provision,  recruitment from, –,  Asia (province), ,  see also Asia; Isauria assidui, –,  andreia see courage Athens, capture by Sulla, , n Antiochus III, ,  Attila,  Antiochus IV,  auctoritas, – Antony, Mark, , , , n Augsburg,  battle of Forum Gallorum, – Augustine of Hippo, , 



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Index 

Augustus (Octavian before  BC), –,  Britain battle of Philippi, ,  cavalry troops in, ,  and concept of peace, – conquest of,  military funding,  food supplies,  and military identity, – meat consumption,  and military record-keeping,  rebellion in,  military reorganisation, , , ,  religion of troops in, ,  oaths of loyalty to,  Brunt, Peter, ,  opponents’ defeated legions,  Brutus, Decimus,  and Parthians,  Bu Njem, , , , ,  recruitment of non-citizens,  bucellarii,  reduction of mutinies,  Byzantine Empire,  rejection of commilito persona,  and religious calendar, – Caesar, C. Julius, , n and restriction of triumphs, –,  civil war tactics,  siege of Perusia,  and cult of Victoria,  supplicationes,  Gallic campaigns, ,  and Varian disaster, ,  invasion of Italy, ,  and victory ideology, ,  military writings, –, n,  war against Antony, –, n mutinies against, n,  Aurelian, ,  ’othering’ of troops of, n auxilia, –, , ,  and Parthian threat, – discharge diplomas, , , ,  personal involvement in fighting, – recruitment to,  recruitment of non-citizens,  auxilia externa, –,  supplicationes,  Avars, , –,  see also Pharsalus, battle of avoidance of service, – Callinicum, battle of, , – by self-mutilation,  campaign armies, size of,  awards for courage (dona militaria), campaigning season,  – camps and forts allied units within,  Bar Kokhba revolt,  bath-houses, – ‘barbarisation’, –,  establishment of permanent bases, ,  bathing, – non-combatant presence, –, ,  battle posting of laws, – ancient accounts of, – record-keeping, – combat behaviour and morale, – shrine for standards, , n tactics and mechanics, – see also Dura-Europos unpredictability and confusion, – Campus Martius, ,  battlefield archaeology,  Cannae, battle of, ,  battles see name of location, e.g. Pydna, battle of and introduction of volones,  Belisarius treatment of survivors,  action against Hun raiders,  troop numbers,  blame for Callinicum,  capital punishment,  booty acquired,  capite censi, n identification with troops,  Caracalla, ,  Justinian’s public recognition of,  Carrhae, battle of, ,  Procopius and,  return of standards, ,  restoration to favour, – Cartagena, siege of see New , siege of at siege of Rome,  Carthage, –,  Beth-horon, battle of,  see also Hannibalic (Second Punic) War; Punic billeting, – Wars booty, , –, , ,  Cassius Dio spolia opima,  on Pharsalus,  Boudicca, ,  on second battle of Cremona, n

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 Index

casualty rates, – Civilis, Gaius Julius, , n Catiline, uprising of,  Clastidium, battle of,  Cato the Elder, , ,  Claudius (emperor),  Caudine Forks, Roman surrender at,  Claudius Pulcher, Publius,  cavalry, , –, ,  cohorts, ,  mounted archers, , , –,  coinage, , –, ,  Celts,  collegia, military,  censors, – Column of Marcus Aurelius, –,  census, , n,  Column of Theodosius I, ,  centuriate assembly, , –,  Column of Trajan, – rank and military service, – comitatus, – chaos theory,  Commodus, ,  children conquisitores, , – in besieged cities,  conscription evidence of in camps,  Republican dilectus, – inheritance rights from soldiers, – Principate,  recruitment of soldiers’ sons,  Late Antiquity, – treatment as prisoners,  Constantine I, – violent play,  Arch of, ,  Christianity bravery of, – Arian heterodoxy, , ,  dynastic claims,  in army before Constantine, – military/civilian distinction,  in army from Constantine on, – personal risk in battle,  attitudes to war and peace, ,  and religion, , ,  celebration of victories, – Constantinople divine favour in battle, – Column of Theodosius I, ,  explanations of defeat, – Justinian’s victory celebrations, – military oath,  mutiny of ,  symbolism on military equipment, ,  Nika riot,  Cicero Persian threat to,  as commander,  shift of imperial power to, – correspondence with Galba,  Constantius II on generalship, – battle of Mursa, –,  on war and money,  management of supplies, n citizenship redeployment of troops, n, ,  Edict of Caracalla, –,  resettlement of prisoners,  extension to Italian allies, , – victory memorials,  extension to provincials, ,  war with Persians, ,  and military service, –, –, –,  consulship,  and Roman identity,  contarii,  civil war contubernales, ,  battle of Forum Gallorum, – Cornelianus, L. Attidius, ,  battle of Pharsalus, , ,  Cornell, Tim,  celebration of victory,  courage, – chronology of outbreaks, , –, ,  in generalship, – and concentration of power,  Crassus, M. Licinius, , ,  consequences of, –, –,  Cremona, second battle of, , ,  divine signs in, – Cynoscephalae, battle of, ,  fate of defeated troops, – incitement of mutiny, n Dacia/Dacians justification and legitimation of, , – booty from,  Republican manpower demands, –, – defeat of Oppius Sabinus,  siege of Valencia, – Domitian’s peace terms with,  vs. mutiny, , n, n economic significance,  written propaganda,  loss of province, 

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Index 

redeployment of Vitellian troops against, Egypt  billeting in Oxyrhynchus,  religion among Roman troops in,  documentary evidence,  Roman conquest of, , ,  importance to empire,  Danube frontier integration of army in society,  second century,  Jewish revolt,  third century,  limits of documentary evidence,  fourth century,  local recruitment,  fifth century,  loss to Islamic forces, , , n sixth century,  petitions to soldiers, – mutiny of , , – prostitution in forts,  supplies of food,  Ptolemaic army,  see also Dacia/Dacians Roman conquest of,  death see epitaphs; funerary practices emperors decimation, , n and auctoritas,  Decius, ,  as military commanders, ,  defeat, – and virtus, –,  Deiotarus of Galatia,  see also names of individual emperors Dentatus, L. Siccius, ,  epitaphs, n, –, , n,  desertion,  equestrian order, ,  Dexippus,  diet, – farmer-soldier ideal, – siege shortages, – felicitas (good fortune),  war-induced famine,  Feriale Duranum, , –, ,  dilectus, – fetial law,  Diocletian financial benefits of war, – ‘Great Persecution’, – financial costs of war see military financing military/civilian distinction,  Flaminius, Gaius, – service requirement for sons of soldiers,  foederati,  taxation under,  forts/fortresses see camps and forts; Tetrarchy,  Dura-Europos, see camps and forts victory over Persians, ,  Forum Gallorum, battle of, –,  Dionysius of Halicarnassus,  Franks diplomas, , , ,  conflict with, – discharge benefits, , ,  high-level cultural integration, – discipline and obedience, – funerary practices, –, –,  individual heroism, – mixed military/civilian cemeteries,  punishments, ,  documentary sources, –, – Gainas (Gothic leader),  evidence for literacy levels, – Galba, Servius Sulpicius, – see also inscriptions Gallienus,  Domitian, –,  Gaul/Gauls Domitius Ahenobarbus, Altar of,  battle of Clastidium,  dona militaria, – Caesar’s Gallic war, ,  donatives,  see also Alesia, siege of drill,  conflicts in Late Antiquity,  Dura-Europos meat consumption,  archaeological evidence, n, n revolt of Civilis,  and army as ‘total institution’,  sack of Rome ( BC), – Christianity at,  wine production,  documentary evidence, ,  generals Feriale Duranum, , –, ,  and divine favour, – ideal qualities of, – Eckstein, Arthur, – identification with soldiers, – Edessa, –,  pre-battle speeches, –

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 Index

Germanicus, n evidence on Germanic raiders,  ‘Germanisation’ evidence on soldiers’‘wives’,  of army see ‘barbarisation’ Mithraic dedications,  of diet in Britain,  on sling bullets, n, n,  good fortune (felicitas),  Isauria, , , , , n,  Gothic War (–), –, , – Issus, battle of,  religious justification,  siege of Rome, – Jewish uprisings, , ,  Goths, –, ,  siege of Jerusalem, , n Gracchi,  Josephus, ,  Greek language, , – Joshua the Stylite (attrib.), Chronicle, , –,  Julian Hadrian, , ,  Ammianus and,  Hannibalic (Second Punic) War, – composition of forces,  economic impact,  courage of,  indemnity imposed,  defeat in Persia, , , – mobilisation rate, – discipline under,  number of legions,  military competence,  Petelian women,  religion under,  and Roman sword style,  resettlement of prisoners,  sack of Gerunium,  success in Gaul,  Hellenistic kingdoms support of troops for, n, ,  adoption of Roman military practices, Jupiter Dolichenus, cult of,   ‘just war’,  conquest of, ,  Justin I,  Seleucid indemnity payments,  Justin II,  helmets,  Justinian Heracleia, battle of,  Belisarius and, ,  Heraclius,  celebration of victories, – Hirtius, Aulus,  expansion of army,  Historia Augusta,  military campaigns, –, – historiography, – mutiny under, – battle descriptions, ,  Procopius and,  explanations of defeat, – siege descriptions, – Keegan, John, The Face of Battle, –,  speeches in, – Homer, influence of, , –, ,  land grants,  Honorius,  land ownership see property ownership Huns, , n, –,  language and culture, ,  Late Antiquity, , – indemnities,  attitudes to peace, –,  individual heroism attitudes to warfare, –,  in emperors, – campaign army size,  in ordinary soldiers, –,  Christian persecutions, – in Republican elite, – Christianisation of military, – infantry combat, – citizenship and military service, – inscriptions, – civil wars, –, , – dedications to Augustus, n civilian role in siege warfare, – evidence on Germanic raiders, ,  cultural background of commanders, – evidence from Late Antiquity, ,  divine signs and visions, – evidence on marriage patterns,  equipment and techniques, – evidence on military-community relations, financial gains and costs of war, –,  – ideal of courage, – evidence on military collegia,  identification of leaders with soldiers, – evidence on mobility of units,  marriage of soldiers, , –

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Index 

mass enslavement, – Martial,  military financing, – masculinity, ,  military identity, – material evidence,  military organisation, –,  see also archaeological evidence military-civilian relations, – Maurice,  mutinies, – mutiny under, – notable defeats,  resettlement of prisoners,  numbers of troops, – Strategikon (attrib.), , , , – oaths of allegiance,  Maxentius, , n political and military leadership,  Maximian,  recruitment, –,  Maximinus, –,  regions affected by warfare,  Maximus of Tyre,  responses to defeat, – Mesopotamia soldier-farmers, – Jewish revolt in,  troop mobility,  and overthrow of Parthians,  Latin, – raiding by Arabs,  leadership see auctoritas; generals; officers Roman conquest of, ,  legions war with Persia in, , ,  numbers of, , – see also Carrhae, battle of; Dura-Europos; size of, – Edessa el-Lejjūn, n military bases see camps and forts Leo,  military financing levy see recruitment Republic, – Libanius, ,  Principate, – Licinius, n, , ,  Late Antiquity, – limitanei, ,  military organisation literacy, – chronological overview, – Livy, , ,  groupings of soldiers, logistics,  – Lucilius,  military service Lucullus, L. Licinius, –,  development during Republic, – as formalised employment,  Macedon, , ,  length of, , , ,  see also Pydna, battle of payment for, – Magnentius, , , –, n see also recruitment; soldiers battle of Mursa, ,  military treatises, –,  Magnesia, battle of, ,  see also Vegetius, Maurice Magnus Maximus, , ,  Milvian Bridge, battle of the,  mail shirts, – mines, – Mainz, burials at,  Mithras, cult of, – Malchus (enslaved monk),  Mithridates of Pontus, , , ,  maniples, – command against, ,  Marcellus, M. Claudius, ,  mobilisation rates, – Marcomannic Wars, ,  Mons Claudianus, ,  Marcus Aurelius,  Mons Graupius, battle of, n Column of, ,  Mursa, battle of, ,  maritime archaeology, ,  mutinies, – Marius, Gaius,  identification with troops,  naval warfare influence on standards,  archaeological evidence, ,  justifications for war against,  construction of first Roman fleet,  recruitment of proletarii, – defeat of Carthage,  victory memorials,  rowing service,  marriage of soldiers, –, – Nero, ,  Marshall, S. L. A., – Neupotz metalware finds, –

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 Index

New Carthage, siege of, –,  Philippicus, , ,  Numantine War, ,  Phocas, , n siege of Numantia,  Pistoria, battle of,  numbers of troops plagues, n, – Republic, – Pliny the Elder, ,  Principate, – Pliny the Younger,  Late Antiquity, – political life, Republican, , –, – Numidia, , , – , – on army punishments,  oaths of obedience and loyalty, –, –, on courage,   on dangers of peace,  Octavian see Augustus (Octavian before  BC) on dona militaria, – officers on , –, ,  absence of formal training,  on record-keeping,  civilian appeals for help to, – on , n collegia,  pomerium,  literacy, – Pompey the Great and Mithraism,  capture of Valencia, – perspective on battle,  Cicero on, – religious role, – defeated troops of,  see also generals eastern campaigns, ,  Onasander, , n,  recruitment of non-citizens,  Oppian, – recruitment through patronage,  Oppius Sabinus, ,  supplicationes,  optiones,  temple dedications,  Orosius, – theatre of,  ostraca, ,  see also Pharsalus, battle of Otho,  Pompey, Sextus,  ovatio,  Praetorian Guard, , n,  Oxyrhynchus,  Principate, –,  attitudes to warfare, – Paetus, L. Caesennius, – campaign army size,  Palmyra, ,  Christianity under,  religion of troops from,  citizenship and military service, – Pannonia,  civil wars, , – Pansa (C. Vibius Pansa Caetronianus) see Forum concept of peace, – Gallorum, battle of cultural background of commanders,  papyri, –,  desertion,  Parthia/Parthians, –,  distribution of forces, , – Crassus’ campaign, ,  divine signs and visions,  defeat by Sasanian Persians, , – financial gains from war, ,  defeat of Paetus,  ideal of courage, – influence on Roman military, ,  identification of emperors with soldiers,  patronage,  mass enslavement,  pax Romana,  military equipment, – payment of soldiers, – military financing, – peace, – military identity, – payments for maintenance of,  military oaths, – Pelagius I, Pope,  military organisation, –, – Persia see Sasanian Persia military-civilian relations, – Pertinax,  mutinies, – Perusia, siege of, ,  notable defeats,  Pharsalus, battle of, , ,  numbers of troops, – Philip V of Macedon,  quasi-marriage patterns,  Philippi, battle of, , , ,  records and administration, –

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Index 

recruitment, , –, –,  citizenship and property status of soldiers, regions affected by warfare,  – religion and ritual among troops, –,  civil wars, , –, – responses to defeat, – culture and language of army,  terminology, – divine signs and visions, – Priscus (historian), n financial gains from war, – Probus, –,  idea of peace,  Procopius (historian), – ideal of courage, – accounts of single combat,  identification of leaders with soldiers,  on battle of Callinicum, – manpower and mobilisation rates, – on Gothic War, ,  mass enslavement,  on mounted archers,  military financing, – Procopius (usurper), ,  military impositions on civilians,  ‘professionalisation’,  military oaths,  proletarii, – military organisation, – property ownership military technology, – inheritance from soldiers,  mutinies, – and military service, – notable defeats,  and provision of recruits, – punishments,  prostitution,  recruitment, – Punic Wars, – regions affected by warfare,  destruction of Carthage,  religion and ritual among troops, – naval forces, ,  responses to defeat, – troop motivation,  role of warfare, – see also Hannibalic (Second Punic) War Roman expansion and identity, – Pydna, battle of, , ,  requisitions, – Scipio Nasica at,  revolts see mutinies; rebellions and revolts; Pyrrhus of Epirus, ,  usurpers Rhandeia, battle of,  raiding, – Rhine frontier rape, ,  Agrippina the Elder at,  rebellions and revolts, –, ,  Augustan expansionism,  see also mutinies; usurpers fifth-century invasions,  recruitment finds of plundered metalware, – Republican legionary levy, –, –, – food supplies,  Republican provincial levy, – meat consumption,  of slaves after Cannae,  mutiny (AD ), ,  Principate, –, –, –,  recruitment from beyond,  Late Antiquity, –, , , n religious dedications,  religion and ritual third-century threats,  in celebration of victory, –, – Roman, defined, – divine favour and signs, – ‘Romanisation’, –,  dona militaria,  Rome, city of military and local cults, , –,  battle of the Milvian Bridge,  military collegia,  commemoration of defeats,  military oaths, –,  cult of Honos and Virtus,  and perception of Republican militarism, cult of Victoria, , ,  – Gallic sack ( BC), – in responses to defeat, – Gothic sack (),  standards,  Gothic siege (),  state religion among troops, –,  Gothic siege (–), – see also Christianity indemnity-funded building,  Republican period, , –,  limits to Republican militarisation,  administrative records, – Praetorian Guard, , n,  campaign army size,  shift of power to east, 

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 Index

Rome, city of (cont.) enslavement through raiding, – site of levy,  at siege of Perusia,  temple of Janus,  as soldiers, , – temple of Pax,  to soldiers,  triumphal memorials, –, ,  war as opportunity for flight,  triumphal processions, ,  small-group cohesion, , – see also centuriate assembly Social War, , –,  Solachon, battle of, ,  Sabin, Philip,  soldier emperors, , – sacking of captured cities, – soldiers Sallust, , ,  communal identity, – Samnite Wars, , , ,  distinction from civilians, –,  Sarmatians, ,  interaction with civilian communities, – Sasanian Persia,  literacy of, – third century, , , , – marriage of, –, – fourth century,  motivation and morale, – sixth century, ,  religious practices, – seventh century,  see also camps and forts; military service; enslavement of Romans,  recruitment equestrian influence, ,  sources of evidence, – notable Roman defeats to,  documentary, –, – scars see wounds and scars see also inscriptions scholae see collegia, military historiographic, –,  Scipio Aemilianus, , , , ,  instructional writing, – Scipio Africanus, , – material,  mutiny at Sucro,  Scipio Nasica,  Carthaginian influence,  Second World War, as comparator for Roman maintenance of troops in, ,  battle, – mutiny at Sucro, – Seleucid empire, ,  Republican wars in, –, , n, , indemnity payments from,  – Septimius Severus see also New Carthage, siege of; Numantine campaigns of,  War civil wars, ,  taxation of,  dreams,  territorial gains of Augustus,  increase in military pay, ,  ‘Spanish sword’,  and marriage of soldiers,  speeches before battle, – number of legions under,  spolia opima,  Sertorius, Quintus, ,  standards, –,  Severianus, M. Sedatius, ,  Stilicho, ,  sexual violence, , ,  stipendium,  Shapur I of Persia,  Stoll, Oliver, – Shapur II of Persia,  Strasbourg, battle of, , ,  shield styles, – Sulla, L. Cornelius,  shield walls,  and cult of Victoria,  Sicily march on Rome, ,  exile of defeated troops from Cannae,  personal courage,  and , ,  siege of Athens, , n and Republican civil wars,  supplicationes, – Roman acquisition and taxation,  sword styles, – siege of Syracuse,  Syria siege warfare, – disparagement of Syrian legions, , ,  single combat, –,  local religious influence, , ,  slaves loss to Islamic forces, , n enslavement of the defeated, –, –,  Persian invasions, 

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Index 

recruitment in,  portrayal as barbarian,  Roman control of,  troop support for Julian,  usurpation and mutiny, ,  Tacitus, – see also Magnentius on civil war, –,  on dangers of peace,  Valencia, – on mutinies,  Valens, , , – on women and the military,  Valentinian II,  Tarentum,  Valerian, , , –,  taxes Vandals exemptions for veterans,  defeat of Leo by,  funding of military treasury,  loss of north Africa to, ,  rates in Late Antiquity,  mutiny over measures against, – rates under Principate,  reconquest of north Africa from, revenue from conquered territories, –, – , –, – taxation in kind,  Varian disaster, , –, n tributum,  archaeological site,  troop provision, ,  blame for,  Tella, siege of,  death of Varus,  Tetrarchy, ,  response of Augustus,  Teutoburg Forest, battle of see Varian disaster Vegetius, , , , –,  Thapsus, battle of,  Velleius Paterculus,  Themistius,  Vercellae, battle of,  Theodosius I Vespasian, , , ,  battle of the Frigidus,  victimarii,  Column of, ,  Victoria, cult of, , ,  dynastic position,  victory, ideology and celebration of peace with Goths, ,  Principate, – prohibition of sacrifice, – Republican period, – rebellions under, –,  Late Antiquity, –,  Theodosius the Elder,  Vindolanda, , , –,  Thucydides, influence of, , –, , ,  virtus, –, –, ,  Tiberius,  see also courage Tiberius II, mutiny under,  Vitalian, ,  ‘total institution’, army as, – Vitellius training ’foreignness’ of forces,  Campus Martius,  defeated troops of,  conformity through drill,  volones,  leadership experience, ,  in literacy,  warfare, – Strategikon as leadership handbook,  battles see battle Trajan, –,  motivation and morale, – second Dacian campaign,  naval see naval warfare Trasimene (lake), battle of, – protracted, – tributum,  purpose and consequences for Roman state, triumphs – Republican period, , –, –,  raiding, – Principate,  siege warfare, – Late Antiquity, , n,  weapons, , – tyrannny and freedom, rhetoric of, ,  and reconstruction of fighting styles,  uniforms,  women usurpers military authority of,  commemoration of defeat of,  prostitution,  descent and legitimacy,  sexual violence against, , , 

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 Index

women (cont.) Year of the Four Emperors (–), , –,  under siege,  second battle of Cremona, , ,  [quasi-]wives of soldiers, – wounds and scars Zeno (emperor),  as marks of courage, – Zenobia, ,  potential of ancient weaponry,  Zosimus, – writing tablets, ,  on Zenobia, n

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