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Page numbers in italics indicate figures.
Abinnaeus, archive of, , , Aphrodisias, – Actium, battle of, , Appian, , administration, – Arabs Adrianople, battle of, , , , – as allies, adventus, enslavement of Malchus by, Africa Islamic conquests, , , n economic importance, – Arausio, battle of, , mutinies in, – Arbogast, , nomadic raiders, Arcadius, , recruitment in, – Arch of Constantine, , soldiers’‘wives’, archaeological evidence, worship of local deities, for impact of Gothic War, see also Bu Njem; Egypt; Numidia; Vandals for military diet, – age of soldiers, n, Neupotz plunder finds, – aggression and bloodshed in Roman culture, for Republican land-holding patterns, Agrippina the Elder, alae, , for sacking of cities, – Alaric the Goth, , for women and children in military bases, Alesia, siege of, , , Allectus, archers, , , –, Allia, battle of the, – Syrian auxiliaries’ religious practices, allies Arian heterodoxy, , , foederati, Armenia Italian (socii), –, n, – armies of Justinian, Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, campaign of Paetus, Amida, siege of, , , – campaign of Severianus, Ammianus Marcellinus, , , , , , as recruiting ground, Anastasius (emperor), , , , , n troops under Tigranes, Anatolia armour defeat of Antiochus III, cross-cultural influences, , Gothic raids on, evidence about, , , military-civilian relations, – self-provision, recruitment from, –, Asia (province), , see also Asia; Isauria assidui, –, andreia see courage Athens, capture by Sulla, , n Antiochus III, , Attila, Antiochus IV, auctoritas, – Antony, Mark, , , , n Augsburg, battle of Forum Gallorum, – Augustine of Hippo, ,
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Augustus (Octavian before BC), –, Britain battle of Philippi, , cavalry troops in, , and concept of peace, – conquest of, military funding, food supplies, and military identity, – meat consumption, and military record-keeping, rebellion in, military reorganisation, , , , religion of troops in, , oaths of loyalty to, Brunt, Peter, , opponents’ defeated legions, Brutus, Decimus, and Parthians, Bu Njem, , , , , recruitment of non-citizens, bucellarii, reduction of mutinies, Byzantine Empire, rejection of commilito persona, and religious calendar, – Caesar, C. Julius, , n and restriction of triumphs, –, civil war tactics, siege of Perusia, and cult of Victoria, supplicationes, Gallic campaigns, , and Varian disaster, , invasion of Italy, , and victory ideology, , military writings, –, n, war against Antony, –, n mutinies against, n, Aurelian, , ’othering’ of troops of, n auxilia, –, , , and Parthian threat, – discharge diplomas, , , , personal involvement in fighting, – recruitment to, recruitment of non-citizens, auxilia externa, –, supplicationes, Avars, , –, see also Pharsalus, battle of avoidance of service, – Callinicum, battle of, , – by self-mutilation, campaign armies, size of, awards for courage (dona militaria), campaigning season, – camps and forts allied units within, Bar Kokhba revolt, bath-houses, – ‘barbarisation’, –, establishment of permanent bases, , bathing, – non-combatant presence, –, , battle posting of laws, – ancient accounts of, – record-keeping, – combat behaviour and morale, – shrine for standards, , n tactics and mechanics, – see also Dura-Europos unpredictability and confusion, – Campus Martius, , battlefield archaeology, Cannae, battle of, , battles see name of location, e.g. Pydna, battle of and introduction of volones, Belisarius treatment of survivors, action against Hun raiders, troop numbers, blame for Callinicum, capital punishment, booty acquired, capite censi, n identification with troops, Caracalla, , Justinian’s public recognition of, Carrhae, battle of, , Procopius and, return of standards, , restoration to favour, – Cartagena, siege of see New Carthage, siege of at siege of Rome, Carthage, –, Beth-horon, battle of, see also Hannibalic (Second Punic) War; Punic billeting, – Wars booty, , –, , , Cassius Dio spolia opima, on Pharsalus, Boudicca, , on second battle of Cremona, n
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casualty rates, – Civilis, Gaius Julius, , n Catiline, uprising of, Clastidium, battle of, Cato the Elder, , , Claudius (emperor), Caudine Forks, Roman surrender at, Claudius Pulcher, Publius, cavalry, , –, , cohorts, , mounted archers, , , –, coinage, , –, , Celts, collegia, military, censors, – Column of Marcus Aurelius, –, census, , n, Column of Theodosius I, , centuriate assembly, , –, Column of Trajan, – rank and military service, – comitatus, – chaos theory, Commodus, , children conquisitores, , – in besieged cities, conscription evidence of in camps, Republican dilectus, – inheritance rights from soldiers, – Principate, recruitment of soldiers’ sons, Late Antiquity, – treatment as prisoners, Constantine I, – violent play, Arch of, , Christianity bravery of, – Arian heterodoxy, , , dynastic claims, in army before Constantine, – military/civilian distinction, in army from Constantine on, – personal risk in battle, attitudes to war and peace, , and religion, , , celebration of victories, – Constantinople divine favour in battle, – Column of Theodosius I, , explanations of defeat, – Justinian’s victory celebrations, – military oath, mutiny of , symbolism on military equipment, , Nika riot, Cicero Persian threat to, as commander, shift of imperial power to, – correspondence with Galba, Constantius II on generalship, – battle of Mursa, –, on war and money, management of supplies, n citizenship redeployment of troops, n, , Edict of Caracalla, –, resettlement of prisoners, extension to Italian allies, , – victory memorials, extension to provincials, , war with Persians, , and military service, –, –, –, consulship, and Roman identity, contarii, civil war contubernales, , battle of Forum Gallorum, – Cornelianus, L. Attidius, , battle of Pharsalus, , , Cornell, Tim, celebration of victory, courage, – chronology of outbreaks, , –, , in generalship, – and concentration of power, Crassus, M. Licinius, , , consequences of, –, –, Cremona, second battle of, , , divine signs in, – Cynoscephalae, battle of, , fate of defeated troops, – incitement of mutiny, n Dacia/Dacians justification and legitimation of, , – booty from, Republican manpower demands, –, – defeat of Oppius Sabinus, siege of Valencia, – Domitian’s peace terms with, vs. mutiny, , n, n economic significance, written propaganda, loss of province,
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redeployment of Vitellian troops against, Egypt billeting in Oxyrhynchus, religion among Roman troops in, documentary evidence, Roman conquest of, , , importance to empire, Danube frontier integration of army in society, second century, Jewish revolt, third century, limits of documentary evidence, fourth century, local recruitment, fifth century, loss to Islamic forces, , , n sixth century, petitions to soldiers, – mutiny of , , – prostitution in forts, supplies of food, Ptolemaic army, see also Dacia/Dacians Roman conquest of, death see epitaphs; funerary practices emperors decimation, , n and auctoritas, Decius, , as military commanders, , defeat, – and virtus, –, Deiotarus of Galatia, see also names of individual emperors Dentatus, L. Siccius, , epitaphs, n, –, , n, desertion, equestrian order, , Dexippus, diet, – farmer-soldier ideal, – siege shortages, – felicitas (good fortune), war-induced famine, Feriale Duranum, , –, , dilectus, – fetial law, Diocletian financial benefits of war, – ‘Great Persecution’, – financial costs of war see military financing military/civilian distinction, Flaminius, Gaius, – service requirement for sons of soldiers, foederati, taxation under, forts/fortresses see camps and forts; Tetrarchy, Dura-Europos, see camps and forts victory over Persians, , Forum Gallorum, battle of, –, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Franks diplomas, , , , conflict with, – discharge benefits, , , high-level cultural integration, – discipline and obedience, – funerary practices, –, –, individual heroism, – mixed military/civilian cemeteries, punishments, , documentary sources, –, – Gainas (Gothic leader), evidence for literacy levels, – Galba, Servius Sulpicius, – see also inscriptions Gallienus, Domitian, –, Gaul/Gauls Domitius Ahenobarbus, Altar of, battle of Clastidium, dona militaria, – Caesar’s Gallic war, , donatives, see also Alesia, siege of drill, conflicts in Late Antiquity, Dura-Europos meat consumption, archaeological evidence, n, n revolt of Civilis, and army as ‘total institution’, sack of Rome ( BC), – Christianity at, wine production, documentary evidence, , generals Feriale Duranum, , –, , and divine favour, – ideal qualities of, – Eckstein, Arthur, – identification with soldiers, – Edessa, –, pre-battle speeches, –
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Germanicus, n evidence on Germanic raiders, ‘Germanisation’ evidence on soldiers’‘wives’, of army see ‘barbarisation’ Mithraic dedications, of diet in Britain, on sling bullets, n, n, good fortune (felicitas), Isauria, , , , , n, Gothic War (–), –, , – Issus, battle of, religious justification, siege of Rome, – Jewish uprisings, , , Goths, –, , siege of Jerusalem, , n Gracchi, Josephus, , Greek language, , – Joshua the Stylite (attrib.), Chronicle, , –, Julian Hadrian, , , Ammianus and, Hannibalic (Second Punic) War, – composition of forces, economic impact, courage of, indemnity imposed, defeat in Persia, , , – mobilisation rate, – discipline under, number of legions, military competence, Petelian women, religion under, and Roman sword style, resettlement of prisoners, sack of Gerunium, success in Gaul, Hellenistic kingdoms support of troops for, n, , adoption of Roman military practices, Jupiter Dolichenus, cult of, ‘just war’, conquest of, , Justin I, Seleucid indemnity payments, Justin II, helmets, Justinian Heracleia, battle of, Belisarius and, , Heraclius, celebration of victories, – Hirtius, Aulus, expansion of army, Historia Augusta, military campaigns, –, – historiography, – mutiny under, – battle descriptions, , Procopius and, explanations of defeat, – siege descriptions, – Keegan, John, The Face of Battle, –, speeches in, – Homer, influence of, , –, , land grants, Honorius, land ownership see property ownership Huns, , n, –, language and culture, , Late Antiquity, , – indemnities, attitudes to peace, –, individual heroism attitudes to warfare, –, in emperors, – campaign army size, in ordinary soldiers, –, Christian persecutions, – in Republican elite, – Christianisation of military, – infantry combat, – citizenship and military service, – inscriptions, – civil wars, –, , – dedications to Augustus, n civilian role in siege warfare, – evidence on Germanic raiders, , cultural background of commanders, – evidence from Late Antiquity, , divine signs and visions, – evidence on marriage patterns, equipment and techniques, – evidence on military-community relations, financial gains and costs of war, –, – ideal of courage, – evidence on military collegia, identification of leaders with soldiers, – evidence on mobility of units, marriage of soldiers, , –
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mass enslavement, – Martial, military financing, – masculinity, , military identity, – material evidence, military organisation, –, see also archaeological evidence military-civilian relations, – Maurice, mutinies, – mutiny under, – notable defeats, resettlement of prisoners, numbers of troops, – Strategikon (attrib.), , , , – oaths of allegiance, Maxentius, , n political and military leadership, Maximian, recruitment, –, Maximinus, –, regions affected by warfare, Maximus of Tyre, responses to defeat, – Mesopotamia soldier-farmers, – Jewish revolt in, troop mobility, and overthrow of Parthians, Latin, – raiding by Arabs, leadership see auctoritas; generals; officers Roman conquest of, , legions war with Persia in, , , numbers of, , – see also Carrhae, battle of; Dura-Europos; size of, – Edessa el-Lejjūn, n military bases see camps and forts Leo, military financing levy see recruitment Republic, – Libanius, , Principate, – Licinius, n, , , Late Antiquity, – limitanei, , military organisation literacy, – chronological overview, – Livy, , , groupings of soldiers, logistics, – Lucilius, military service Lucullus, L. Licinius, –, development during Republic, – as formalised employment, Macedon, , , length of, , , , see also Pydna, battle of payment for, – Magnentius, , , –, n see also recruitment; soldiers battle of Mursa, , military treatises, –, Magnesia, battle of, , see also Vegetius, Maurice Magnus Maximus, , , Milvian Bridge, battle of the, mail shirts, – mines, – Mainz, burials at, Mithras, cult of, – Malchus (enslaved monk), Mithridates of Pontus, , , , maniples, – command against, , Marcellus, M. Claudius, , mobilisation rates, – Marcomannic Wars, , Mons Claudianus, , Marcus Aurelius, Mons Graupius, battle of, n Column of, , Mursa, battle of, , maritime archaeology, , mutinies, – Marius, Gaius, identification with troops, naval warfare influence on standards, archaeological evidence, , justifications for war against, construction of first Roman fleet, recruitment of proletarii, – defeat of Carthage, victory memorials, rowing service, marriage of soldiers, –, – Nero, , Marshall, S. L. A., – Neupotz metalware finds, –
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New Carthage, siege of, –, Philippicus, , , Numantine War, , Phocas, , n siege of Numantia, Pistoria, battle of, numbers of troops plagues, n, – Republic, – Pliny the Elder, , Principate, – Pliny the Younger, Late Antiquity, – political life, Republican, , –, – Numidia, , , – Polybius, – on army punishments, oaths of obedience and loyalty, –, –, on courage, on dangers of peace, Octavian see Augustus (Octavian before BC) on dona militaria, – officers on Punic Wars, –, , absence of formal training, on record-keeping, civilian appeals for help to, – on Scipio Africanus, n collegia, pomerium, literacy, – Pompey the Great and Mithraism, capture of Valencia, – perspective on battle, Cicero on, – religious role, – defeated troops of, see also generals eastern campaigns, , Onasander, , n, recruitment of non-citizens, Oppian, – recruitment through patronage, Oppius Sabinus, , supplicationes, optiones, temple dedications, Orosius, – theatre of, ostraca, , see also Pharsalus, battle of Otho, Pompey, Sextus, ovatio, Praetorian Guard, , n, Oxyrhynchus, Principate, –, attitudes to warfare, – Paetus, L. Caesennius, – campaign army size, Palmyra, , Christianity under, religion of troops from, citizenship and military service, – Pannonia, civil wars, , – Pansa (C. Vibius Pansa Caetronianus) see Forum concept of peace, – Gallorum, battle of cultural background of commanders, papyri, –, desertion, Parthia/Parthians, –, distribution of forces, , – Crassus’ campaign, , divine signs and visions, defeat by Sasanian Persians, , – financial gains from war, , defeat of Paetus, ideal of courage, – influence on Roman military, , identification of emperors with soldiers, patronage, mass enslavement, pax Romana, military equipment, – payment of soldiers, – military financing, – peace, – military identity, – payments for maintenance of, military oaths, – Pelagius I, Pope, military organisation, –, – Persia see Sasanian Persia military-civilian relations, – Pertinax, mutinies, – Perusia, siege of, , notable defeats, Pharsalus, battle of, , , numbers of troops, – Philip V of Macedon, quasi-marriage patterns, Philippi, battle of, , , , records and administration, –
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recruitment, , –, –, citizenship and property status of soldiers, regions affected by warfare, – religion and ritual among troops, –, civil wars, , –, – responses to defeat, – culture and language of army, terminology, – divine signs and visions, – Priscus (historian), n financial gains from war, – Probus, –, idea of peace, Procopius (historian), – ideal of courage, – accounts of single combat, identification of leaders with soldiers, on battle of Callinicum, – manpower and mobilisation rates, – on Gothic War, , mass enslavement, on mounted archers, military financing, – Procopius (usurper), , military impositions on civilians, ‘professionalisation’, military oaths, proletarii, – military organisation, – property ownership military technology, – inheritance from soldiers, mutinies, – and military service, – notable defeats, and provision of recruits, – punishments, prostitution, recruitment, – Punic Wars, – regions affected by warfare, destruction of Carthage, religion and ritual among troops, – naval forces, , responses to defeat, – troop motivation, role of warfare, – see also Hannibalic (Second Punic) War Roman expansion and identity, – Pydna, battle of, , , requisitions, – Scipio Nasica at, revolts see mutinies; rebellions and revolts; Pyrrhus of Epirus, , usurpers Rhandeia, battle of, raiding, – Rhine frontier rape, , Agrippina the Elder at, rebellions and revolts, –, , Augustan expansionism, see also mutinies; usurpers fifth-century invasions, recruitment finds of plundered metalware, – Republican legionary levy, –, –, – food supplies, Republican provincial levy, – meat consumption, of slaves after Cannae, mutiny (AD ), , Principate, –, –, –, recruitment from beyond, Late Antiquity, –, , , n religious dedications, religion and ritual third-century threats, in celebration of victory, –, – Roman, defined, – divine favour and signs, – ‘Romanisation’, –, dona militaria, Rome, city of military and local cults, , –, battle of the Milvian Bridge, military collegia, commemoration of defeats, military oaths, –, cult of Honos and Virtus, and perception of Republican militarism, cult of Victoria, , , – Gallic sack ( BC), – in responses to defeat, – Gothic sack (), standards, Gothic siege (), state religion among troops, –, Gothic siege (–), – see also Christianity indemnity-funded building, Republican period, , –, limits to Republican militarisation, administrative records, – Praetorian Guard, , n, campaign army size, shift of power to east,
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Rome, city of (cont.) enslavement through raiding, – site of levy, at siege of Perusia, temple of Janus, as soldiers, , – temple of Pax, to soldiers, triumphal memorials, –, , war as opportunity for flight, triumphal processions, , small-group cohesion, , – see also centuriate assembly Social War, , –, Solachon, battle of, , Sabin, Philip, soldier emperors, , – sacking of captured cities, – soldiers Sallust, , , communal identity, – Samnite Wars, , , , distinction from civilians, –, Sarmatians, , interaction with civilian communities, – Sasanian Persia, literacy of, – third century, , , , – marriage of, –, – fourth century, motivation and morale, – sixth century, , religious practices, – seventh century, see also camps and forts; military service; enslavement of Romans, recruitment equestrian influence, , sources of evidence, – notable Roman defeats to, documentary, –, – scars see wounds and scars see also inscriptions scholae see collegia, military historiographic, –, Scipio Aemilianus, , , , , instructional writing, – Scipio Africanus, , – material, mutiny at Sucro, Spain Scipio Nasica, Carthaginian influence, Second World War, as comparator for Roman maintenance of troops in, , battle, – mutiny at Sucro, – Seleucid empire, , Republican wars in, –, , n, , indemnity payments from, – Septimius Severus see also New Carthage, siege of; Numantine campaigns of, War civil wars, , taxation of, dreams, territorial gains of Augustus, increase in military pay, , ‘Spanish sword’, and marriage of soldiers, speeches before battle, – number of legions under, spolia opima, Sertorius, Quintus, , standards, –, Severianus, M. Sedatius, , Stilicho, , sexual violence, , , stipendium, Shapur I of Persia, Stoll, Oliver, – Shapur II of Persia, Strasbourg, battle of, , , shield styles, – Sulla, L. Cornelius, shield walls, and cult of Victoria, Sicily march on Rome, , exile of defeated troops from Cannae, personal courage, and First Punic War, , siege of Athens, , n and Republican civil wars, supplicationes, – Roman acquisition and taxation, sword styles, – siege of Syracuse, Syria siege warfare, – disparagement of Syrian legions, , , single combat, –, local religious influence, , , slaves loss to Islamic forces, , n enslavement of the defeated, –, –, Persian invasions,
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recruitment in, portrayal as barbarian, Roman control of, troop support for Julian, usurpation and mutiny, , Tacitus, – see also Magnentius on civil war, –, on dangers of peace, Valencia, – on mutinies, Valens, , , – on women and the military, Valentinian II, Tarentum, Valerian, , , –, taxes Vandals exemptions for veterans, defeat of Leo by, funding of military treasury, loss of north Africa to, , rates in Late Antiquity, mutiny over measures against, – rates under Principate, reconquest of north Africa from, revenue from conquered territories, –, – , –, – taxation in kind, Varian disaster, , –, n tributum, archaeological site, troop provision, , blame for, Tella, siege of, death of Varus, Tetrarchy, , response of Augustus, Teutoburg Forest, battle of see Varian disaster Vegetius, , , , –, Thapsus, battle of, Velleius Paterculus, Themistius, Vercellae, battle of, Theodosius I Vespasian, , , , battle of the Frigidus, victimarii, Column of, , Victoria, cult of, , , dynastic position, victory, ideology and celebration of peace with Goths, , Principate, – prohibition of sacrifice, – Republican period, – rebellions under, –, Late Antiquity, –, Theodosius the Elder, Vindolanda, , , –, Thucydides, influence of, , –, , , virtus, –, –, , Tiberius, see also courage Tiberius II, mutiny under, Vitalian, , ‘total institution’, army as, – Vitellius training ’foreignness’ of forces, Campus Martius, defeated troops of, conformity through drill, volones, leadership experience, , in literacy, warfare, – Strategikon as leadership handbook, battles see battle Trajan, –, motivation and morale, – second Dacian campaign, naval see naval warfare Trasimene (lake), battle of, – protracted, – tributum, purpose and consequences for Roman state, triumphs – Republican period, , –, –, raiding, – Principate, siege warfare, – Late Antiquity, , n, weapons, , – tyrannny and freedom, rhetoric of, , and reconstruction of fighting styles, uniforms, women usurpers military authority of, commemoration of defeat of, prostitution, descent and legitimacy, sexual violence against, , ,
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women (cont.) Year of the Four Emperors (–), , –, under siege, second battle of Cremona, , , [quasi-]wives of soldiers, – wounds and scars Zeno (emperor), as marks of courage, – Zenobia, , potential of ancient weaponry, Zosimus, – writing tablets, , on Zenobia, n
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