`'~ ~~~ ~9~MPLC ~oPY Material History Review
FALL 1991 / AUTOMNE 1991 34 ~ Revue d'histoire de la culture materielle
NATIONAL Mc rst:I!m c~~ Sc.'IENCE AND Do,CtINOLOCr
MI JSIi'E NATIONAL !)ES SCIENCES ET DE LA TECIIN()LOGIE OVERALLS 15kLm'...w.... .. ..,. OVE RALLS
. , ., . ..~ .,. . ..,.,. The Great Western Garment Company, Limited - - Edmonton, Alta. '`"°c~0 ' ec`05 © National Museum of Science and Technology 1991 / Mus6e national des sciences et de la technologie 1991 \ 5` °y 0 JSpJ p~~ ~° c°° ISSN 1183-1073 o~ No°~"° ~°` pc '~e 0 \p a ~JS~ 0va0
Editorial Board / The contents of contributions to Material His- Comite de redaction tory Review are solely the responsibility of the Editor in Chief l Chef de la r6daction individual authors and are not to be attributed Peter E. Rider to Material History Review, its editors, produc- CANADIAN MUSEUM OF CIVILIZATION / tion staff or Editorial Board, or the National MUSI;E CANADIEN DES CIVILISATIONS Museum of Science and Technology.
La teneur des articles de la Revue d'histoire de Associate Editor and French-Language Review Ed- la culture mat6rielle n'engage qua les auteurs itor/ Rddacteur adjoint et responsable des comptes desdits articles . La responsabilitt' n'en saurait rendus en franFais 8tre attribu6e A la Revue d'histoire de la cul- Jean-Pierre Hardy ture mat6rielle, A ses r6dactetus et rtsviseurs, ia CANADIAN MUSEUM OF CIVILIZATION / son personnel de production ou ia son comit6 MUS$E CANADIEN DES CIVILISATIONS de rtsdaction, ni au Mus6e national des scien- ces et de la technologie . Managing Editor l Directeur administratif Geoff Rider NATIONAL MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY / MUSI;E NATIONAL DES SCIENCES ET DE LA TECHNOLOGIE
Contributing Editors l R6dacirices invit6es
Catherine Cooper Cole ALBERTA CULTURE
Pamela Blackstock CANADIAN PARKS SERVICE
Members / Membres
Norman R. Ball UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO Editor & Production Co-ordinator / Rdviseuse G6rard Collomb anglaise et coordonnatrice de la production CENTRE D'EI'HNOLOGIE FRANGAISE Lynn M. Wilson A. Gregg Finley KINGS LANDING, FREDERICTON French Editor / Rdviseuse frangaise Gisi'le Cyr Adrienne Hood ROYAL ONTARIO MUSEUM Word processing / OpEratrice de traitement de textes Lori Polger Robert B. Klymasz CANADIAN MUSEUM OF CIVILIZATION / MUSI".E CANADIEN DES CIVILISATIONS Graphic Designer / Graphiste Eiko Emori Inc . Jocelyne Mathieu UNIVERSIT$ LAVAL
W. John McIntyre SENECA COLLEGE All cover illustrations are taken from text in- side ; clockwise from top right, see pages 34, Dianne Newell 11, 33 and 89. UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Les illustrations de la couverture sont tir6es Sharon Reilly MANITOBA MUSEUM OF MAN AND NATURE du corps de 1'ouvrage; en haut a droite, puis dans le sens des aiguilles d'une montre, voir Thomas J. Schlereth pages 34, 11, 33 et 89 . UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME Material History Review FALL 1991 / ALTTOMNE 1991 Revue d'histoire de la culture materielle
Table of Contents / Table des maiieres
Articles Caveats in the Use of Corporate Literature by Costume Historians CATHERINE C. COLE ...... 1 Documents from the Tailoring Trade as a Research Source CATHERINE ROY ...... 13
La courtepointe quebecoise : creation ou emprunt? MARIE DURAND ...... 20
Photographic Archival Sources for Costume Research THERESA ROWAT...... 32
Bibliography / Bibliographie Costume in Canada : The Sequel JACQUELINE BEAUDOIN-ROSS AND PAMELA BLACKSTOCK ...... 42
Conference Report /Rapport de conference American Dress as Social History PAMELA BUELL ...... 68
Research Notes / Notes de recherche The Labels of Thomas Nisbet TIM G. DILWORTH ...... -...... 70
Clothing the Past: Costume Research at the Canadian Parks Service GAIL CARIOU ...... 72
Notes and Comments / Notes et commentaires Our Contributing Editors / Nos r6dactrices invitees PETER E. RIDER ...... 75
Recent Acquisitions, Newfoundland Museum, St. John's WALTER W. PEDDLE ...... 76
Invitation to join the Regional Furniture Society WALTER W. PEDDLE ...... 77
Reviews / Comptes rendus Thomas J. Schlereth, Cultural History and Material Culture: Everyday Life, Landscapes, Museums ANN GORMAN CONDON ...... 79
Catherine C. Cole, ed., Norwegian Immigrant Clothing and Textiles DOROTHY K. BURNHAM ...... 81 Paul Rutherford, When Television Was Young: Primetime Canada, 1952-1967 JOHN E. TWOMEY ...... 83 Garth Clark, Robert Ellison and Eugene Hecht, The Mad Potter of Biloxi: The Art and Life of George E. Ohr American Craft Museum, George Ohr: Modern Potter (1857-1918) Canadian Museum of Civilisation, The Turning Point: The Deichmann Pottery (1935-1963) JOHN B . COLLINS ...... 84
Contributors / Collaborateurs ...... 93 Caveats in the Use of Corporate Literature by Costume Historians
CATHERINE C. COLE
Resume Abstract
Cet article d6crit certaines des caract6ris- This paper identifies some of the characteris- tiques et fonctions des publications d'entre- tics and functions of corporate literature and prises et suggere d'etablir des liens entre suggests relationships between the study of 1'etude de ces publications et celle du cos- corporate literature and the study of cos- tume. L'auteur de Particle souleve de nom- tume. It poses many questions and chal- breuses questions et souligne des difficultes lenges to costume historians asserting that qui se posent aux historiens du costume, while corporate literature has been used ex- affirmant que, meme si les chercheurs y ont tensively by researchers, it has not been ade- toujours amplement puise, ces publications quately assessed. Researchers must be care- n'ont jamais fait 1'objet d'une evaluation ful not to accept the data at face value but to adequate. Non seulement chercheurs et cher- question its context, purpose, and intended cheuses doivent-ils bien se garder d'accepter audience. telles quelles les donnees de ces publications mais ils doivent s'interroger sur leur con- texte, ]eur but et leur public lecteur.
Costume and other material historians are and registered industrial designs, pho- continually identifying new sources which tographs, and giveaways (Fig . 1) . Whether enable them to interpret historical events the question is one of date, availability, taste, and trends through an understanding of the style or materials, this data is referred to on a material world. A growing interest in study- regular basis both by researchers working in ing the recent past has resulted in the need museums and by other material historians . for researchers to come to terms with sources However, little work has been done to define and media which are unavailable to those the characteristics and functions of corporate studying earlier periods. The volume of data literature and to determine its relationship to alone, available to historians studying the the objects themselves.' late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, is Researchers must remember that when overwhelming . Academic training prepares this material was initially produced, its pri- researchers to examine, question and inter- mary purpose was to promote a company pret historical documents and archival and its products . It was therefore a form of records but rarely addresses the need to uti- propaganda, an advertising and marketing lize other sources such as oral interviews, tool. As such, it documents a company's self- photographs, television, artifacts, or corpo- image more so than the values of society. rate literature much less provides any train- While corporate literature can be used effec- ing in how to interpret the sources . tively in the study of costume, and other arti- Corporate literature is an umbrella head- facts, it must be interpreted carefully, keep- ing given to a number of sources, similar in ing in mind its original purpose. A failure to that they were generated by companies: cor- understand the context of these sources, and porate records, advertisements, mail-order the terminology used within them, can lead catalogues, almanacs (which often also material historians to draw inaccurate con- served as catalogues), patents, trademarks, clusions. This paper will identify some of
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture mat6rielle 34 (automne 1991) 1 Edmonton F'nm Believes in Using Edmonton-Made Products Fix. I Giveafvays sach as these hanger cards were one ineans that companies used to keep infages of their prodacts in front oJ their castorners. Alberta Labor News, 22 /anasiy 1921 . (Photograph coartesv Provincial Archives of Alberta . (PAA) Alsonn) The above illustrations are reduced reproductions of a set of five hanger cards in four colors that are just completed for the (-,rest Western Garment Company, Ltd. The order comprises 10,000 cards. 13x17 inches . and they are reproduced in tchau is known. technically, as the four color process. This is the largest exclusive color job ever placed in the city of Edmonton. It might be interesting to note that the G.W .G . overalls have the largest sale, in Western Canada . Of any ncerall., and the extensive and aggressive advertising campaign promoted by the Great Western Garment Company is largely responsible fur this volume of salts. The color drawin gs and color plates are the work of the MeDermid Engraving Company. Ltd., and the color printing was , done by Eadale Press, Ltd. Both are Edmonton firms. The Great Western Garment Company are to be complimented for their confidence in local firms and their lucalt.% - to b:d- monton-made products in placing this large order locally instead of sending it East .
the characteristics and functions of corporate or wholesale outlets, are often of great value literature and determine the relationship be- to costume historians . The category "corpo- tween the study of corporate literature and rate records" includes any documentation the studv of costume. held in a company's archives. Archives is in this context a generous word, meaning any- thing from a professionally run archives with Scope of Study staff and research facilities to perhaps a clos- Research for this paper was undertaken be- et in an underground parking lot, or a drawer tween 1983 and 1990 when the author was in the president's desk. If a researcher is for- first curator of Interpretive Collections for tunate, companies have retained some infor- Historic: Sites Service (1983-1986), then cu- mation about their own history. However, rator of Western Canadian Historv for the one of the limitations of this source is that Provincial Museum of Alberta (1989-1991) . whether due to lack of interest in their own Both agencies fall under the Historical Re- past or due to factors such as fires, frequent sources Division of Alberta Culture and Mul- moves, insufficient space, takeovers and ticulturalism and in both cases curatorial re- mergers, or the present and future oriented sponsibilities included costume collections . thinking of businesses, the records of many The Eaton's catalogues were used by settlers firms have been obliterated over time, and in the west and continue to be used by histo- exist neither in public archives nor in com- rians and curators attempting to understand pany offices. the material history of the period . Also dur- Even when records have been retained in ing these years (1985-1988) the author com- company hands, there are a number of diffi- pleted her master's thesis on the history culties in accessing and utilizing them. First of the garment manufacturing industry in is their inconsistency . The "hit and miss" na- Edmonton, centred around the early devel- ture of retaining archival records has resulted opment of the Great Western Garment Com- in a situation where one firm may have inter- pany (GWG), the largest garment manufac- office memos, order books, dated garment turing firm in the west . The examples chosen labels, samples, annual reports, correspon- reflect the sources used for this research ; dence, etc., spanning its entire history of op- however, the thesis could easily be support- eration, while another firm may have an in- ed by examples from other firms, or indeed surance appraisal from one year, and two or from other industries .2 three photographs (Fig. 2) . ItJ is therefore im- possible to attempt any sort of meaningful Corporate Records comparisons between the two firms on the Corporate records for manufacturing firms basis of data compiled from these sources . producing articles of costume, and for retail Second, they may not have been organized Fig. 2 in a way that is useful to researchers. Re- with locally produced clothing with "New Photographs sach as this searchers interested in corporate history York styling" (both because of a desire to ini- one, ftom an Alberta often would benefit from training as ar- tiate and support local industry and because 7rade Shots, showing the chivists because it may be necessary to do a of the firm's ability to acquire and therefore GWG booth in 1928, are considerable amount of sorting and filing be- market clothing at lower prices) . In 1914, typical of the. type of fore being able to seriously analyse the data. Emery's became independent of Ramsey's photograph one might find in corporate (it-chives . This photograph was donated to the, Provincial Archives of Alberta alon,o ivith a large collection of trade association ntaterial bv the granddaaghter of the man who had organized the trade show. (Photograph courtesy PAA A17805)
10.
Once the data has been identified and and expanded its production into everyday sorted it should be treated with the cautions ladies wear.' Questions of availability, pric- identified further below. An annual report ing, styling, quantities, and the company's then as now served several functions ; it solvency, etc., are some of the issues which recorded the major achievements of a given may be addressed in annual reports . year and provided financial statements . Inter-office memos may have been written However, it may also have been used to to protect individuals from criticisms, such "sell" the company to shareholders, govern- as that they were producing "knock-offs" or ment officials, or in some cases, staff or copies of garinents produced by other firms . unions . An understanding of the operation of Correspondence with individuals from out- a garment manufacturing firm or of a retail or side the firm, other businesses, or govern- wholesale business, which may be obtained ment agencies may address a broad range of from annual reports, may improve one's issues, among them questions of style, cut, understanding of the garments themselves construction, production, etc. and how they were interpreted at the time Production records, order books, sales- in question . For example, the Emery Man- men's records, and correspondence with cus- ufacturing Company began operation in tomers are extremely useful because they in- Edmonton in 1912 as a manufacturing firm dicate what was actually purchased . In supplying Ramsey's department store, a local contrast to advertisements and catalogues, shop interested in providing Edmontonians which onlv indicate what was available, this sort of material can be used to determine terms of the costume itself, therefore, it has Fig. 3 what was sold and, sometimes, how well it not yet been possible to determine whether There were numerous was received . Unfortunately, financial or not the claims made in the advertisements advertisernents featuring records contain little information about are true. the caption "They wear longer because styles, materials, etc., so the price lists and Of perhaps greater interest to social histo- they're made stronger, " often sales figures may mean very little without rians is the fact that the advertisement de- showing men in further illustration of what was actually scribes an effective, collaborative relation- ridiculous positions. The being accounted for. Ideally this information ship that existed between the consumer and advertisements have an should be compared to advertisements and the manufacturer . Critics of high fashion immediate visual appeal catalogues to enable both sets of data to be complain that designers pay little attention but one questions more accurately interpreted . All too often to their consumers, yet here, apparently, is whether in fact you only one set of data is extant. an example of occupational clothing being would be able to hold up designed in concert with the people who a 180-pound man with Advertisements would eventually be wearing the clothes. Re- one leg of a pair of overalls . Alberta Labor Advertisements can be very useful in docu- searchers should be able to verify this claim News, 9 April 1921. menting style, construction and fit. However, through inquiries among railwaymen of the (Photograph courtesy they should not necessarily be interpreted period. They could then pursue the ideas PAA A19002) literally. Researchers, in common with to- suggested by this relationship, consider to day's consumers, must be suspect of a firm's claims . Costume illustrations may exaggerate features ; written description may omit essen- A. Commodity as Staple as the tial details. The actual product may not have been exactly as the advertisement suggested. Agriculture of NVestern Canada Some advertisements from the period have a ' The wise investor will place his money in an industry where returns will be sure in hard times. Almost any business can earn a profit for a while, or during an era of prosperity, but it is when hard times' comical appeal which may overshadow our come that interest oat our investments is needed moat r ' ability to examine them objectively (Fig. 3) . - Before iuvesting,rt is well to ask whether there is a pe,rmanent demand for the product of the in- dustry . Many factories making specialties or fashionable goods dd well for a time but find themselves These points will be discussed further under out of business because of a change in fashion, or xcause the market for the specialty is filled and there are no repeat orders. Such businesses have no chance to build up an army of loyal customers, mail-order catalogues, which are a specific who kcep coming back regularly for new supplies. form of advertisement. No such danger exists in the businesq of Aspects of costume as social making workingmen's clothing. Such stapler history are clothing must be replaced at frcqueut inter- also revealed through close scrutiny of ad- vals and a company that establishes a re p- tation for satisfactory goods will enjoy pthe vertisements. For example, an advertisement regular patronage of pleased customers. for GWG's "Blue Diamond" overalls in The Great Western Garment Company Linlited, has succeeded in placing itselT in Alberta Labor News describes a unique rela- the leading position for the manufacture and tionship between the safe of workingmen's clothing in Western GWG firm and railway- Canada. In, ten years their sales bavp fn- men that evolved because of requests for creased from $tE,00b in' 1911 to $1,500,000 in 19zo. particular features in the design of overalls The reason for this snfcess is that the bus- (Fig. 4). iness oras founded and is manag ed by, west- ern men who konw the needs of the country . . .a committee of railroad men, in conjunc- because they live in it. " tion with our designing department, were An opportnnity to iavest in this estab lished Westem indpatry is now open to yon . responsible for the production of our new Owing to the growing demand for their Foo- dncts, the Company is tncreasing its eapttal . high back overall. and a block of first Preferencepreference sbares b now When the design was finally decided off ed at $100.00 per sham with a bonus of 25; in PartitYpating Second Preference upon we submitted samples to the various Shares. railwaymen's locals throughout the West for SULLING AGENTS . their approval . . . The name selected, "Blue Diamond," A NONE- was suggested by Local No. 715, B. of L., at i es Corporation," . PHONE. . eS]76d . Saskatoon .^ 'NorthEDMONTON, WestALBERTA Sm' who ~ttry19~the deta0s without obligation on your pr , Kiodly'pernlit us to send a mm co YOU These overalls had a number of special fea- tures which were patented . The patent what extent it was developed by others in records support the claims about the unique the industry, and perhaps why it was not de- features of these overalls . Unfortunately veloped further. there are few overalls extant in museum col- One feature, common in advertisements lections and it has not been possible to com- in this period, was the promotion of the firm pare the garments to the advertisements . In as stable and prosperous, a part of the
4 1 Fig. 4 The G.W.G. "Blue Diamond" High Back Overall "Blue Diamond" . h- E ." h-d ,,, it , I-l" . is . ;ikxiut t be it ,, real 1,ha % I hey in it, The ro~ma selected, "Blue Dlalnond ;' was suggested by loed No. 715, B. of L . shaped Idwl on the dumond it ...... V~ t th 91-I th, ut--1 I'med-, f a,liu. . h The "Ulu, Sa!,ketr,"~~! The O-ll will tarry, a blue Ill-mond overalls, illustrated in an aped eher"' wherc the .ua enders rror~he ^Blue" ' den.It ., the colar ef the wx t I ~0, L , " ,, I I ~ t h, in-Ily -I'l-ed whih, or e ,railroad . .rty. . . .u and Ih, .'Dl .ntm~d" Siraun, its aa,Krwr ,p Alberta Labor News, ., I . . f ...... I Way T hr, - the trust "tu' . I ri-rall The d,"mm ' the "Blue~ Ihamohd" r o extra he .,, +elrht end specially d . '1" it y a11 p. -1 u, lie e-fideutIv monivil that then- ia nothing rloee e ~ cloth . It u ee unahrinkable se y deal. ran be used.. ad 8 March 1924. Iwo.. . fl:,~u Ili ., 1: %% ;;~ .1 ., 1 ...... d ' of the R.nnent ere designed to every eat. full- of eloUl Ierf paeararr Rwrd age . o.t Mnnking. V . . / Llnacce" ssioned A% ..I w- . ... . t dly j.pip"g W - to -W .rt The bark eit . up higher, taking mon eloth than at." *MY other e.-ere U . .111 .1, rd a in lu . e. M ~ 1,-11y .9..d to tithe . r-penti- ninR the double purpose of proteeanR the kidneys arahat eoW or rind, and at photograph courtesy 1 .11-4 W, 1. i;ter of redloud me,, in fonlunctlon with 0ur de. the same nmr rovednr more of the r1oU,lnr . PAM SOME SPECIAL FEATURES All the ep.cLl 1-tense uw prwtsted by Canadian Pettish, held by tbiu Con,pur for yes, pre-ti- (I) Wide Suspenders -_4 high up giving enln proteetionitit_k to th, bell and kidneys. No Zd-.. .to .-ff P(1-k" for the Blue-"'I- Dlamond .l (Y) Double Rule 1--ket ill, -0-H lininr utd Patented Imek . Try lo nhnkethis a, rute or pair or filters, nul af Net Tnt. out .hnr.ld be feawred-ir. e
d-- a.be.,_ 16. .wdeefel e.f.r de .le. th.w ..r ..ed.. (8) Put u Waleh m the Blb I'orAcL let it po to the Iwltom of the pwket . Turn mnnll upnlde dnwu. Shake'he It, whirl It uround your head. TheMe, weteh. Note under the exr,a aewed- n it can't get oat until you lake it *at - M Note the extr. newedtin nap, m the front ufety pocked . Y ."u! knife,knlfe, etc, . will not dlnp .,at .,f'"'- thaw pork .ta, i nastier in what pu tion you ,na, i,e,
ua~~~na d~" p.~rtnt, " nt . urn m" pnualblr for Ihr produrtion of wit new high bark 1" he .u.P," " nden .rn eatn, wlde .nd extra strong . being a It , .r,u lsrk uxll'. pheSat croax .iY^hi, up on ot Un lhe "b, "uldera :e Wck, and eoruerlurnUy rillill t eWIY dmf \11,, th "" dr"ian .a. Imnll)' it. Id--d up- x .ubnullod amqder lo the , . Tke ponderr re tfnuhed with heavy nll 1 ,ultm,a e he etidlaed Imu,a loup, ,lad slid- .,!Iw , " Lu,d, tou,n,rlurut th~" 1Crnt hr Ih,",r'~nppm'al, n ,,it fm Id n brar . , ,h .llnauW: n .,. Ihr pn!1loalel 10-1,116nll Ri " rn nlBrfnl'uppnnwl I,Yw ~ V-11-V~n.11~,11 and ineidn band. railroad own are, wed. from "'net hew", dnll . Every ~ " t .,a, .- . ,"inm,." ed arklnr, 11 1 doubt,, .ul . hee'~ by ~1-1 end the outside -'- wee failedi end The 6nesf leatura"""if's otry f6au 6neruereaa 6aad~falford~u~e . DTbe mareriol is the 6iy, it is as eorela!!y desi`ered R Rn hfsttY armeaf ia worfhy o! eporal as better than any other we have seen, and o! same interest note, as its qualify u deeidedly to you l act that ule are aoin~ fo continw to is bein~asAed !or or sell this ~ nt rxtro lor~cBtue Diamond " features . Perhaps, oleimlportann to you is t inary Not one fact this overall is made inin"' Edreronfon .
growth of the western frontier. Company reference purposes . They are useful because plants were frequently photographed at an they contain numerous line drawings, often angle intended to accentuate this impres- some colour plates, pricing information, sion. An advertisement in Farm and Ranch written descriptions, etc. They give an im- Review shows the GWG building from the mediate, visual image of the range of goods corner and the perspective makes it look that was available to customers through mail larger than it really is (Fig. 5) .' The view of a order. strong man in the foreground and various Because they were aimed at families in settlement images in the background (break- the lower economic brackets, they provide ing the land, a train, a grain elevator, etc.) was examples of garments that can only rarely be intended to make one proud to be a Western- found in museum collections . Evervdav er and to encourage men to buy GWG goods. clothing is generally not preserved either by Consumers were buying the image as much individuals or by institutions, a situation as thev were buying the product. It was ef- which museums have recognized and ad- fective but not entirelv accurate. dressed since their attention to social history was reawakened in the 1960s." Mail-order Mail-Order Catalogues catalogues therefore help to provide a bal- Mail-order catalogues are a popular source ance to the better quality garments in muse- for material historians studying the late nine- um collections . teenth and twentieth centuries. Unlike some One method of examining catalogues to of the other sources under discussion, thev determine what information they can reli- are easily accessible. Catalogues are readily ably provide, which has recently gained pop- available on microfilm, a limited number of ularitv, is to undertake a content analusis.' reproductions exist, and many museums As a case study, women's garments on the have collections of original catalogues for pages of the Eaton's Spring and Summer Cat- alogue for the years 1920, 1923, and 1926 F .\Rll AND RAXC11 were analysed RE\'IEW 111 and compared (Fig. 6). Few / construction details were included in the de- scriptions so some features were analysed based upon visual examination of the illus- trations . For example, the location of gar- ment fastenings was usually inferred from the illustration and previous knowledge of period construction techniques. Descriptions occasionally specified that garments "fas- tened at the side" but the type of fastening used was not mentioned . The information provided in the catalogues is much more fragmentary than a superficial glance sug- gests. Researchers studying the pages of cata- logues for purposes such as costume repro- duction are left making of number of sup- positions on the basis of their own expertise. Generally the intended occasion of use for dresses was not mentioned. Occupational clothing of any form was rarely mentioned. One dress was referred to as "very suitable ~ for maids' or nurses' wear."" The vast majori- OVERALLS ty of dresses appeared to be either house Guarantee "They wear longer dresses or afternoon dresses . Perhaps the rea- Eve" (Ituatoot bowing the G.W .G. Lbbl L guuultead because they're to `ive lull Jd"ction to tha son that fewer distinctions were made was v 6C wtYnunFhip. made stronger" ='q aality, wsd In obtain this related to the increasing number of washable ~NdYttlon. should th. got tomt provY d
qe~~Q~ 7{ID.tM does not necessarily indicate what was the 296 most popular style, colour or fabric. Unfortu- sio-ios." ' nately, records of purchases from Eaton's 2 .95 during this period are unavailable for com- parison. The illustrations can be considered within r, the context of the history of fashion design to determine to what extent high fashion filters down to the average person . For example, the 1920s are thought of in terms of flappers and beaded dresses but the author's content analysis of Eaton's catalogues from 1920, 1923 and 1926 showed that verv few dresses with any applied beaded decoration were available through the catalogues . The con- tent analysis does allow researchers to state, .+ with confidence, views that a more subjec- tive or cursory examination of the catalogues might have suggested . It could also provide i: contradictory evidence to previously held suppositions . o .n.r 11. p5p t:ww wwoe r 225 Although historians are quick to point out SPECIALLY what can be gleaned from the pages of cata- PRI logues, few 510-7041~r.. "' - have addressed the question of their limitations."' The fact that most of the ; 51 D'~101 . reproduction catalogues have been spon- sored by the companies themselves inhibits " 9.50 " 2 .25 J objective assessment in introductions. In dis- BIG VALUE IN cussion of goods purchased by mail order, GINGHAM DRESS Bewtltul D-1 ~ tt .,~ N .n.and~y Va14 n~Vw material historians have erroneously referred .. .. a. u-.. .. ~L-.. . to them as "the arbiters of good taste."" Al- 51D-1a. :_ . ._ ~51D "103. ' though some of their users may have felt that 6,Oa61 through mail-order catalogues they had ac- 250 1!!V 2.50 649_ cess to some of the finer goods available to . When Ordering Be Sure to Stete Sit* and~Color -70 w.»~aTON,C` city dwellers, our interpretation of what the catalogues meant to customers is largely V necklines - only 14. This supports the idea speculation. The typical catalogue shopper that the claims made in the catalogues may of the early twentieth century has not been not be substantiated. identified although some tentative efforts in Another observation is that the questions this direction have been taken. For example, asked of the catalogues must be carefully de- the archives of Sears, Roebuck and Company veloped. For example, in trying to determine are rich in data that have been used to inter- the most commonly available colours of the pret the significance of the catalogues to its period, if one listed all of the exotic names users. Their popularity in the early twentieth given for basic colours (i.e ., "Copenhagen," century was popularized recently in a docu- mentary which aired on the Public Broad- tirely subjective and remains to be verified casting System . The approach has been by a systematically addressed questionnaire. largely nostalgic rather than scientific . Another source that is useful in providing Robert D. Watt, in his introduction to The a context for interpretation of this data is Shopping Guide of the West: Woodward's written records from the period (letters, jour- Catalogues 1898-1953, includes a number of nals, etc.) . For example, in letters written personal comments from Woodward's cata- to her mother and sister is England, be- logue shoppers from the 1920s to 1940s, tween 1912 and 1914 when she was living which provide insight into the value these in Windermere, British Columbia, Daisy catalogues held for them but, unfortunately, Phillips frequently commented about the va- he does not provide any quantitative infor- riety, quality and price of goods available by mation. '2 Although not limited to costume, mail order through Eaton's . To her sister his comments are useful particularly in plac- Freda she wrote, ing catalogues within the context of their I expect I shall always be writing home for times, relating the catalogues to the events small things, for instance, all the lace. If which fostered their rise and fall . Further one wants any for toilet covers, etc . it is work needs to be done to determine who quite impossible sort of stuff. The very com- used catalogues (gender, income level, occu- monest and cheapest stuff like you see on pation, region, ethnic background), what the very cheapest underlinen at home is all get, and 1 have got the various cata- they purchased from the catalogues (finished you can logues from Pryce-Jones and Eaton." garments versus materials, quantities of ladies wear, children's wear, menswear), A few weeks later she wrote to her sister how mail-order goods related to those avail- that, general stores, how availability able in The Madras muslin from the Stores has ar- changed over the years, etc. Unfortunately, rived. It cost 2/- by parcel post. but we had the raw data required to answer these ques- to pay $2 .85 duty, which is about 5/- in the tions does not exist in the Eaton's archives so £. But Timothy Eaton or Pryce-Jones are no it must be compiled by other, less reliable, good for anything like Madras muslin . The means such as oral interviews with a large Canadians are evidently not people of taste, and all the old rubbish from England is sample of informants. . . . 16 Large numbers of people relied on Eaton's shipped out to the Colonies to bring them current fashions ; the cata- The "Stores" referred to here by Daisy is the logues featured garments consistently and Army and Navy Stores . The Army and Navy would not have done so if it had not been Stores in England, in contrast to the Army profitable. A better understanding of who and Navy Stores in Western Canada, were used the catalogues would enable costume considered comparable to Harrods and "al- and social historians to interpret them more though they had very comprehensive stocks, accurately. While a formal series of inter- were supplying wealthy purchasers and views specifically concerning the use of were not used by the vast majority of peo- Eaton's catalogues has not been completed, ple. "'7 The Army and Navy Stores have been the author has, in recognition of this prob- addressed by British historians and should lem, routinely asked questions about their be considered in comparison with early cata- importance during the course of interviews logues from Woodward's, the Hudson's Bay related to recent museum acquisitions for Al- Company and Eaton's. Researchers focus berta Culture. 13 Women have discussed vari- upon Canadian catalogues forgetting that, de- ous means of earning their own money (sell- pending upon where one emigrated from, ing butter and eggs, etc.) to enable them to other catalogues may have been used as well. purchase dresses or other personal items Middle-class English immigrants like from Eaton's. They expressed excitement in Daisy Phillips may have been disappointed occasionally being allowed to purchase a by the quality and selection of goods avail- garment from Eaton's rather than having to able through Eaton's but in interviews, make all of their own clothes. They have de- Eastern-European immigrants, unable to read scribed efforts to make clothes, without a the English descriptions or to afford to pur- purchased pattern, based upon illustrations chase finished garments, said that they were in the Eaton's catalogues ." This data is en- inspired by the illustrations; illustrations
8 were in many cases more important than the manacs and household handbooks, a form of descriptions ."' enlarged catalogue which, as GWG ex- It is difficult to compare the descriptions plained, aimed and illustrations with the actual goods to .. .not only to display some of the most know how accurate they are because there popular of GWG's garments, but also to put are few known examples of garments pur- into your home a book you will want to chased through Eaton's in public collections. hang up and keep because of all the valu- Many of the items sold by Eaton's were not able information it contains.2° produced in their own factories or labelled The idea was to produce a catalogue that was with Eaton's labels . Accession records rarely useful so that as well as providing informa- indicate where the owners purchased their tion about the company's products, it pro- clothing. The few garments with Eaton's la- vided additional information that would en- bels that have been found in collections have sure that customers held on to it for future not been identified in the catalogues. One reference . The firm could include photo- man's shirt in the collection of the Provincial graphs of its premises and the costume being Museum of Alberta was selected for repro- produced, as well as detailed information duction for use at the Ukrainian Cultural about advances in product development, Heritage Village a number of years ago ."' thereby educating customers. However, in preparing the pattern for the The almanacs were issued annually and shirt it was discovered that the sleeves were cut in a very unusual fashion, raising the featured a calendar which encouraged cus- question of whether the shirt was a "sec- tomers to retain their copies. They included ond," and whether it had survived because it household hints, first aid, gardening, laundry was uncomfortable and therefore rarely if and cleaning information alongside horo- ever worn. Unfortunately, the data which is scopes, tea cup reading and stock breeding usually collected with museum artifacts is records - truly something for everyone . The rarely detailed enough to answer questions company's logo and brief claims about vari- such as these. ous product lines appear on almost every A systematic study of mail-order cata- page. Inserted between recipes for Liver in logues is required, which would compare the Gravy and Liver Casserole was a description catalogues to extant artifacts and information and illustration of a Women's Wool Plaid obtained through oral interviews and written Sports Jacket .21 Caveats associated with the documents such as journals and letters. Until this is completed, researchers should be interpretation of almanacs are essentially careful in assumptions regarding this materi- those of mail-order catalogues. In addition, al. The fact that a particular style, colour, or researchers should understand that alma- material was available in the catalogues does nacs, unlike other forms of catalogues, did not mean that a given person would have not include the complete line of garments worn it; there are many other factors that manufactured by a firm, simply a sampling need to be taken into consideration. A com- of some of the more popular styles. parison with catalogues from other firms and with popular ladies magazines provides a Patents, Trademarks, and Registered price scale for costume of the period. Quanti- Industrial Designs tative analysis of the catalogues clearly The Department of Consumer and Corporate points out that Eaton's only featured gar- Affairs in Hull, Quebec houses a valuable ments from the lower end of the scale, pri- collection of patents, trademarks and regis- marily house dresses and day dresses, not tered industrial designs .22 Unfortunately, the particularly fashionable clothing. material is difficult to access. All files are or- ganized chronologically but are indexed in- Almanacs and Household Handbooks consistently. For example, several attempts Initially, GWG produced an illustrated cata- to develop a comprehensive list of patents is- logue which was sold to merchants for distri- sued to the Great Western Garment Company bution to their customers . It was a form of proved unsuccessful because some features joint advertising as the merchant's name, as were patented by principals in the firm well as the manufacturer's name, appeared rather than under the company's name . on the front cover. Some firms introduced al- These patents only turned up during an ex-
9 1 1 Figs. 7 and 8 7tvo vieivs of the Great Western Garrnent Workroom in 1916 ; notice the flowers the workers are wearing, the rnen and wornen lined up across the back of thf photograph and the generally neat appearance of the factory. These were obviouslv posed for promotional purposes . (Photographs courtesy Glenbow Archives NC-6-66520 and NC-6-66519)
haustive search through all patent registra- doned as impractical . Similarly, claims made tions for the period. Similarly, it is impossi- by manufacturers in patent applications can ble to develop a list of all items patented by not always be supported by further research inventors from a given province because the into a company's products . This data must material is not indexed by address. The ma- be substantiated bV documentation from di- terial is organized for the use of contempo- rectories, advertisements, catalogues, and rary inventors interested in finding out most importantly, extant garments. Many of whether or not they have come up with a the claims made in patent applications can new idea. best be measured by an examination of the Although not organized or indexed in a items or features being patented. Do they in way that is easily accessible for historians it fact live up to their claims? would be fruitful to develop a complete index of costume and textile registrations by Photographs Canadians . Some of the types of features reg- As is discussed further in Theresa Rowat's istered include : jewellery designs for items paper elsewhere in this issue, photographs inspired by the Klondike gold rush, colour are frequently misinterpreted by researchers variations in knitting patterns, various types who do not understand the context in which of pockets and fastenings, innovations such they were taken. One example in terms of cor- as pre-shrunk fabric . labels, applied decora- porate photographs, is of a series of photo- tive features, etc. If the material was properly graphs of the Great Western Garment factory indexed, costume historians would rind it in Edmonton in the 1910s. Found by resear- useful for a number of purposes, including chers in the files of the Glenbow Archives the dating of garments in their collections and the Provincial Archives of Alberta, these and as a record of inventive activity in cos- photographs have twice been used to cfocu- turne and textile manufacturing . rnent problems in working conditions in the As with other corporate records, re- garment manufacturing industry.' :` In fact, searchers must be cautious about the use of this was one of a series of photographs taken this data. The fact that a design was regis- on behalf of the firm to document the clean tered does not mean that it was ever actually and orderly working environment in the put into production . Many ideas were regis- plant . Even before finding an advertisement tered on speculation and once the inventor highlighting this photograph in Alberta tried to develop a prototype they were aban- Labor News, a costume historian would sus-
I () pect that the photographs had been staged in an advertisement, in Farm and Ranch Re.- Fig. 9 because of the way the workers were vieiv and the Farmers Alrnanac. and Home Advertisement showing dressed. Their white,~neatly pressed dresses Journal, contrasted with a photograph of the 15 the GWG workroom in and perfectly placed hairdos are not what first factory. This advertisement states that 1919 Jeatured in one would expect in a factory. Furthermore, "Quality and Service were alone responsible Alberta Labor News, there are two views of one photograph with for what is said to be the greatest stride ever 4 September 1920; the subtle changes in composition (Figs. 7 and made by a manufacturer in Canada ." GWG's original photograph is in 8) . Locating the advertisements was simply standards were beyond those required by the Provincial Archives confirmation of what had been observed . Alberta's labour legislation at the time . These oJ'Alberta : the firm The Alberta Labor Ne.i-vs states that this photographs had promotional were used to advertise the bene- photographs taken every photograph "illustrates the progress of in- fits of supporting unionized occupations . few Year-, . (Photograph dustry developing hand in hand with labor Many of the workers wearing GWG clothing courtesV PAA A 18997) in the service of the great masses of the peo- were unionized and would support a union- ple" (Fig. 9).1a The photograph was also used ized firm over a non-unionized firm . ~nrK .
Conclusion This paper has posed many questions and challenges to costume historians. Rather than providing answers, the author intended to provoke costume historians to reconsider their underlying assumptions about corpo- rate literature . Corporate literature, while used regularly by researchers, has not been assessed with the sort of rigour and objective analvsis that it requires. It is a valuable re- search source, yet also fraught with potential for abuse and misinterpretation . Researchers must be careful not to accept the data at face value but to question its context, purpose, and intended audience . The Great Western Garment Company, Limited - - Edmonton, Alta.
11 NoTEs 1. The literature search for this paper did not 11 . Thelma Dennis, "Eaton's Catalogue ; Furnish- reveal any material that had specifically ad- ings for Rural Alberta," Alberta History, 37, dressed this issue. While some authors have no . 2 (Spring, 1989): 21; see also W. Stephen- examined mail-order catalogues to a limited son, The Store That Timothy Built (Toronto: degree, the author was unable to locate any McClelland and Stewart, 1969). references questioning sources in corporate 12 . Watt, pp. xii-xiii . history or the use of corporate literature. 13 . The author began a series of interviews with 2 . For example, also during this period, the au- donors about their purchasing habits, thor directed an ongoing research project ex- specifically focused upon their use of the amining product packaging and labelling mail-order catalogues . from the early twentieth century. Dozens of 14. Jennie Zarowny, unrecorded interview with letters of inquiry were sent to manufacturing author, Edmonton, 1984 . firms ; the responses were inconsistent at best . 15. Daisy Phillips to Freda Oxley, Windermere, Some firms sent examples of period labels, or 7 May 1912, Letters From Windermere names of individuals working in the firm at 1912-1914, ed. R. Cole Harris and Elizabeth the time; perhaps more did not reply at all. Phillips (Vancouver : University of British 3. Catherine C. Cole, "Garment Manufacturing Columbia Press, 1984), 22 . in Edmonton, 1911-1939," unpublished 16 . Daisy Phillips to Freda Oxley, Windermere, M.A. thesis (Edmonton : University of Alber- 22 May 1912, Letters From Windermere, 32. ta, 1988), pp. 36-43. 17 . Gordon Watson, "`Supreme Value:' House- 4. Alberta Labor News, 8 March 1924. hold Catalogues as a Source for Social Histo- 5. Farm and Ranch Review, 21 April 1919. rians," Social History Curator's Group Jour- 6. This question has been addressed many nal 17 (1989/90) : 11 ; the Army and Navy times in Material History Bulletin as well Stores have been addressed in Alison Ad- as other sources . See Volume 8 of Material brugham's introduction to Yesterday's Shop- History Bulletin for papers adddressing this ping : The Army and Navy Stores Catalogue subject . 1907 (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 7. This technique is used extensively by gradu- 1969), and R. H. Longbridge, Edwardian ate students in the Department of Clothing Shopping : A Selection From the Army and and Textiles at the University of Alberta, see Navy Stores Catalogue 1898-1913 (Newton Catherine Roy's paper in this issue; see also Abbot: David and Charles, 1975) . Janice 1. Smith's "Content Analysis of Chil- 18 . Jennie Zarowny, unrecorded interview with dren's Clothing in Eaton's Catalogues and Se- author, Edmonton, 1984 . lected Canadian Museums 1890-1920," un- 19 . Provincial Museum of Alberta, Acc . no. published M.Sc. thesis (Edmonton : Universi- H83.210 .1. ty of Alberta, 1991). 20 . Great Western Garment Household Hand- 8. Eaton's Spring and Summer Catalogue, 1920, book (Edmonton : n.p ., 1943), 1. p . 40. 21. [bid ., 5. 9. Eaton's Spring and Summer Catalogue, 1920, 22. The registered industrial designs are physi- p. 27. cally housed at the National Archives and 10. Even reproductions of early mail-order cata- may be seen by advance request of specific logues usually contain introductions which volumes, however the finding aids are on glorify and celebrate the history of the firm microfiche at Consumer and Corporate Af- rather than providing any insight into what fairs in Hull . the catalogues actually represent. See Robert 23. ACCESS television's film "The Person's D . Watt's introduction to The Shopping Case" opens with photographs of GWG work- Guide of the West : Woodward's Catalogues ers and features a ficticious garment worker 1898-1953 (Vancouver: Vancouver Centenni- who was poorly treated by her employer, sug- al Museum, 1977) ; for discussion of the use- gesting that GWG abused its staff. Paul fulness of Eaton's catalogues in costume re- Voisey's article "The 'Votes for Women' search see M. Batts, "Eaton's and Its Movement," Alberta History 23, no . 3, (Sum- Catalogues : An Expression of Canadian mer, 1975): 20, also features one of these pho- Social History," Costume 7: 68-69, and tographs within the context of a discussion of K. Brett, "Notes on Fashion in Costume," in women's entry into the workplace . G. Glazebrook, K. Brett, and J. McErvel, eds., 24 . Alberta Labor News, 4 September 1920 . A Shopper's View of Canada's Past: Pages 25 . Farm and Ranch Review, 21 June 1920 . from Eaton's Catalogues 1886-1930 (Toronto : University of Toronto Press, 1969). Documents from the Tailoring Trade as a Research Source
c"Hat"
Resume Abstract
Les publications en anglais repertoriees dans English -language printed materials located ]e cadre de la recherche effectuee pour un during a master's thesis research project memoire de maitrise peuvent etre utiles aux have potential for the study of nineteenth historiens du costume qui etudient 1'evolu- and twentieth century men's tailoring by cos- tion des vetements pour hommes confection- tume historians . Pattern-drafting systems nes par des tailleurs aux XIXe et XXe siec]es. were produced beginning in the early nine- La production de systemes de dessin de pa- teenth century and increased in numbers as trons a commence au debut du XXe siecle et the century progressed. Tailors' trade jour- s'est intensifiee avec le temps. Les publica- nals and fashion plates proliferated with the tions professionne]les pour tailleurs et les general increase in technical journals of the planches de mode ant prolifere avec 1'aug- late nineteenth century. Bills of prices listed mentation des publications techniques a ]a garments made by the trade and prices fin du XIXe siecle. Des listes de prix enu- charged. Some instructional manuals were merent des vetements fabriques par 1'indus- located. Sources can be found in libraries trie avec ]es prix demandes. L'auteur a and museums. All sources contain detailed rep6re quelques manuels d'instruction. On information about styling, construction, retrouve de ces sources dons les bib]iothe- fitting problems, and fabrics and equipment ques et les musees. Elles fournissent toutes used by tailors in the production of men's des renseignements detaillEs sur ]a mode, la fine clothing. They are useful both for cos- confection et les problemes d'ajustement, de tume history and for specifying materials meme que les tissus et 1'equipement utilises and techniques for costume replication. par 1es tail]eurs dans la production de vete- ments de qualite pour hommes. Ces sources se reveleront utiles aussi bien pour 1'histoire du costume que pour ]e choix des mat6riaux et des techniques d employer dans ]a repro- duction de vetements d'epoque .
Introduction als in order to see what information they Our inheritance from the nineteenth and contained for use by costume historians. twentieth century technological revolution The study sought specific information in the tailoring trade is a wealth of printed about evidence of intellectual development materials that prescribe fashion, cut, fabric, within pattern-drafting systems (how did the mode of assembly and prices charged for systems provide instructions for drafting, work. These trade materials are rich in cos- how did tailors address the fitting problems tume detail: styling, construction particulars, of posture and corpulency), references to the and insight into the lives of the makes of trade in Canada, workshop practices of tai- men's fine clothing. During 1989 and 1990, a lors, and contemporary labour issues and sample of printed materials of the tailoring working conditions. The fashion continuum trade between 1800 and 1920 was examined of the study period was not addressed. and analysed during research for the author's Sources produced as early as 1805 indi- Master of Science thesis . The central goal of cate that the trade was literate . A large num- the study was to examine a range of materi- ber of journals and pattern-drafting systems
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture matcrielle 34 (automne 1991) 13 were published during the nineteenth centu- drafting systems, and 2. an examination of ry in Britain and the United States . Printed materials pertaining to labour issues, the sources grew and proliferated until by the Canadian trade, and workshop practices late nineteenth century many trade periodi- within the trade . The pattern-drafting sys- cals, pattern-drafting systems and instruc- tems were studied by "content analysis" (a tional manuals were available. David systematic set of questions) . Basic biblio- Williams, writing in 1895, noted the growth graphic questions gave a breakdown of place of the technical press in America. Between and date of publication and sex of author. 1872 and 1895, the number of (industrial) The study questioned to whom (cutter, tailor, trade and technical periodicals published home sewer) the drafting systems were di- increased by approximately 700 per cent.' rected . It questioned whether authors of the Edward Giles, writing in 1887, commented drafting systems applied the sculptural con- on a similar increase in publication in the siderations of postural assessment and cor- previous quarter century in Britain .2 The pulence in their draft. Many of the drafting Journeymen Tailor's Union of America pub- systems studied appeared to invent unusual lished a newspaper from 1887 until 1938 . methods for drafting and were marketing Professional associations were formed and with great claims for their product's reliabili- meetings were reported in trade journals. ty. The question was posed, were the printed Proceedings were also published. instructions provided sufficient to generate Primary source materials were collected pattern pieces? A subset of thirty-three sys- through inter-library loan, through the co- tems was randomly selected and tested by operation of other scholars, and also studied actually drafting according to the printed in- at the Library of Congress and the Division structions. of Costume, Smithsonian Institution, in This rigorous means of examination meant Washington, D .C. Canadian documents that it was possible for the researcher to were sought, but not found in Canada. Both work through a large volume of material in a American and British sources were found in consistent manner. A pilot study helped to Canadian archival holdings and libraries. formulate questions that could extract mean- Ninety per cent of the drafting systems stud- ingful data . The resulting information was ied were American. Most of the instructional numerically coded for computer analysis.3 manuals studied were British, but none of Other printed materials - bills of prices, the trade journals were. All of the bills of instructional manuals and conference pro- prices examined were American . References ceedings - were examined and analysed . A to Canadian subscribers, Canadian graduates large number of trade journals were also ex- of drafting schools and Canadian executive amined . The sources offered information members of professional organizations, as about construction techniques, styles, labour well as advertisements from Canadian tailor- issues, and billing practices. ing supply houses were found in American Trade journals lend themselves to a curso- publications . British fashion plates were ry examination by content analysis. Most ar- found in archival holdings of Gibb and Com- ticles are titled and included in a table of pany, Tailors and Shirtmakers of Montreal, contents. Journals could be examined to de- at the McCord Museum. Both the British termine the amount of material that each and the American trade affected the practice publication contains on a number of issues - of tailoring in English-speaking Canada . for example, salesmanship, styling, construc- Canadian researchers must remain aware of tion methods . This kind of data could be the large amount of material that exists about used to track the use of journals in the trade Canadian trades in both American and - whether for fashion news or technical in- British libraries . Tailors in Canada sub- formation. Interestingly, the number of arti- scribed to British and American trade jour- cles on business practices increased as the nals and joined American organizations. custom trade declined in the first two Canadian libraries and museums have some- decades of the twentieth century. what spotty collections of these publications. Libraries in the country of publication often have more complete collections. Evolution of the Tailoring Trade Data collection for the study comprised During the nineteenth century, the method of two parts: 1 . an analysis of 102 pattern- production of many goods changed radically.
14 The holistic practice of the craftsman was tailor. The cutter, working within the new replaced by a process-oriented assembly sys- sectional system of garment production, tem.4 In the tailoring trade, the small shop might combine the skills of salesman, mea- tailor was replaced by the factory system of surement taker, maker of patterns and cutter garment production . The early nineteenth- of the cloth. He (or his assistant, the trimmer) century custom tailor cut garments, assem- would make up the work bundles of the cut- bled them and then fit his clients, as well as out garment components and its trimmings, managing his own small business . By the carefully marking with an order number and beginning of the twentieth century, even cus- any special fitting instructions to be exe- tom clothing was likely to be made accord- cuted by the sewing tailors." ing to the sectional system.' The merchant This evolution of two distinct job descrip- tailor's client chose fabric and styling as- tions led to the development of a parallel set sisted by a tailor/salesman. Garments were of printed resources for cutters. The term assembled according to the "efficiency" sys- "cutter" began to emerge in the context of tem by skilled and semi-skilled operators in pattern-drafting systems about 1850.9 Many a factory. pattern-drafting systems of the early twenti- In 1800, in the United States and Britain, eth century were addressed to the factory most of men's fine outerwear was made by cutter of garments (custom or ready-to-wear) . hand under the supervision of a master tai- The cutters developed their own associations lor. The tailor might employ a number of for the improvement of their membership. journeymen in his shop, or depend upon They published journals and organized con- the labour of his wife and children to help ventions. At least one group, the Internation- him with his work. But as the population al Custom Cutters' Association of America increased in America and urbanization oc- (ICCAA), published the proceedings of their curred in Britain ,s a greater supply of cloth- annual conventions. ing was required . More cost-effective ways of production began to be developed. Even before the development of a commercially The Variety of Menswear Sources viable sewing machine, clothing was made Available by the sectional system, either in small man- Trade journals, pattern-drafting systems, ufactories or in the worker's home (outwork) . price lists, style books and fabric-sample Workers specialized in pockets, or sleeves, or books indicate the fashion and construction hand finishing, and were supervised by the methods of their time. former master tailor, now the merchant tai- Sources for the examination of mass- lor. He was responsible for obtaining materi- produced menswear are held by libraries, als, cutting the fabric and parcelling out the museums, and archives. Trade periodicals work to semi-skilled workers in an effort to were collected by libraries. The Library of maximize his profit and ensure reliable de- Congress, Washington, D.C. has a particu- livery of his product. The advent of the sew- larly strong collection of American publica- ing machine enabled garment producers to tions. Other libraries may have occasional train workers to an even smaller subdivision numbers of a variety of periodicals. Pattern- of tasks, and to increase speed of production . drafting systems were "copyrighted" in the The result of these changes in the process United States by registration at the Library of of construction meant that the traditional Congress - over 400 systems are available roles of the tailor were being divided into there for study. Museums have collected lesser tasks, filled by more workers. Speci- drafting systems as well. Occasionally, in- fically, two positions replaced the early structional manuals and style books have nineteenth-century master tailor: the cutter been collected by libraries. Three major bib- and the sewing tailor. The sewing tailor was liographies aid access to these materials.'o highly skilled at the moulding of woollen cloth to fit the variety of human forms. He Style Books and Trade Journals might become the foreman of a factory of Style books were provided by mail order and hand- or machine-sewing tailors or the fore- travelling custom tailors, indicating the most man/contractor for menswear-producing out- popular lines of the current year. These style workers (homeworkers) .7 The cutter made guides are sometimes combined with fabric the patterns and fit the client of the merchant samples. These fashion plates endure as a
15 mass influence on male fashion from the mid lished The American Fashion Review from nineteenth century until the present day. about 1874 until 1895. It was replaced by the Styles were also conveyed as part of a trade Sartorial Art Journal published until 1929. journal or "fashion magazine." Both these journals offered fashion plates Valuable styling and fabric information is and descriptions of fashionable menswear. illustrated and discussed in trade journals. Unfortunately, as is often the case with The issues of fit and controversies over the women's fashion publications, the fashion correct solutions to these age-old postural plates or posters were removed from publica- problems are also discussed and illustrated tions now housed in libraries; 12 but most in trade journals and proceeding of the publications also include a miniature black ICCAA . An early journal, Genio Scott's Mir- and white reproduction of the fashion plates ror of Fashion, was a combination of gentle- and these remain for costume historians. men's magazine and tailor's guide. In the Mitchell also published a technical journal 1840s and 1850s it offered fiction, news, from 1880 to 1916 - American Tailor and fashion trends and illustrations, and drafts Cutter. This publication offered information for fashionable garments . Canadian sub- on fit and assembly techniques and would scribers are among the printed lists of agents be of use in the study of historic costume. for the sale of the publication and systems of Mitchell also ran the Mitchell School of Cut- cutting. The 1870s and 1880s saw the Mirror ting and published his "Standard" pattern- of Fashion giving only fashion information, drafting systems which remain for examina- drafting instruction for the garments featured tion in libraries. The "Mitchell system" name and some tailoring news. remained associated with many pattern- Between 1880 and 1890, a full range of drafting systems into the mid twentieth cen- trade journals became available to the prac- tury, published by the American-Mitchell tising custom tailor and cutter. A few pub- Fashion Publishers, Inc. (New York) . lishing houses located in New York City and The other major American publication of Chicago dominated the commercial produc- the time was American Gentleman (1901 to tion of garment trade menswear journals, 1929), containing fashion news for the tailor- fashion magazines and pattern-drafting sys- ing industry, published by the American tems . They often also ran pattern-making Fashion Company. Its associated cutting schools. Trade journals are useful, not only school was the American Fashion Company for the styling information they contain, but Schools of Cutting and Designing, which also for the advertisements of tailors' suppli- published the technical periodical Custom ers . Advertisements for fabrics and trim- Cutters Exchange during 1908 and 1909. mings indicate popular fabrics and innova- Other American trade journals were pub- tions in materials for linings, buttons, and lished by the Croonborg Sartorial Co . - other supplies. Advanced Fashions and Custom Cutter'3 - The following trade journal sources were between 1908 and 1910 . A. D . Rude pub- identified in the course of the study project. lished a journal, Modern Fashions, around Clothing Designer and Manufacturer: Cloth- 1905, and ran the New York Cutting School . ing Trade Journal, published for the ready-to- Only two numbers of the periodical were lo- wear trade from 1912 to 1920 by the Clothing cated during the study, but mention was Designer Company of New York, claimed made in them of Canadian graduates of the Canadian subscribers in an advertisement." New York Cutting School .14 The journal was intended for cutting and Style books were used as guides for the allied industries and was edited by Harry selection of styles by the salesman/tailor. Simons . The Clothing Gazette was published Garments were made to an individual's mea- between 1880 and 1903 in New York. The surement and were thus considered custom- journal was directed to large custom tailor- made. The styles offered by each firm were ing houses and is useful for its colour illus- limited to several choices . Line drawings or trations of fabrics and fashion. It was edited fashion illustrations describe each prototype. by Jos. W. Gibson. Thus the restricted fashion range for men The Jno. J. Mitchell Company was the was preserved. Such style books that also in- most successful of the American publish- clude fabric swatches are a boon to costume ing/cutting school businesses. Mitchell pub- historians. Often swatches are missing due to
16 insect infestation or earlier use, but swatches procedures for a fine, hand-tailored lounge that remain are usually named and the coat. weight of the fabric is often indicated. These Instructions were also available for the resources are useful in preparing a vocabu- set-up and management of sectional system lary of menswear fabrics and specifying fab- shops.'6 General sewing and assembly in- rics for reproduction costume. structions are included . Alterations for fitting the common postural problems are included . Bills of Prices Most interesting are the floor plans for shops An unusual but useful printed resource for of different sizes and motivational tips for the costume historian is the "bill of prices." managing the factory tailor. Tailors were among the earliest trades to Tailoring: How to Make and Mend Trou- form labour or benevolent protective associa- sers, Vests and Coats, published in 1909 and tions and price lists were among the gains edited by P. N. Hasluck as a part of a "handi- made for the trade by these groups. The lists crafts" series is more representative of the include the usual garment styles made up at kind of instructional manuals found today. the time for which the prices were negoti- Tailoring manuals of the twentieth century ated and as such give an indication of the tend to be directed to the home sewer and as normal extent of the tailor's practice . Early such are "shortcut" methods for achieving nineteenth-century bills of prices indicate a tailored "look ." It is doubtful whether that tailors worked for women and children enough information is contained in this book (making heavy outer-wear and riding cos- to train a tailor. However, it does contain de- tume) as well as for their usual male clients. tailed alterations and mending instructions, The practice of tailors of certain regions indicative of the kind of handwork jobs might include a large proportion of military available in menswear at the time. clients. Some agreements allowed prices to An exception to the inadequate modern be determined on the weight, and difficulty manual is The Modern Tailor Oufitter and of handling the fabrics. Clothier, edited by A. A. White and pub- lished in 1950 by the major British trade Instructional Manuals journal, Tailor and Cutter. The series gives Instructional manuals for the construction of pattern-drafting instruction for the full range menswear, intended for the trade, are rela- of men's outerwear. It also includes basic tively rare. Systems of garment assembly are anatomy and proportion for tailors, chapters available for both hand and sectional sys- on cutting for the wholesale trade, and tems of construction in volumes of instruc- "outfitting" (retail men's furnishings) . These tion for tailors. Most of the systems located volumes contain styling, fabrics, and busi- in the study were British. A pre-1850 British ness information. publication, The Tailor" was written for young men considering entering the trade, Pattern-Drafting Systems and includes advice for their parents. The Pattern-drafting systems are the blueprints book describes the daily routine of the shop from which the tailor cuts the required gar- and instructs the apprentice how best to fit ment style. Drafting systems allow for either in. Detailed instruction for the construction the use of a client's personal measurements and assembly of coat, trousers and vests are or measurements taken from a table of stan- included . A repertoire of stitches is de- dard sizes to produce individual patterns . scribed. Such instructions are a unique view Pattern-drafting systems are an excellent into the tailor shop of the past. The re- source of styling information, but pre-1850 searcher may experience difficulty in the in- drafting systems are often difficult to use. In- terpretation of terms. structions may be inadequate for the exam- J. J. Byrne's Practical Tailoring: Treatise ple represented by the author in the accom- on Garment Making, published in 1895, also panying drawings . The instructions may rely includes steps of instruction for garment on a great deal of tacit knowledge that is lost assembly. A vocabulary of hand sewing to the twentieth-century technician . How- stitches is included . The more "modern" na- ever, all drafting systems offer the costume ture of this publication makes it easier to historian the same kind of information: line use. Detailed assembly instructions include drawings of the pattern pieces and styling
17 details of the garment under consideration. document the sculptural nature of the tailor's Later nineteenth-century pattern-drafting art. systems have little difference from their The question must be posed: how much modern counterparts. By 1880, most systems technical skill is required to read materials utilized a grid system for developing the pat- published by tailors? As this researcher was tern pieces. trained as a tailor/cutter and practiced for a Advantages of using period pattern- decade, the question is difficult to answer drafting systems include: authenticity of cut, objectively. The materials were exciting to patterns which can be made to fit the mod- read and interpret. Some problems of vo- ern interpreter, and many systems which in- cabulary and training arose. Early pattern- clude some assembly instructions or fabric drafting systems relied on the expertise of suggestions. Drafting systems are also an un- the user to make use of the scanty instruc- tapped potential resource for dating and tions. With practice, some of the expected identifying costume. Many drafting systems tacit knowledge - standard measurements are available for the period 1840 to 1940 . and fashionable styling requirements - was Close examination reveals the subtle changes assimilated. Puzzling terms were occasional- in detail such as pocket position or sleeve ly defined in other journals of the period . width that can be used to help date extant Most pattern-drafting systems will likely garments. Measurement-taking instructions only be used by technical people . However, are a part of most drafting systems and usu- they do contain the obvious styling informa- ally include a diagram of the ideal figure of tion as well as some buried asides about the the period . A comparison of such drawings trade (e.g., assembly tips that refer to the for a particular span of dates could give valu- common practices of the period; instruction able information on postural norms for that to the novice cutter). Bills of prices require a era. Lengthy pattern-drafting systems (espe- good knowledge of the contemporary styling cially British'7) include many styles of diplo- vocabulary since they list materials and style matic, formal, business, leisure, and military variations to which their scale of prices per- garb. They offer a source of information tain. By far, trade journals are the easiest to about dress etiquette as well as terminology use. The reader is at once transported to the for and illustrations of a tremendous range of world of competing quality men's tailoring mens-wear. Since little detailed material has shops, the best sources of fabrics, the latest been published about menswear fashion his- styles and equipment. tory, pattern-drafting systems remain as a rich source of data. Conclusions Proceedings of the Annual A great deal of work needs to be done in the Conventions of the International area of men's costume history. A detailed Custom Cutters' of America chronology of fashion remains to be pro- Nine volumes of this resource are held by duced. Techniques of the production of tai- the Library of Congress . They comprise the lored menswear need to be understood by minutes of the annual meetings of an associ- costume historians and reproduction cos- ation of cutters. Canadians played an impor- tumers . Fortunately, the printed materials re- tant role in the administration of this group. quired for these tasks are available. Materials The transcripts of technical papers presented are available, not only for men's outerwear, are a valuable resource to historians interest- but also for the hat finishing trade.'e ed in the progress of the science of garment The social history and business history of fitting. The group also held an internal com- the producers of men's fine clothing also petition of garment-making at each conven- bears examination . The narrative of the tion . Participants brought an example of working tailor runs through the union news- their finest work. Photographs and descrip- paper. The tale of the changing custom tai- tions of these garments are reported upon in loring trade is told in the trade journals pub- trade journals for cutters. As these garments lished. This dimension of costume history represent the early twentieth century, they reveal the human hands and minds that cre- bear close examination. They offer the cos- ated every garment we study. It adds to our tume historian insight into the subtle, taste- ability to interpret human history through ful variety within the menswear field. They clothing.
18 NoTEs
1. C. M. Depew, ed., 1795-1895 : One Hundred 10 . P. A. Trautman, Clothing America (The Cos- Years of American Commerce, vol . 1 (reprint, tume Society of America, Region II, 1987) New York: Greenwood Press 1968), 174-7. is a bibliography and location index of 2. Edward Giles, The History of the Art of Cut- nineteenth-century American pattern-draft- ting (London : F. T. Prewett, 1887). ing systems . K. Seligman, "Bibliography of 3 . SPSSx User's Guide (New York : McGraw Hill Flat Pattern Sources," Theatre Design and Book Company, 1986) . Technology 8, no . 3: 23-8, and no . 4: 20-5 4. Ursula Franklin makes the distinction be- and 9, no. 1 : 32-6, includes periodicals, tween holistic and prescriptive technologies, drafting and instructional manuals, both a concept which well describes the change in nineteenth and twentieth century. E. Rink, the tailoring trade. Holistic tradespeople Technical Americana (Millwood, New York: proudly practice all aspects of their craft. The Kraus International Publications, 1981) is a prescriptive process requires neatly defined checklist of pre-1831 technical publications . steps towards a reliable outcome - cf. the gar- See "Clothing and Shoemaking," 221-3. ment-making industry . U. Franklin, The Real 11. H. Simons, Drafting Pants and Overalls (New World of Technology (Toronto : CBC Enter- York : Clothing Designer Company, 1916), 2. prises, 1989),11-32 . (Available from the John Crerar Library, Uni- 5. The sectional system is based on the division versity of Chicago .) of labour principle. It divides the work of 12. Period photographs of tailor shops often construction of a particular garment into its show these fashion plates as wall decor or in steps of production. Each section of the pro- window displays, evidently in use to help duction line is responsible for a given num- clients decide upon a suitable style. ber of the steps of construction . The sectional 13. Frederick T. Croonborg also published system was the forerunner of the modern gar- The Blue Book of Men's Tailoring, popular ment factory. late in the twentieth century as a reprint. 6. J. A. Schmiechen, Sweated Industries and (1907; reprint, New York : Van Nostrand and Sweated Labor: The London Clothing Trades Reinhold Company, 1977). 1860-1914 (Urbana and Chicago : University 14. Modern Fashions (July 1904 and January of Illinois Press, 1984) . S. Wilentz, Chants 1905) are held by the Smithsonian Library. Democratic, New York City and the Rise of Rude also published his pattern-drafting sys- the American Working Class (New York : Ox- tem, The Great Modern System in 1900, ford University Press, 1984). 1909, and 1911 . They are available at the Li- 7. It must be noted that custom clothing was brary of Congress. being made in the factory setting and that the 15 . The Tailor (London : Houlston and Stoneman, factory sewing of menswear does not neces- n.d ., pre-1850). Available at the library of the sarily imply that the garments were made for University of California, Berkeley . the ready-to-wear market . Custom factory 16. Only one reference was found by this re- salesman travelled the countryside in North searcher. F. A. Deiner, A Complete Handbook America, setting up shop in hotel rooms. of Tailoring and Shop Management on the They measured clients, showed samples of Sectional or Group System (New York : F. F. fabric, and took orders for suits and sepa- Deiner and Company, 1920). A photocopy is rates. The resulting orders were individually held by the Clothing and Textiles Collection, cut at the factory, then assembled by the sec- University of Alberta. tional or "efficiency" system . American Gen- 17. For example J. P. Thornton, The Sectional tleman 9, no. 7 (1909) : 22 . System of Gentlemen's Garment Cutting, 8. W. D. F. Vincent, The Trimmers' Practical Comprising Coats, Vests, Breeches, Trousers, Guide to the Cutting Board (London : The etc. (London : Minister & Co., 1894) . John Williamson Company, n.d .). A photo- 18. See D. Bensman, The Practice of Solidarity: copy is held at the Canadian Parks Service American Hat Finishers in the Nineteenth costume library, Ottawa. Century (Urbana : University of Illinois Press, 9. C. Roy, "The Tailoring Trade 1800-1920" (un- 1985) for sources of trade materials in the hat published Master's thesis, University of finishing industry. Alberta, Edmonton, 1990), 62 .
19 La courtepointe quebecoise : creation ou emprunt ?
MAxrE DuRAND
Abstract Resume
In this article, the author examines the hy- Dons cet article, 1'auteure 6tudie 1'hypothese pothesis that, although French in origin, the que la courtepointe qu6becoise, d'origine art of quilting in Quebec underwent a gradu- frangaise, se soit lentement transform6e suite al transformation as a result of various for- a diverses influences etrangeres. Elle base eign influences. She bases her analysis of son analyse de la courtepointe au Qu6bec quilting in Quebec on various British, Ameri- sur differentes publications britanniques, can, English Canadian and Quebec publica- americaines, can adiennes-anglaises et tions, as well as on other sources such as es- quebecoises ainsi que sur d'autres sources, tate inventories and quilts held in private telles ]es inventaires de biens apres deces et and public collections. The author is thus les courtepointes conserv6es dons des collec- able to demonstrate that quilting has existed tions privees et pub]iques. Elle d6montre in Quebec since the period of French rule, ainsi que la courtepointe est pr6sente au and that quilts were even made locally. By Quebec As le regime frangais et qu'on la exploring a number of possible areas of for- confectionne meme sur place. Elle avance eign influence, the author shows that quilt- ensuite, en explorant diverses avenues possi- making in Quebec maintained certain unique bles d'influences etrangeres, que la courte- characteristics during its transformation. pointe quebecoise a conserv6 certaines ca- racteristiques particulieres a travers une lente transformation de son style.
Lorsqu'on aborde 1'histoire de la courte- La courtepointe sous le Regime pointe quebecoise, on se rend vite compte du franVais peu de connaissances que 1'on possede sur Les premiers essais d'6tablissement en ses origines et ses particularites . De nom- Nouvelle-France datent du XVIe sibcle . breux auteurs contestent 1'existence d'une Toutefois, ce West qu'a partir du XVIIe siecle courtepointe particuliere au Qu6bec et Wen que les colons s'y installent de fagon perma- traitent pas. nente et en plus grand nombre. Ces premiers Pour r6aliser cet historique de la courte- habitants proviennent principalement des pointe au Quebec, nous avons consult6 des provinces frangaises de Normandie et d'ile- ouvrages quebecois, canadiens, britanniques de-France. et americains . Afin de combler certaines la- Ces colons sont plus ou moins bien nantis cunes, surtout pour la p6riode du r6gime a leur arrivee. Pour la plupart d'entre eux, les frangais, nous avons recueilli divers rensei- annees d'6tablissement sont difficiles et les gnements sur les courtepointes des XVIIe et biens de luxe, comme la courtepointe, ne se XVIIIe siecles dans des inventaires apres retrouvent dans leur maison qu'en petite deces de la r6gion de Quebec. Finalement, quantite ou sont, le plus souvent, totalement un corpus compose de 210 artefacts pro- absents. Leurs habitations ne comprennent venant de musees et de collections priv6es qu'une ou deux pi6ces r6chauff6es par un nous a permis de tracer un portrait plus juste atre. Celui-ci ne suffisant pas a la tache en de la courtepointe des XIXe et XXe siecles. hiver, on accumule sur le lit les couvertures
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture mat6rielle 34 (automne 1991)
20 qu'on possede et on ajoute, si on le peut, un retrouve en serge de Caen, en serge verte, en dessus-de-lit en fourrure. toile peinte ou en taffetas.z Les premi6res gen6rations de Quebecois Au cours des vingt-cinq ans suivants semblent porter peu d'interet aux travaux de (1705-1730), on note encore la presence de tissage et de couture. On enseigne dans les courtepointes dans des inventaires qu6b6cois couvents de Quebec et de Montr6al les tra- des r6gions de Quebec et Montr6al . La ma- vaux textiles ainsi que les arts de 1'aiguille, jorite d'entre elles sont confectionn6es dans mais ces techniques restent le plus souvent la toile ou 1'indienne, quoiqu'on mentionne 1'apanage des dames de la bourgeoisie et de aussi 1'utilisation de droguet et de satin. la petite noblesse. L'outillage pour tisser Au cours des ann6es 1730, on remarque toiles et serges ainsi que la matiere premiere une augmentation des mentions de courte- sont pour ainsi dire absents ou impossibles a pointes dans les inventaires que nous avons obtenir. Les tissus servant a la confection de releves. Ce ph6nomene se poursuivra d'ail- vetements, de literie ou de linge de table leurs jusqu'a la Conquete anglaise. Les cour- proviennent donc de France, seule source tepointes sont encore confectionnees dans d'approvisionnement pour le colon. 1'indienne, la toile peinte, le droguet et la En 1665 arrive 1'intendant Jean Talon qui serge, la toile blanche 6tant utilis6e comme s'attaque, entre autres, au probleme de la doublure. Mais on note aussi 1'apparition trop grande d6pendance de la colonie face a d'autres tissus comme le droguet barr6, le la m6tropole. Il voit au d6veloppement de coton a rayures et la serge rouge. On rel6ve 1'agriculture et cherche aussi a encourager la de plus une premiere mention d'utilisation fabrication de tissus domestiques en dis- de toile du pays dans la region de Montreal . tribuant quelques metiers a tisser. Cette der- Au milieu du XVIIII siecle, les tissus ser- ni6re initiative ne semble pas rencontrer un vant a la confection de courtepointes men- franc succbs. tionnes dans les inventaires ne different Ce West que quelques ann6es apres le d6- guere de ceux relev6s pour les d6cennies part de 1'intendant Talon que 1'on retrouve precedentes. L'indienne est encore pr6fer6e, une premiere mention de courtepointe dans suivie de la serge verte, du droguet, de la un document notarial . En effet, en 1679, toile peinte et du taffetas. On se sert aussi de Frangois Provost et Genevieve Macart decla- 1'etoffe du pays .' Cette fibre entre 6galement rent au notaire Romain Becquet posseder dans la confection d'une courtepointe re- une courtepointe d'indienne .' Ce tissu fort lev6e dans 1'inventaire apres d6ces de Pierre populaire en Europe est importe des Indes. Derivon De Budemont, habitant du Sault-au- Fait de coton dans une armure toile, il est Recollet, en 1741 . Le notaire Porlier men- imprim6 de motifs colores a 1'aide de blocs tionne la presence d'« une Courtepointe de bois. Pr6cisons que cette piece semble de leine a Carreau Bord6 d'une frange de correspondre a la definition que 1'on donne Soye »'. Il note aussi que cette piece est cou- de la courtepointe a cette epoque : un el6- sue au point de croix, technique peu usit6e ment de literie compose d'un dessus et d'un dans la confection de ce type de dessus-de- dessous, rembourre et habituellement pique lit. Tout aussi interessante est la « petite cou- avec un point arriere. La partie avers est verte de berceau de taffetas vert vieux et usuellement composee a partir d'un meme pique prisee et estimee 4 livres » qui fait par- tissu. Notons qu'en 1686 et 1689, on releve tie des biens de Gabriel Lambert, de Lauzon, 6galement la presence d'une courtepointe et en 1748.5 C'est la premiere mention relev6e d'une couverture de lit en indienne dans la d'utilisation des techniques de la courte- r6gion de Montreal . pointe dans la confection d'un recouvrement Au debut du XVIIIe siecle, la vie quoti- de berceau. dienne se bonifie dans la colonie de Nouvelle- Notons qu'il n'y a pas que dans les r6- France. Doit-on s'6tonner que, dans cette gions de Quebec et de Montr6al qu'on re- p6riode d'aisance relative pour 1'ensemble trouve de beaux recouvrements de lit. Ainsi, de la population, on retrouve un plus grand a Louisbourg, 1'inventaire des biens apres nombre de courtepointes ? Ainsi, dans les deces de Jean-Baptiste-Louis Le Pr6vost cinq premieres ann6es de ce siecle, on releve Duquesnel, commandant de la forteresse, est plusieurs mentions de ces dessus-de- fait le 22 octobre 1744 . On y mentionne la lits dans les inventaires quebecois. On en presence dans la chambre principale d'un lit
21 garni comprenant « . . . une courtepointe pi- In every room one will find at least one bed quee de taffetas blanc »6. L'ensemble est eva- capable of holding two persons . . . As soon lu6 a la jolie somme de 380 livres. En 1752, as you get out of bed, it is made up and cov- le capitaine d'infanterie Michel de Gannes ered with a quilt of silesia, calico or wool, de Falaise d6c6de et on vend a la cri6e sa with the ends hanging over the sides. The poorest inhabitant has such a covering for courtepointe et son couvre-pieds pour une his bed by day; nor, indeed, have I ever seen somme plus modique. La courtepointe est cleaner beds in any country." aussi pr6sente chez les civils de Louis- bourg puisqu'A la meme 6poque, la famille Peu apres la Guerre d'ind6pendance aux Choteau en possede une en indienne 6valu6e Etats-Unis et la signature du Trait6 de Ver- A 35 livres.7 sailles (1783) r6glant le conflit entre ce pays Dans la derniere decennie avant la Con- et la Grande-Bretagne, les citoyens am6ri- quete anglaise, les serges et les droguets sont cains qui choisissent de rester fid6les A la les tissus les plus fr6quemment mentionnes Couronne britannique doivent quitter leur pour la confection de courtepointes dans les pays. Pres de 100 000 d'entre eux sont 6va- inventaires consult6s. La serge est habituelle- cu6s vers 1'Angleterre, le Canada et les autres ment de couleur verte. Fait int6ressant a colonies britanniques. Six mille loyalistes ar- noter, deux courtepointes fabriqu6es dans ce rivent au Qu6bec en provenance, pour la tissu sont entour6es 1'une d'un ruban jaune plupart, des etablissements situ6s prbs des et 1'autre d'un bord de soie jaune.8 Pour le frontieres entre la province et les Etats-Unis . droguet, crois6 ou non, on sp6cifie assez sou- Le gouverneur canadien Haldimand leur ac- vent qu'il est « du pays)), ce qui semble af- corde le droit de s'6tablir en divers endroits firmer une plus grande utilisation des tissus des Cantons de 1'Est. confectionn6s sur place. L'indienne n'appa- Quelques annees plus tard, soit en 1791, rait plus etre aussi populaire et les cotons, on divise la colonie en deux, cr6ant ainsi le ceux qui sont a fleurs entre autres, la rempla- Haut et le Bas-Canada. Cette derniere pro- cent. Le satin et le taffetas ne semblent plus vince, qui recoupe la superficie actuelle du entrer dans la composition de courtepointes, Qu6bec, compte 150 000 habitants, dont 93 exception faite du couvre-pieds de satin p. 100 sont francophones . La population an- que Louis Vignola, de Chambly, possede en glophone est regroup6e principalement dans 1760 .9 La conquete de la Nouvelle-France les villes de Qu6bec et Montr6al et dans la par les Britanniques se produit cette meme r6gion des Cantons de 1'Est. Les Canadiens ann6e et modifiera sous plusieurs aspects la frangais, quant a eux, se retrouvent dans les vie quotidienne dans la colonie. principaux centres urbains, dans la vall6e du Saint-Laurent ainsi que dans quelques 6ta- blissements a tenure seigneuriale . Evolution de la courtepointe et II est interessant de noter que John Graves influences depuis la Conquete Simcoe, nomme lieutenant-gouverneur du Dans ses premic?re ann6es, le nouveau r6gime Haut-Canada, passe son premier hiver au ne semble pas influencer la courtepointe pays a Qu6bec. Sa femme 1'accompagne et en qu6b6coise. Si 1'on se fie aux mentions con- profite pour acqu6rir certains biens n6ces- tenues dans des inventaires faits entre 1762 saires a leur installation. Elle note dans son et 1774, on utilise encore pour la confection journal en date du 10 janvier 1792 : ((1 bought de dessus-de-lits 1'indienne, le droguet, le an Eiderdown quilt wich cost £14 16s »'z. Le coton et 1'6toffe du pays. Notons que, pour montant paye, assez imposant pour 1'6poque, presque toutes ces courtepointes, on men- laisse supposer que la piece 6tait de belle tionne qu'elles sont vieilles ou us6es ou qualite. Cet achat prouve aussi qu'il est pos- qu'elles combinent ces deux conditions .1o sible d'acqu6rir des biens autres que ceux de Le peu de changement dans la literie premibre n6cessite si on en a les moyens. qu6b6coise semble aussi confirm6 par la des- Au debut du XIXe si6cle, le mouvement cription qu'en fait un officier allemand, sta- d'immigration se renforce. Des familles tionne a Batiscan lors de la Guerre d'in- provenant des iles britanniques, c'est-a-dire d6pendance am6ricaine. En novembre 1776, de la Grande-Bretagne, de 1'Irlande et de il 6crit a sa famille a propos des lits des 1'Ecosse, viennent au Canada. La plupart habitants : d'entre elles s'installent dans le Haut-
22 1 Canada, meme si quelques-unes choisissent Fig. i le Bas-Canada . Certaines personnes ne font Detail d'une que passer par le Quebec, comme John courtepointe provenant Lambert qui, en 1806, 1807 et 1808, visite de la farnille Maclntosh, la province ainsi que les bats-Unis. Il passe /aite dans de.s tissus de la remarque suivante a propos des lits que- coton et rehauss0e becois : « Upon the. bedstead is placed a d'elements dessin0s ou feather or straw bed, with the usual clothes, brodes. Aye.r's Clirf. and covered with a patchwork counterpane, Cantons de l'Est, orgreenstuffquilt. »'3 Z' quart du XIX" siccle. En 1820, le (Montr6al, Musee des Bas-Canada compte 420 000 beaux-arts 26-DT-2, habitants dont 80 000 sont d'origine britan- photo Marie Durand) nique. E1 partir de cette epoque, le territoire c:anadien connait une immigration massive . Environ un million de personnes y arrivent en provenance de 1'Irlande, de 1'Ecosse et de I'Angleterre . Pendant la seule annee 1832, 50 000 immigrants debarquent a Quebec . La plupart des immigrants, toutefois, s'installent plus a 1'ouest . Le Haut-Canada en accueille une partie, les Cantons de 1'Est, 1'Outaouais et Montreal, une autre. Cer- taines familles britanniques apportent dans leurs bagages leurs biens les plus precieux, objets temoins de 1'Ancien Monde qu'ils quittent . A preuve, le Musee McCord de Montreal conserve une courtepointe datant de 1726.'4 Cette piece, probablement la plus ancienne de ce genre en Amerique du Nord, natalite eleve dans la communaute franco- provient selon toute vraisemblance d'An- phone. L'apparition des premieres manufac- gleterre . Elle a traverse 1'ocean Atlantique en tures textiles au Qu6bec date aussi de cette meme temps que les parents de madame epoque, tout comme la mise en vente de ma- John Cridiford (nee Purnell) on ceux de son chines a coudre. mari, immigres arrives au Canada en 1832. Dans la deuxieme moitie du XIX'' siEcle, Les premiers exemples encore existants les courtepointes a appliques continuent de courtepointes quebecoises datent de cette d'etre fort populaires. Leurs dessus s'articu- i;poque, soit du deuxieme quart du XIXI' sie- lent le plus souvent autour d'un ou de plu- cle. Leurs fabricantes viennent de familles sieurs elements centraux . On confectionne tant anglophones que francophones. L'ap- habituellement ces courtepointes dans des plique semble particulierement en faveur, du tissus de coton a armure toile qu'on achete a moins si 1'on se fie aux pieces que nous cette fin . Le travail de ces pieces est fait a avons analysees. 11 faut toutefois noter que la main d'une maniere soignee, ce qui nous les courtepointes a appliques sont plus com- fait penser qu'elles ont pu servir pour les plexes de confection et requierent plus de grandes occasions. temps de fabrication . Elles servent le plus Les courtepointes a composition par blocs souvent de dessus-de-lit d'apparat. On ne les se retrouvent aussi en grand nombre a partir lave que tres rarement et, dans certains cas, de la deuxieme moitie du XIX'' si6cle, on reserve lour utilisation aux grandes occa- surtout durant les vingt dernieres annees . sions (mariage, visiteurs, etc.). 11 est donc Les blocs sont assembles a cru, alternes avec probable que 1'on ait conserve ce type de des blocs unis le plus souvent blancs ou re- picces de preference aux courtepointes plus lies par des bandes de chainage . Les motifs simples servant a garnir le lit en semaine. sont frequemment bases sur des formes Il est interessant de noter que le bassin de geometriques . Les tissus sont parfois de re- population continue d'augmenter des ann6es cuperation, parfois neufs. On les assemble a 1840 a la Confederation, suite a 1'arrivee de la main dans la plupart des cas, quoiqu'on nouveaux immigrants et grace a un taux de commence a utiliser la machine a coudre
23 epoque puisqu'on en retrouve des exemples 1 dans deux collections quebecoises privees . Fig. 2 C'est aussi dans le dernier quart du XIXf' courtepoir,r e (III Inotif de siecle que des filatures de coton quebecoises carrF, n dents-de-scie commencent a produire des tissus et de la orn 6 d'appliques bourre, que 1'on devait importer auparavant phytomorphiyues, faite et qui servent a la confection de courtepoin- de coton uni rouge et blanc. Comt O de tes. Des blocs aux motifs geometriques com- Verch 6 res, VP.rS 1850 . posent de plus en plus le dessus de la cour- (Montrrsal, Mus 0 e des tepointe. L'utilisation de 1'applique diminue beaux-arts 60-DT-2, sans vraiment disparaitre. Cette technique photo de Marie Durand) est en outre utilisee pour realiser des courte- pointes ornees de grands motifs phytomor- phiques qui ne sont pas sans rappeler les flo- cons de neige. Notons que la technique des
INFRF uZore 0 I~,~- Fig. 3 Courtepointe au motif de double chaine irlandaise " -. ~ '6N_" de rnadarne Louis " " " Brunelle, faite de coton :0"""" " " r blanc et rose . New ti "` . . Bedford, Massachusetts, :;:m vers 1880 . (Sherbrooke, collection 6nition de la 'ti pour certaines etapes comme la Annette Neveu-/eanson bordure. L81 .16C, photo du Certains grands assemblages de pieces for- Mus 6 e Benulne ) ment la partie centrale de la courtepointe a la r " 1 place du regroupement par blocs. Les dessus a motifs d'etoiles de Bethleem et de dents- de-scie ne semblent avoir ete fabriques qu'en de . r 5 petit nombre a cette epoque. Ces elements a literie font partie, tout comme les appliques, el %%% ME des courtepointes d'apparat car on les con- fectionne dans des tissus neufs. :.r 2~~'a~hrf Dans le dernier quart du XIX'' siecle, 1'emigration des Quebecois, qui a debute "~!~" dans la periode precedente, va en s'accen- tuant . Entre 1871 et 1891, 350000 d'entre . .~. ,~ _ eux quittent la province suite a des condi- pointes folles apparait au cours de cette p6- tions economiques difficiles, principalement riode au Quebec et que la machine a coudre pour travailler dans les manufactures de la est plus frequemment utilisee pour les tra- Nouvelle-Angleterre . Ce mouvement vers le vaux de couture . La premiere ecole d'ensei- sud perdurera d'ailleurs jusqu'aux annees gnement menager date aussi de cette epoque 1930 . Les Franco-Americains maintiennent (1882) . le contact avec leurs parents restes au Que- En 1886, Leon Gerin s'attarde a decrire bec . Certains reviennent en visite on defini- ainsi une partie de la production des femmes tivement, d'autres entretiennent une corres- au sein de la famille d'agriculteurs Casaubon pondance plus ou moins soutenue. Est-ce de Saint-Justin (Maskinonge) : « La mere que des motifs de courtepointes ont voyage vend des courtepointes mi-laine mi-coton, du sud au nord et vice-versa par ces divers garnies de franges. Philomene confectionne moyens ? 11 est difficile de repondre a cette de grands chales en laine et de grands cou- question puisqu'aucune documentation ne vrepieds en coton ou en indienne, ainsi que vient infirmer ni confirmer cette possibilite . des « catalogues » (tissu de retailles) qui ser- On sait toutefois que les Franco-Americaines vent indifferemment de tapis pour le plan- confectionnent des courtepointes a cette cher on de couvertures de lit. »'5
24 1 Herman Plante pr6cise qu'a la meme epo- Fig. 4 que, on pique les courtepointes en corvee. Courtepointe au rnotif On invite les voisines et on tend 1'ensemble de double X, faite. de du dessus de lit sur un grand cadre de bois. toiles de coton uni Puis on s'installe autour et on pique. Selon jaune, orange et blanc. 1'auteur, cette corvee a lieu au printemps, Comt6 de Compton . avant le temps des jardinages .'e Richard Cantons de I'F.st, Hotte, quant a lui, la situe vers la fin du mois 3'' quart du XIJc" siecle. . (Montreal, Musee de janvier ou au debut de fevrier, pour ce qui McCord M966.4.2) est de la region de l'Outaouais."
Fig. s Sensibilisation aux arts textiles et Pointes jolles de la mise en valeur famille Filteau-Chaillez . XXI Pit~c,e polychrome ornee Au debut du siecle, on fonde deux insti- de. points, de noms et de tutions qui auront leur importance dans le 1~ rnotifs brod6s . et taillr3e domaine des arts textiles et de 1'artisanat. 04 dans divers tissus de Vers 1900, des dames anglophones de la re- soie et de coton et des gion de Montreal, membres de la Woman Art rubans . Saint-Pierre-Les- Society, organisent un voyage en Gaspesie . ~.~..~i.~. .~~~ ~.. BecCluets, corntP de. Elles constatent sur place la richesse des arts Lotbiniere, 1897 . domestiques et le danger que representent ou moins long terme, les diverses activites (Montr0al, Musrse les catalogues des compagnies qui offrent creatrices . En 1906, ces dames fondent Line McCord h1.965 .86.11 des marchandises en abondance . Ces publi- societe a charte, The Canadian Handicrafts cations auraient tendance a annihiler, a plus Guild, dont les buts sont « de developper et faire revivre 1'artisanat, de sensibiliser le grand public a la richesse et a la beaute des ceuvres faites a la main, d'organiser des ex- positions, de monter tin centre de documen- tation sur le sujet et d'elaborer Line collection permanente de pieces )) .18 Quelques ann6es plus tard, deux agro- nomes, Georges Bouchard et Alphonse Desilets, lancent I'idee de cr6er des groupes de fermibres . Ceux-ci verront a utiliser les notions d'economie domestique vehiculees par les ecoles m6nageres . Le premier cercle de fermibres est cree a Chicoutimi en 1915. 11 a pour but d'introduire dans les fermes fa- miliales les industries de 1'aviculture, du jardin potager et de la culture ornementale. Plusieurs cercles ajoutent a ces activit6s la promotion de divers arts domestiques comme le filage, le tissage, le tricot, etc . D'autres mettent sur pied des bibliotheques et organisent des conferences pour rensei- gner leurs membres. Notons que quelques communautes religieuses feminines s'asso- cieront aux cercles pour les aider a realiser leurs activites. La courtepointe du d6but du XX`' siecle ne diff6re guere de celle de la fin du siecle pre- cedent. Les assemblages de pieces par blocs et les grandes appliques sont fort populaires, de meme que les pointes folles coupees dans des tissus varies . 11 semble qu'a cette epoque,
25 .
les techniques de la courtepointe soient en- seignees dans les couvents quebecois. Mary Conroy soutient cette possibilite tout en spe- cifiant que cet enseignement est donne aux jeunes filles des la deuxieme moitie du XIXt' siecle .'9 Nous n'avons pu confirmer ni in- firmer cet enonce. En 1916, le gouvernement quebecois, par le biais du minist6re de 1'Agriculture, vient en aide aux cercles de fermieres et forme le Service de renseignements agricoles et me- nagers, qui organise des cours, des confe- rences et des expositions . Trois ans plus tard, lors d'un premier congres general des cer- cles, on decide de faire paraitre une revue qui portera le nom de La bonne fermiere. Darts les annees 1920, les cercles de fer- mieres multiplient leurs activites. Ils par- ticipent aux expositions provinciales de Quebec, organisent deux congres, forment tin comite des industries domestiques et ou- vrent des comptoirs artisanaux a Quebec et Montreal . Au cours de cette periode, les cer- c.les adoptent leur drapeau et embleme offi- ciels ainsi que leur devise « Pour la terre et le fo_ver ». t1 la fin de la periode 1920-1930, la popu- larite des arts domestiques croit tant au niveau quebecois qu'international . Oscar Beriau, chimiste et artisan, prend en charge 1'Ecole des arts paysans (qui deviendra le Service des arts domestiques), ouverte en 1929 par le gouvernement provincial . Il in- vite divers specialistes quebecois et eu- ropeens du tissage et des techniques arti- se fait 1'apotre de la protection des « arts rus- sanales A participer a la formation de ses tiques » . Selon lui, plusieurs elements de la Fig. 6 eleves. En tant que techniciennes du minis- civilisation moderne menacent ces arts de Courtepointe orn0e de tere de 1'Agriculture et de la Colonisation, disparition graduelle : le progres materiel, motifs phytomorphiques, celles-ci propagent leurs connaissances 1'expansion du commerce, les catalogues des faite de toiles de coton nouvellement acquises dans les cercles de grandes maisons commerciales, le pouvoir uni rouge, vert et fermieres. d'achat accru du cultivateur, les migrations nature], Province de Darts les annees de crise economique sociales, le systeme d'education, le pheno- Quebec, d0but du XX'"' sificle. (Montrtlal, (1930 et suivantes), la recuperation de tissus mene du « paraitre au lieu d'etre », la tari- Musee des arts est importante puisque le budget d'un grand fication a I'heure et 1'abaissement du sens d0coratifs 732-1245, nombre familles de est serre . On defait les esthetique .L° photo de Marie Durand) poches de farine, de sucre et de cereales L'artisanat connait une vague de popula- pour realiser 1'endos des courtepointes . Le fil rite qui va en croissant jusqu'a la Seconde de coton qui ferme les extremites de ce type Guerre mondiale . Les cercles de fermieres, de sac est teint et sert a broder le bord des 1'Ecole d'arts domestiques et le ininistere de pieces ou des appliques . Les vetements en fi- 1'Agriculture encouragent a divers niveaux bres naturelles et artificielles (ex. rayonne) 1'apprentissage d'une variete de techniques sont decousus, decoupes et assembles pour des textiles . De plus, en 1937, Fran~oise former des dessus de courtepointes aux mo- Gaudet-Smet lance la revue Paysana qui tifs geometriques ou abstraits . paraitra jusqu'en 1948. Par 1'impression de En 1932, Georges Bouchard publie dans patrons et de conseils techniques, cette pu- Le Canada fran(~ais un article dans lequel il blication incite les lectrices a pratiquer
26 1 Fig. 7 Courtepointe. au motif d'(sventail de Fannie attribucie a madame Joseph Giguke, r6unissant divers tissus de coton et de fibres synth6tiques, a la doublure en sacs de /arine Robin Hood et aux bards des pieces brodes au point d'6pine. Saint-loseph-de-Beauce, vers 1930. (QuEbec., Mus0e de ]a civilisation 74-153)
Fig. 8 Pointes sages de la famille Napoleon Boily, pike auX de,ssus polychrome dont les bords des composantes sont brod0s au point d'epine, taillk dons divers tissus de coton, de laine, de soie et de fibres synthetiques (retailles de v6ternentse d'hiver) . divers arts de 1'aiguille, dont celui de la guerre et les tissus sont donc difficiles a Saint-joseph-de-BeMlce, courtepointe. obtenir. A la tnaison, les femmes defont les inifieu A XXI' sikle. Pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, les vetements pour en confectionner de nou- (QuObec, Mus6e de la travaux de couture sont plus particuliere- veaux. Les tlssus sont aussl recupPres pour civilisation 74-1611 ment mis a 1'honneur. En effet, tout le ma- fabriquer des courtepointes . Les pointes teriel disponible sert a participer a 1'effort de folles et les pointes sages sont particuliere- ment populaires, car ces motifs permettent une meilleure utilisation des retailles. A la fin du conflit mondial, le ministt>re de 1'Industrie et du Commerce cree 1'Office provincial d'artisanat et de la petite indus- trie. Cet organisme voit a coordonner, pro- mouvoir et diriger la creation artisanale au Quebec . Son premier president est Jean- Marie Gauvreau. L'organisme se transformera en Office d'artisanat du Quebec. en 1950, puis en Centrale d'artisanat du Quebec en 1963 . C'est aussi en 1945 que nait la Co- operative des arts domestiques du Qu6bec, suite a une initiative des cercles de fermieres et de leur federation . Les cercles relancent en outre leur revue, dont la publication avait provisoirement cesse, sons le nouveau titre Terre et Joyer. Si les lendemains de la guerre ont des ef- fets benefiques pour plusieurs secteurs d'ar- tisanat, il Wen est toutefois pas de meme pour la courtepointe. La prosperite que c:on- naissent les pays industrialises dans leur en- semble, surtout en Amerique du Nord, a par- tir des annees 1950 amene sur le marche de
27 nouveaux produits et facilite 1'acquisition de marchandises . Les couvertures et couvre-lits manufactures remplacent peu a peu les cour- tepointes de facture domestique . Dans des villes comme Montreal, Quebec, Sherbrooke ou Saint-Hyacinthe, ou 1'on compte plu- sieurs industries employant du personnel feminin, le temps alloue par les femmes aux travaux d'aiguille a la maison diminue de maniere perceptible. Un peu de reprisage, de reparation de vetements et parfois de tricot en constituent 1'essentiel. Les courtepointes fabriquees dans les an- nees 1950 proviennent le plus souvent du milieu rural . La machine a coudre occupe 1 importante dans leur confection, 1 une place tant pour 1'assemblage des pieces que pour le piquage. De nouveaux patrons publies dans les revues sont a la mode et 1'originalite est bien souvent sacrifiee a la standardisation. Cependant, a la fin des annees 1960 et au cours de la decennie suivante, la courte- pointe connait un renouveau . En 1967, suite a Line experience de creation reunissant arti- sans, architectes et concepteurs, on fonde a i Baie-Saint-Paul le premier CREA (pour crea- tion, recherche, education et artisanat). Cet organisme produit des courtepointes mo- dernes, inspirees de motifs traditionnels et commercialisees sous la marque MANU. Darts les annees 1970, Louise Fleury- Bourassa, Monique Cliche-Spenard, Made- leine Arbour et Jone Baker produisent tour a tour des courtepointes aux motifs refletant divers elements de la tradition quebecoise ou dont les dessus relevent de 1'illustration . A la meme epoque, Lise Nantel et Marie Decarie Ik utilisent les techniques de 1'applique et du piquage pour confectionner des bannieres vees, sous leAw theme « Gardienne10 de mes portant divers messages . reves >>. Six ans plus tard, dans le cadre du Fig. 9 C'est aussi dans la decennie 1970 que sont Salon national de la courtepointe-Quilt Ca- Courrtepointe au motif de publies plusieurs livres et brochures sur la nada, tenu a 1'Universite Concordia de Mont- petltes bonnes fenlnles de Louisette Tremblay- courtepointe . Des cahiers de patrons surtout real, le Musee McCord organise tine exposi- RUeI, falte de tlssus et quelques livres techniques sont edites par tion ayant pour titre « Le jardin de Fleurs de neufs imprimOs et unis, divers auteurs et organismes tels le ministere grand-mere » . Le Musee Marsil de Saint- aux bords des de 1'Agriculture du Quebec et la Federation Lambert a, quant a lui, presente un ensemble personnages brodess au des cercles de fermieres. de trente courtepointes provenant de la col- point de feston . Saint- Dans la decennie 1980, la courtepointe lection McKendry. HermOnegilde, 1951 . continue d'etre populaire sans toutefois con- Les cercles de fermieres aident encore a /Coaticook, collection de naitre la meme faveur que dans les annees maintenir en vie la tradition de la courte- Louisette Tremblay-Ruel precedentes . Plusieurs musees organisent pointe. Plusieurs cercles continuent de pro- L81-32c. 1, photo du des expositions regroupant ces dessus-de- duire en groupe des courtepointes. Celles-ci Mushe Beaulnel lits. En 1981, le Musee Beaulne de Coaticook sont le plus souvent a theme commemora- expose dans ses salles des courtepointes tif et servent a feter un anniversaire de provenant de nombreuses collections pri- fondation. La courtepointe : creation ou emprunt Quelques auteursz3 affirment que la Plusieurs auteurs, tant quebecois que courtepointe queb6coise, telle qu'on la con- canadiens-anglais, amdricains et britan- nait aujourd'hui, est un apport culturel des niques, ont tent6 d'analyser le cas de la conqu6rants britanniques et des Loyalistes courtepointe d'ici et de ses origines . Certains americains . Nicole Grenier parle plutot discutent de son originalite et d'autres, de d'une forte influence de ces milieux sur la 1'emprunt d'6l6ments a des cultures forme que prend la courtepointe d'ici. Ainsi 6trang6res . ecrit-elle : Du cot6 des milieux concern6s, quelques If est certain que la production qu~Ucoise auteurs2' avancent que la courtepointe a et6 fortement influencEe par les Etats- n'6tait pas connue en Nouvelle-France. Ain- Unis; les techniques et les motifs communs si, dans son ouvrage paru en 1915, Marie aux deux pays sont la pour le prouver. On Daugherty Webster affirme : constate aussi que les courtepointes quEb6- Extensive investigation has shown that the coises les plus 6labor6es se retrouvent dons introduction of the arts of patchwork and les Cantons de 1'Est, r6gion plus parti- quilting to the American continent is due culierement peupl6e par les Loyalistes . entirely to the English and Dutch. No evi- Dons la Beauce, la proximite des Etats-Unis dence has been found that Spanish or se manifeste surtout par la faveur populaire French colonists made use of quilting . . . qu'obtient la courtepointe et par la variEt6 The French who opened up Canada des motifs qu'on y retrouve .24 brought none of the quilting or patchwork L'hypoth6se d'un important apport britan- of France with them .. . As a protection nique ou am6ricain, ou des deux a la fois, against the biting northern winters, the merite une analyse un peu plus poussee. early French settlers sought protection Apres la Conquete, les premiers arrivants under furs, which could be obtained quite des readily in the great woods.zz iles britanniques qui s'installent au Qu6bec sont des fonctionnaires et administrate urs Comme nous 1'avons constate par 1'etude de envoy6s par Londres, des militaires de garni- divers inventaires de biens apres deces, cette son et quelques aventuriers esp6rant faire affirmation est partiellement erronee. Bien fortune. Par la suite viennent s'ajouter des sur, les habitants de la Nouvelle-France se membres de 1'arm6e britannique demobilis6s servent de couvertures de peaux et de four- apres la Guerre d'ind6pendance americaine rure pour couvrir leur lit mais ils utilisent et des Loyalistes qui fuient les Etats-Unis . aussi des dessus-de-lits plus decoratifs. Les Tous ces nouveaux habitants s'6tablissent courtepointes proviennent au depart de dans les grands centres urbains, soit Mont- France mais 1'utilisation, a partir du XVIIIe real et Qu6bec, dans les Cantons de 1'Est ou sibcle, d'6toffes dites « du pays » prouve en p6riph6rie de la zone seigneuriale d6ja ex- hors de toute doute qu'on en confectionne ploit6e. Si des courtepointes se trouvent aussi sur place. La possibilite qu'on en fa- dans leurs bagages, elles y sont en petit nom- brique a partir de tissus d'importation ou de bre puisqu'aucun texte n'en fait mention et contrebande ne doit pas etre negligee bien qu'aucun mus6e ne possede de pieces qui que, dans 1'etat present des connaissances seraient entr6es de cette maniere au pays dans ce domaine, on ne puisse 1'affirmer pendant cette periode. De plus, on ne doit categoriquement. pas oublier que la communaute anglophone La courtepointe, selon la d6finition enon- est ici en minorit6 et que, vingt ans apres la c6e en premiere partie, est donc pr6sente en Conquete, elle ne forme que 7 p. 100 de la Nouvelle-France. Sans la retrouver en aussi population .25 Notons aussi que, sans etre grand nombre que la couverture, on note son froids et distants, les contacts entre les emploi tant dans la maison du seigneur ou groupes francophone et anglophone sem- du marchand que dans celle de 1'habitant, blent loin de former les bases d'une osmose aussi bien en milieu urbain que rural. On doit culturelle parfaite. toutefois constater qu'elle sert le plus sou- Au XIXe siecle, 1'immigration d'une popu- vent de dessus-de-lit d'apparat et que ceux lation provenant des iles britanniques aug- qui en sont propri6taires poss6dent un ni- mente, mais les nouveaux Canadiens s'6ta- veau d'aisance minimum. A la base, la cour- blissent majoritairement dans le Haut- tepointe d'ici a donc des racines frangaises. Canada . Les courtepointes fabriquees a cette
29 6poque, comme nous 1'avons deja mention- present dans la confection de 75 p. 100 des n6, proviennent aussi bien des communautes courtepointes . Cette proportion grimpe A francophones qu'anglophones et des milieux pres de 100 p . 100 si 1'on exclut les pi6ces urbains que ruraux . Cela laisse supposer que fabriqu6es par les artisanes de milieu anglo- ce type de dessus-de-lits fait autant partie du phone. Le blanc est combin6 au rouge, au bagage culturel d'une population que de vert et au jaune dans la majorite des pikes . 1'autre. Bien qu'une certaine influence des On utilise aussi dans certains cas le bleu, le milieux anglophones transparaisse dans la rose et 1'orange . Les tons choisis sont vifs et confection de la courtepointe du Quebec, il font contraste avec la puret6 du blanc. est difficile d'affirmer de maniere cate- Par contre, les courtepointes anglaises et gorique qu'elle soit marquante. canadiennes-anglaises sont plus fr6quem- Les influences etrangeres dans la courte- ment realisees dans des teintes neutres ou pointe qu6becoise semblent etre plus percep- sombres. Il en est de meme des courtepointes tibles dans la deuxieme moiti6 du XIXe sie- americaines mais sur une moindre 6chelle. cle. Un meilleur reseau de transport et donc Ceci s'explique partiellement par un apport de communication, 1'apport exterieur de re- culturel plus varie et important dans ce pays. vues, de livres et de mat6riel divers ainsi que Du cot6 technique, on remarque 1'utilisa- 1'emigration de Qu6becois vers les Etats-Unis tion plus fr6quente du diamant comme motif sont tous des facteurs qui modifient a la de piquage. Il prend parfois 1'apparence d'un longue la courtepointe d'ici. Mais les innova- losange lorsqu'on 1'allonge. Ce motif de pi- tions prennent toutefois beaucoup de temps quage est deja pr6sent en France au XVIIe a s'implanter. Ainsi, la technique des pointes sibcle et donne une apparence gaufr6e au folles, populaire des les annees 1860 en An- dessus de la courtepointe . On le retrouve gleterre et aux Etats-Unis, ne s'impose au aussi present au Canada anglais, aux Etats- Quebec qu'a la toute fin des annees 1880. La Unis et en Angleterre, mais dans une bien machine a coudre, disponible a partir de moins forte proportion. cette 6poque (1860), ne sera utilisee de Pour conclure, revenons A notre question manibre plus r6pandue dans la confection de depart : la courtepointe queb6coise est- des courtepointes qu'a la fin du siecle . Re- elle une creation ou un emprunt ? Nous marquons aussi que certaines modes ayant croyons quant a nous que la r6alit6 se situe cours dans les milieux anglophones, comme quelque part entre ces deux poles. A la base, celle des blocs a signature, n'auront que peu la courtepointe d'ici est d'origine frangaise. de popularite dans les milieux francophones . Elle a subi par la suite une lente transforma- La courtepointe quebecoise, surtout au tion due a certaines contraintes du milieu XIXI et au debut du XXe siecle, conserve cer- puis a 1'influence d'apports 6trangers. Elle a tains 6lements distinctifs sur les plans de toutefois conserve, sur les plans de 1'esth6- 1'esthetique et de la technique. On remarque tique et de la technique, certains 6l6ments entre autres une intense utilisation du blanc qui la distinguent bien souvent de 1'ensem- comme coloris de base ou compl6mentaire . ble de la production nord-am6ricaine. Jusqu'au debut du XXe siecle, le blanc est
NOTES
Cet article est essentiellement bas6 sur une partie 1. Robert-Lionel S6guin, La couverture de lit du du mEmoire de maitrise de I'auteure intitule « Les Qu6bec ancien, catalogue d'exposition (Vau- courtepointes du Qu6bec», d6pose a 1'Universit6 dreuil : Mus6e r6gional de Vaudreuil- Laval en 1990 et realise sous la direction de Soulanges, [s .d .]), p. 19. madame jocelyne Mathieu . 2. Inventaire des biens de Catherine Fournier veuve de Thimoth6e Roussel, 9e avril 1701,
30 Haute-Ville, Qu6bec, Archives nationales du Revolution (Albany, N.Y. : Joe Munsell's Sons Qu6bec A Qu6bec, Greffe du notaire Jean- Publishers, 1891), p. 19. ttienne Du Breuil; inventaire des biens de 12. Mrs John Graves Simcoe, The Diary of Mrs Marguerite Fortin veuve de Pierre-Frangois John Graves Simcoe (Toronto : William Fromage, 3e aout 1704, rue St-Pierre, Qu6bec Briggs, 1911), p. 74. et inventaire des biens de Charles Normand 13. John Lambert, Travels through Lower Cana- veuf de Marie Dionne, 2e avril 1703, Haute- da, and the United States of North America, Ville, Qu6bec, Archives nationales du Qu6- in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808 (Londres : bec A Qu6bec, Greffe du notaire Florent La Richard Phillips, 1810), vol. 1, p. 157. Ceti6re ; Robert-Lionel S6guin, La civilisation 14 . Jacqueline Beaudoin-Ross, « An Early- Eigh- traditionnelle de 1'« habitant)) aux 17P et teenth-Century Pieced Quilt in Mont- real », 18e siecles (Montr6al : Fides, 1973), p. 389 et RACAR, vol . VI, n° 2 (1979-1980), p. 106- « Catalognes et courtepointes de 1'Ancien 109 . Qu6bec, au fil de la navette et de 1'ai- 15 . L6on G6rin, « L'habitant de St-Justin », M6- guille . .. », Le Petit journal des grandes expo- moires et Compte-rendus de la Soci6t6 sitions n° 21 (avril-juin 1975), [p . 3) . Royale du Canada, s6rie II, tome IV (1898), 3. Robert-Lionel S6guin, « Catalognes et courte- p. 148 . pointes . . . », [p. 3). 16 . Herman Plante, Saint-Justin, foyer de s6rEnit6 4. Robert-Lionel S6guin, La couverture de lit . . ., rurale (Trois-Riviiires : $ditions du Bien pu- p. 23. blic, 1937), p. 91 . 5. Inventaire des biens de Ren6e Roussel veuve 17 . Richard Hotte, « Un nouveau mode d'expres- de Gabriel Lambert, 11e septembre 1748, sion dans Fart de la courtepointe au Qu6- Lauzon, Archives nationales du Qu6bec A bec » (Sainte-Foy : Universit6 Laval, 1985, Qu6bec, Greffe du notaire Charles-Hilarion thbse de maitrise cs arts), p. 48 . Du Laurent. 18 . Michel Lessard et Huguette Marquis, L'art 6. Blaine Adams, « Construction et occupation traditionnel au QuEbec : trois siccles d'orne- des casernes du bastion du Roi », dans Lieux ments populaires (Montr6al : Les $ditions de historiques canadiens (Ottawa : Parcs Cana- 1'Homme, 1975), p. 32. da, ministcre des Affaires indiennes et du 19 . Mary Conroy, 300 Years of Canada's Quilts, Nord, 1978), p. 130, Cahiers d'arch6ologie et p. 56-57. d'histoire 18, Contribution de la forteresse de 20 . Georges Bouchard, « La renaissance des arts Louisbourg n° 3. domestiques », Le Canada frangais, vol. XIX 7. Mary Conroy, 300 Years of Canada's Quilts (janvier 1932), p. 355-357 . (Toronto : Griffin House, 1976), p. 14 . 21 . Voir Una Abrahamson, Crafts Canada : The 8. Inventaire des biens de Marie-Ang6lique Useful Arts (Toronto : Clarke Irwin and Co ., Giroux et Ren6 Toupin, 288 janvier 1755, 1974), p. 118 et Lenice Ingram Bacon, Ameri- Qu6bec, Archives nationales du Qu6bec A can Patchwork Quilts (New York : Bonanza Qu6bec, Greffe du notaire Charles-Hilarion Books, 1980), p. 55 . Du Laurent ; inventaire de Pierre-Joseph 22 . Marie Daugherty Webster, Quilts : Their Story Bourret veuf de Marie-Joseph Normand, 24e and How to Make Them (D6troit : Gale Re- avril 1755, Notre-Dame-de-Qu6bec, Archives search Co ., 1972), p. 60-61. nationales du Qu6bec A Qu6bec, Greffe du 23 . Voir entre autres Una Ambrahamson, op. cit., notaire Antoine-Jean Saillant . p. 118 et Richard Hotte, Un nouveau mode 9. Robert-Lionel S6guin, La civilisation tradi- d'expression . . ., p. 35. tionnelle. . ., p. 390 . 24 . Nicole Grenier, Courtepointes quEbEcoises 10. Relev6 du fonds Jocelyne Mathieu pour Les (Montr6al : Mus6e du Qu6bec, Ministiire des int6rieurs domestiques compar6s Perche- Affaires culturelles, 1977), p. 5-6. Qu6bec, ensemble de photocopies d'inven- 25 . Jacques Lacoursi6re et Denis Vaugeois, His- taires, de notes et de tableaux d6pos6s aux toire 1534-1968 (Montr6al : L`ditions du Re- Archives de folklore de 1'Universit6 Laval. nouveau p6dagogique inc ., 1968), p. 252 . 11 . W. L. Stone, traducteur, Letters of Brunswick and Hessians Officers During the American
31 Photographic Archival Sources for Costume Research
~ - TMESA RowAT
Resum6 Abstract
Les documents photographiques constituent Photographs are an essential component in un element essentiel de 1'interpretation du the interpretation of costume. Patterns and costume. Les patrons et dessins temoignent designs record what was conceived; surviv- de ce qui etait congu, les objets preserves ing artifacts present what was produced and montrent ce qui etait produit et livre, ]es delivered; business records document vol- archives de commerce font etat des coats et umes and costs; catalogues and prescriptive des quantites, alors que les catalogues et materials portray ideals. Photographs con- documents a caractere prescriptif represen- tribute a unique dimension to the study of tent des ideaux. Les photographies ajoutent what was actually worn, how it was worn, une dimension unique a 1'etude du costume and what it meant to the wearer and the qui etait effectivement porte, de la fagon viewer. Through their pictorial content, pre- dont on le portait et de ce qu'i1 signifiait, tant sentation format and accompanying docu- pour la personne qui le portait que pour ]es mentation, photographs provide essential autres. Par leur contenu visuel, la maniere clues to the social context of dress and to the de presenter ce contenu et la documentation relationship of costume to other material ar- qui les accompagne, les photographies four- tifacts. This article will explore photographic nissent de precieux renseignements sur le sources for costume research, stressing the contexte social du vetement et so relation importance of studying photographs in the avec d'autres objets materiels. Cet article context of archival collections, and it will presente les sources photographiques pour la suggest factors to be considered in the inter- recherche sur 1'histoire du costume, souli- pretation of photographic images. gnant 1'importance de 1'etude des photogra- phies dons ]e contexte des collections d'archives, et il suggere des facteurs a con- siderer quand on veut interpreter les images photographiques.
The Photographic Medium and a metal plate and has a characteristic mirror- Portraiture Formats like appearance . The daguerreo-type found just as the knowledge of materials and tech- widespread commercial application through- niques in textiles and construction con- out the1840s and 1850s as a medium of tributes to the study of costume, an under- portraiture (Fig. 1(a)) then lost popularity standing of the history of photography helps in the 1860s. It was followed by the ambro- in assessing the validity of particular photo- type where the image was registered on a graphic images for specific costume research glass support, and then the tintype. Usually projects .' It reveals the technical constraints, mounted in small cloth-lined cases, their and the formal and stylistic considerations, presentation format was derived from the that influenced the making of the image. traditions of miniature portrait painting. Photography is the registration of an image , As new photographic processes for paper on a light-sensitive surface. The earliest pho- prints were introduced throughout the nine- tographic process, the daguerreotype, was in- teenth century, the fashionable presentation troduced in 1839. The image is registered on formats for studio portraiture also changed
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture mat6rielle 34 (automne 1991)
32 (a)
Figs. 1(a) - (c) These images illustrate three common nineteenth-centui~~ prese.ntation /'ornluts : the daoiierreotype (a). the carte de visite (h) and the cabinet card (c). ((a) Credit National Archives of Canada, C 88066, (b) credit HodKe, National Archives of Canada . C 88055, (c) Credit William Notfnan. National Archives of Canada, U88062)
WILL AM NOTMAN
(c) _ I lh)
;i 3 Figs . z (a) - (d) Swinlwear in a prornotional photograph taken at the BanJf Springs Hotel (a) contrast with more casual images, (b)-(d). ((a) Credit National Archives of Canada, PA 46133, (b) Credit National Archives of Canada, PA 181073, (c) Credit National Archives of Canada, PA 181069, (d) Credit AdPlaid Mc :Donald, National Archives of Canada, PA 12-t245)
Ibl
34 contemporaneous fashion, the hand of the photographer, the self-image of the sitter, and the prevailing conventions of portraiture. Over the course of the nineteenth century, technological developments took photogra- phy outside the studio and beyond portrai- ture into documentation, advertising, journal- ism, ephemera and art. Photography became accessible to the amateur with increased portability of cameras and equipment, com- mercial processing of film and reduced costs. As industrialization fostered the changes that resulted in the mass-manufact tire of cos- tume, technology promoted the diversifica- tion of photography. As the range of both personal and com- mercial photographic applications grew. so did the variety of subject matter. From por- trait studios, to worksites, to public events, to homes and places of leisure, photography has recorded the dress of those who know- ingly and unknowingly appeared before the camera lens. For the researcher, once the area of costume study has been determined, the next step is to identify the most likely photograph occasions in which it might have appeared, and the most likely archival sources. Photographic collections provide a range of sources for comparative study, comple- menting prescriptive fashion found in cata- logues and promotional materials. For exam- ple, wedding dresses appear in formal portraits taken by professional photogra- phers commissioned by the family. The search for wedding portraits will take the re- searcher to family photograph collections and to commercial photographers' collec- tions. Other costume subjects might logically td) from the carte de visite, which first appeared lead the researcher to collections which orig- in the early 1860s (Fig. 1(b)) to the cabinet inated from newspapers, business organiza- card of the 1880s (Fig. 1(c)) to the studio tions, social agencies, or governments . The folder. 'Carte de visite' refers to the size of researcher must judge the context in which the card (about 4 x 2 1/2 inches) on which the costume would have appeared and been the photograph was mounted . Cabinet card photographed, and the context in which the refers to a mount, sized about 6 x 4 inches . images were created and preserved . Another Both the photographic process and the example might be swimwear (Figs. 2(a)-(d)). presentation format contribute to the dating The informality of snapshots reveals the ac- of a photograph . They reflect the artifactual tual fit and posture, which contrasts with the aspects of the photograph . They also remind idealized, and contributes to interpretation us that the sitter had expectations of the ma- for historical accuracy . This group of pho- terial context in which the portrait would tographs includes a promotional image taken appear - hung on a wall, inserted into an al- at the Banff Springs Hotel for Canadian bum, or perhaps placed into an intimate Pacific Railways in 1928; two images from locket . The selection of appropriate pose and an album containing extensive coverage costume were influenced by the interplay of of beach scenes at Grand Beach, Lake
35 Winnipeg, Manitoba, taken for Canadian limitations and advantages inherent in these National Railway, ca 1914 ; and a snapshot holdings for costume interpretation . The ob- from an album of photographs taken by sum- servations are intended as a guide only, re- mer camp participants in 1917, found among flecting frequently encountered patterns. By the archival records of the Young Women's definition, archival collections are unique, Christian Association. demanding caution before proceeding with any sweeping generalizations.
The Archival Context Personal and Family Collections The value of a photographic image as docu- Photographs in family collections appear in mentary evidence is greatly enhanced by the albums, snapshot groupings, scrapbooks, context in which it is found.' This archival with correspondence, and as autographed principle of `respect des fonds' refers to the presentation portraits and memorabilia. The integrity of the original grouping. Together fact that they have found their way into ar- with the concept of provenance, which refers chival repositories suggests that the origina- to the original source of the document, inter- tors were conscious of the social status of the pretation proceeds from all that is found family. Many of these collections were ac- within proximity and all that may be re- quired as donations directly from the family, vealed through original order. Thus, the in- suggesting that the family recognized its formation about costume in a single image is place in the community, intentionally pre- enhanced both by the knowledge of the pho- served its documentation, and a self-ascribed tograph's origin, and by the information con- continuity. tained in other photographs, correspon- The cross-section of society represented dence, diaries, logbooks or other materials in these collections tends, therefore, to be that belong with it. limited to those with a sense of family lin- In most archives, subject-oriented indexes, eage, and with disposable income to obtain guides and finding aids provide researchers photographs. It also suggests there has been with access to specific components of archi- a continuity of family home where the mate- val collections. These tools are a convenient rial was physically collected and preserved mechanism for initially locating images rele- over time. For example, an extensive family vant to particular interests . Once located, photograph collection in an archival reposi- however, these images must then be exam- tory more likely originates from an estab- ined in the context of their grouping, and lished family with property than a migrant with knowledge of their origin, to reveal worker's family. This parallels the availabi- their full documentary potential. For exam- lity of better quality and special occasion ple, what begins as a single portrait photo- costume as extant artifacts in museum graph then becomes part of a grouping when collections. it is pasted into an album. This album is Family collections allow costume re- then recognized as part of a larger grouping searchers concerned with the identity of the when it is found among family papers . Each wearer to expand their profile of the individ- successive grouping contributes to the un- ual depicted by referring to other pho- derstanding of the costume worn in the tographs, as well as diaries, letters, scrap- portrait ; the more that is known about the books and clippings that form part of the family being photographed, the greater the collection. The occupation, social and eco- information about the subject. The added in- nomic status, and position within the family sight derived from this expanded context re- can often be determined . Anecdotal informa- veals more about the subject, the original tion about the events photographed and the purpose behind the photograph, and the sub- costume worn might be found in personal sequent meaning that it had for its keeper. It papers accompanying the photographs, and can serve to verify the researcher's interpre- may perhaps recast the interpretation of the tation of an image subject for consistency or costume. variation within its grouping. For example, the costume wearer's aspira- The following sections describe types of tions, ideals and cultural values can be re- archival photographic collections which may flected in a diary, or in a scrapbook that con- be particularly relevant to the study of cos- tains images of royalty, sports heroes or pop tume, with suggestions outlining some of the stars . The researcher might then ask: what
36 were the wearer's models? how successful perspective from which the amateur ap- was the wearer in emulating these models? proached the photograph makes this a viable was this due to skill, economic status, or alternate source for costume study.4 The am- availability? or was this due to the influence ateur photograph is more likely to exist out- of a parent or authority figure or outside side the approval of public tastes or business dress code that controlled what was actually practice, since there was no reliance on sell- worn in the photograph? ing prints to earn a living. Stylistic innova- tion, obsessive observation and devoted per- Professional and Studio Photographers fection can run free in the realm of amateur The photographer's studio has been an inte- photography driven by the love of art or craft gral part of services in the community. As a or subject matter. Spontaneity, naturalness creator of images and as a businessperson, and familiarity are more likely to appear in the successful photographer identified a this domain. The very personal perspective client base and integrated their image of of the serious amateur enriches the study of themselves . Individual and family group dress in informal or intimate situations, un- portraiture, wedding and special event pho- posed postures or pure flights of fancy.5 tos form a large component of these collec- Due to the eclectic nature of amateur col- tions. Their continuity and comprehensive- lections, patterns of research and possible ness make them particularly valuable as findings are more difficult to predict. This is research sources. in contrast to studio collections, for example, These collections are most often acquired where identification and organization are in- by archival repositories as a complete work- herent in the structure of this type of photo- ing record of a studio . While the finished graphic production. prints were sold to the client-sitters and might now be found scattered in family col- Press Photography lections, the negatives remained part of the Press photography appears in collections photographer's inventory and have some- originating from newspapers and photo- times made their way into archival collec- journalists . Newspapers are among the most tions intact . They are often accompanied by prolific creators of photographs . As negatives the appointment logbooks which identify the taken by staff photographers are taken out of sitter, the date, the format and extent of active use, or as newspapers cease to oper- prints ordered .' ate, the large collections of negatives (some- Costume in studio collections may be lim- times with accompanying contact sheets or ited to formal attire and frontal views, since assignments sheets) may be acquired by ar- the photograph occasion is governed by the chival institutions . conventions of portraiture . However, the These collections are most often orga- strength of these collections lies in the conti- nized chronologically by assignment, con- nuity, comprehensiveness and identification taining all of the negatives in a photo shoot. that they offer as a source for comparative While only one cropped image may have costume study. As relatively complete work- been reproduced in the original publication, ing records, they are not subject to the per- the archival collection allows the researcher sonal selection process that influence the access to a wealth of additional images that composition of family collections. With the were rejected in the editing process. It pro- context of studio portraiture established and vides a more comprehensive context, and the constant, the researcher can consider other possibility of incidental information that variables such as date, location, or peculiari- may be revealing. ties of style or detail. This photography is event-centred or story-driven . The subject or perspective must Amateur Photography have been considered newsworthy, defining Rather than addressing casual snapshooters, the range of documentation and approach in this section deals with the serious amateur these collections. Captions that usually ac- who approached photography as an area for company these photographs not only pro- study, art and craft. Although this work is vide extensive identification, but the vocabu- less abundant and less consistent in its con- lary and language structures employed tent and internal organization than some of reveal cultural values that have informed the the other collections discussed, the unique viewpoint from which the photograph was
37 taken and the viewpoint from which it was departments or promotional &~;encies such as interpreted in its time. tourist offices. The researcher's assessinciii (d the use of costume should include not only Organizational and Business Records the subject content, but also the intended au- Archival documents from corporate bodies dience and the positioning of' the photogra- include financial and administrative records, pher or sponsoring institution in relation- correspondence, and promotional materials. ship to the photographic subjects, (Fig. 3) . Related photographic holdings document the This image of three unidentified Inuit chil- workplace, production processes, product dren was taken at Chesterfield [Inlet], NWT, lines, and organizational activities . As cos- in 1948 by S. J. Bailey for the Department of turne sources, these collections document Indian and Northern Affairs, Government of dress in the work context, as well as in group Canada. The original caption information activities such as company picnics, promo- found with the image reveals the prevailing tions and celebrations . perspective from which the photograph was The records of community service organi- taken, and is essential for the interpretation zations include rich photographic documen- of dress. It states : "Eskimo children wear far tation on members and activities . Groups in- better clothing since Family Allowance was clude religious organizations, benevolent introduced." This caption does not concern societies, sports and recreational associa- itself with providing factual identifying in- Fig. 3 tions, multicultural organizations and educa- formation such as the names of the individu- Merit children tional bodies. These collections at tend to cover als, nor specific details about the clothing Chesterfield 11riletl, organized activities which are repeated at such as fabric, manufacturer or supply N.W.T., taken in 1948 regular intervals, and therefore allow cos- source . Its message is the judgement about 6v S. 1. Baile1v for- the tume comparisons over time. Examples in- "far better" clothing, and the apparent Department of Indian clude panoramic group portraits taken at benefits of the family allowance. It provided and Noilhern Affairs. annual conferences, or photographs docu- an intended interpretation for contempora- Governrnent of C;unndn menting groups at summer camps, or sport neous viewers, and now provides the re- (Credit: S. J. Bailev. teams, showing baseball uniforms, gymsuits searcher with clues to the social, political Archives of Canada . and swimwear. and economic context within which the pho- PA 167632) tograph was taken . Government Records Government departments and institutions have been prolific producers of photographic collections. The National Archives of Cana- da in Ottawa is the official repository of Canadian federal government records, in- cluding large photographic holdings from federal departments. Provincial, regional and municipal governments also designate official archival repositories for their inactive records. These public collections served a precise purpose that can be connected to stated de- partmental mandates . They are also often well-documented through captions, and comprehensive in spanning time periods . The study of the costume in these images is enhanced by an understanding of the cultur- al values that are reflected in the objectives of the institution. These values are likely to be echoed in the choice of identifying infor- mation appearing with the images, and in the language used in original captions . Government photo holdings which con- tain extensive research material for the studv of costume include those of social service
:38 1 Fig. 41a1 Photographers at Me- Saint-Paul. Quebec, 1929. (Credit National Archives of Canada, c 31682) .
1' i'
Interpretation frames and mounts displayed in a photogra- The mechanical aspects of photography lead pher's studio that reflect the nature of the to the perception that it is an objective re- service that the client is buying. corder of nature, a faithful witness of reality. To explore the broader content of the pho- However, its artisanal and artististic attri- tograph, the researcher might pursue a line butes suggest a more expressionistic view. of questioning from the perspective of the Whether the aim was fact or fancy, the act of photograph itself. Who took the photograph? picture-taking involved the process of look- Who was the sitter or subject? Was the pho- ing and being looked at. The subject was me- tograph commissioned? Were there technical diated by cultural values that influenced constraints in the production of the photo- both the ~ photographer and the context in graph? What are the stylistic and formal con- which the photograph was taken, and the ventions of presentation? Another tack might viewer and the context in which the photo- delve beneath the factual identification of graph was viewed. the image. What was the intended use of the Figures 4(a) and 4(b) illustrate significant photograph? Who was the intended audi- considerations for the interpretation of cos- ence? What was the photograph intended to tume in photographs, suggesting factors that communicate? Were the individuals in the might influence the choice of costume and photograph aware of this purpose or in- how it is worn. They point to photography as volved in the commissioning of the photo- a mediator of perception, with a history of graph (as clients, for example)? portrait conventions. In assessing the cos- To focus on the costume, the researcher tume in a photograph, the researcher can might ask if any prior preparations were begin by stepping back, to replace the pres- made to dress for the taking of the photo- ence of the photographer into the picture (as graph? From the archival perspective, what in Fig. 4(a)). A further step might consider were the circumstances that contributed to the wearer's expectations about the purpose the photograph's survival and preservation? of the photograph, who will see it and in What was its source and what kind of collec- what context. Figure 4(b) shows the range of tion is it now a part of? What does this reveal
39 about the cultural values behind the image? Although the answers to these questions may not be definitive, thev (to contribute to un- ravelling the underlying meaning inherent in the taking and viewing of the photograph. This approach to identification and interpre- tation acquires a broader dimension in sup- port of costume research. In the interpretation of costume, dress is viewed as one part of the system of signs which communicate cultural values and so- cial context. In using photographic sources, the researcher's analysis can focus on the in- terplay of the conventions of dress and the conventions of photography. Figures 5(a) and 5(b) reinforce the iconographic: representa- tion of the model family. Dress is part of the emblematic structure that convevs class, eco- nomic status, gender roles, race, beliefs. In the conscious photo occasion, dress and pose work together to place the individual within a system of signification. The image is constructed so that it controls the manner in which it is read by its intended audience . that process are essential factors in the inter- The costume in the photograph is an at- pretation of costume . Archival collections Fig. 4(b) tribute of the wearer. The act of selecting provide the researcher with the clues to that Nineteenth-century dress, and the constraints and liberties in process. mounts and frames available at Notman's photographic studio operated by W. /. Topley in Ottawa . (Credit W. /. Topley, National Archives oJ C(jnada, PA 9273)
1 Fig. 5(a) This portrait o/'an unidentified Lratbbridge, Alberta, family was taken by George Hunter for the National Film Board in 1945 . (Credit C. Hunter, National Archives of Canada, PA 111371)
40 1 Fig. 5(6) This portrait of an Ottawa, Ontario, family was taken bv studio photographer Paul Horsdal, in 1958. (Credit P. Horsdal, National Archives of Canada . PA 133.910)
N( YI't.,.s
Ralph Greenhill and Andrew Birrell . Cana- Montreal photographer William Notman, in dian Photography: 1839-1920 (Toronto : The the 1860s. Norma Morgan, "Fashion-Plates: Coach House Press, 1979) provides a good Sources for Canadian Fashion," The fournal overview of historical photography in Canada . of Canadian Ail Historv 5. no . 2 (1981) . Mary Lynn Ritzenthaler, Gerald J. Munhoff 4 . For an introduction to the wealth of research and Margaret S. Long, Administration of Pho- material contained in Canadian amateur pho- tographic Collections (Chicago : Societv of tography, see Lilly Koltun, ed., Private American Archivists, 1984). This publication Realms of Light: Amateur Photooraphy in provides an overview of archival handling of Conada . 183 .9-1940 (Markham : Fitzhenry photograph collections . Here the researcher and Whiteside . 1984). can find explanations to the manner in which 5. One example of an amateur collection is the archival repositories might organize and pro- collection of negatives of John Bovd at the vide access to material . Although illustrated National Archives of Canada . Bovd was an with American examples, the methodologies, arnateur photographer who lived in the Park- descriptions of photographic processes and dale district of Toronto, Ontario. Between discussion on the use of photographs as doc- 1888 and 1920 he took about 30 000 pho- umentary evidence apply generally . tographs of his family in their daily activities, The precision of dating from studio collec- his neighbourhood, and cities and towns tion appointment records permits tight com- across eastern Canada and the United States . parison research such as the project de- He worked for the Grand Trunk Railway, and scribed by Norma Morgan where the time always carried a camera on business trips. lapse between the appearance of stvlistic Boyd's sensitivity with familiar day-to-day changes in foreign fashion plate publications subjects provides an excellent resource for was compared with portraits taken by the study of informal attire .
41 Bibliography
Bibliographie
Costume in Canada: The Sequel JACQUELINE BEAUDOIN-ROSS AND PAMELA BLACKSTOCK
In Material History Bulletin 19 (Spring 1984) time. Once again we would be pleased to we published an annotated bibliography of hear of any work we have omitted. In this over 250 publications on Canadian costume bibliography we are indebted to Peter LeRoy, history. Seven years later we felt it was time Canadian Parks Service librarian, and Loren to update this work and have another look at Singer of Concordia University for their as- progress in the field of costume. sistance . This bibliography reflects the disciplines As we found in 1984, writers on the sub- that study the subject, with an emphasis on ject of costume have come from a number of material history. By its inclusions, it defines academic backgrounds: art history, history, what is generally considered to be costume decorative arts, material culture, ethnology, history, including studies that range from folklore, archaeology, home economics, and simple descriptions of museum artifacts to theatre. These disciplines have been linked those that incorporate a broader contextual by their common interest in the subject, and analysis. Costume had to be the main focus drawn together by various costume societies for any work to be included, although chap- who continue to actively promote the sub- ters on costume from books on wider sub- ject. Those who study costume see it as one jects were also included . The content had to of the most obvious symbols of individual be Canadian. We have once again excluded and group cultural values. However the his- the subjects of military, native, and theatrical toriography of costume has been a fight to costume, and modern fashion, including achieve recognition as a valid area of study. popular culture or sociological studies. Stud- For example, it was only in the early ies on the museological practices of storage, 1940s that costume was included in the conservation, and display techniques are not Metropolitan Museum of Art's collection, covered, though works related to material and only recently that it was featured promi- culture research are. For example, a study on nently with other decorative arts in an exhib- working methods for computer-assisted re- it and catalogue at the Metropolitan Muse- search in the field of costume is included .' um .2 Other museum curators and historians One of our objectives in preparing these have traditionally accorded costume a sec- bibliographies has been to bring potential ond-rate status . The term "costume histori- new research resources to the attention of an" implied to them a specialist whose ex- the costume historian. As such we have in- pertise is dress of the past; the "costume" cluded where possible information on pri- content being frequently emphasized over vate and museum collections, and on how to the "historian's" methodology. This lower access some types of publications. The read- status may be because the study of fashion er is directed to the essay introducing our was considered either too frivolous, or too 1984 bibliography for a discussion on re- domestic, but at any rate, a woman's subject. search resources, and past and current trends The majority of authors on the subject are in research. still women. Publications produced between March Dress: The Annual Journal of the Costume 1984 and March 1991 were reviewed, but we Society of America in 1988 published a have also added any that we missed last forum on costume research and publication,
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture materielle 34 (automne 1991) 42 which discussed scholarship on the subject.3 Artifacts and Object Chronology," focuses on Two "camps" of scholarship were identified: the importance of material culture methodol- 1) research that focuses on the garment for ogy to costume studies, and the need to have its own sake; and 2) research that uses the knowledge of the objects before they are garment as evidence to illuminate some used as evidence . She argues for the impor- other question, where the artifact becomes tance of using objects (i.e., costumes) even in the method, not the primary focus of the studies that do not appear to need objects as study. Nancy Rexford further suggests three evidence, and recommends an interdisci- levels of scholarship within all camps: raw plinary approach . Francis Back and Luce data of costume with minimal interpretation; Vermette, and David-Thiery Ruddel support costume placed in a larger context, usually this interdisciplinary approach in their work with emphasis on the technical; and costume in this bibliography. placed in the broadest context of aesthetic, Generally we have seen a sophistication social and political ideas. Rexford's classifi- in the level of scholarship since 1984. Publi- cation of scholarship roughly parallels E. cations dealing with material history in this McClung Fleming's model for artifact study.4 bibliography now usually place costume While the research forum is careful to point within a cultural or economic context, and out that these camps and levels of scholar- use a wider diversity of sources and perspec- ship should be considered as ends of a con- tives to interpret the artifact . The Prairie Cos- tinuum, the classification is useful in clarify- tume Society's Norwegian Immigrant Cloth- ing perspectives, and the way in which one ing and Textiles is an example of material scholar can be totally misunderstood by history scholarship which combines ap- another. proaches . Overall the book uses costume to The research approach that focuses on the provide insights into the immigrant experi- garment for its own sake has the longest tra- ence . Some of the individual authors still dition of publication in the costume field, focus on the costume artifact, but provide a and continues to be reflected in many muse- higher level of cultural analysis and interpre- um catalogues and popular articles . Many tation than would likely have been found a costume studies from English Canada in the few years ago. last bibliography, particularly from muse- Quebec costume historians have generally ums, represented this type of scholarship. In followed a different approach, that of the tra- the intervening years, fewer museum cata- ditional discipline of Folklore Studies, now logues have appeared, though several ex- being generally known as Ethnology. Writers hibits of interest have been mounted, notably such as Marius Barbeau, Edouard-Zotique "Measure for Measure" at the Royal Ontario Massicotte, Robert-Lionel S6guin, and Museum . Since most costume collections Madeleine Doyon-Ferland had an enormous in Canada are housed in history museums, influence on how costume was viewed. This these museums view costume for its histori- perspective of Ethnology continues today cal qualities . Few Canadian museums ap- through the province, and especially at the proach costume as a decorative art, focusing Centre d'6tudes sur la langue, les arts et les on its aesthetic qualities, though the recent traditions populaires des francophones en exhibit "Pierre Cardin : Past Present Future," Amerique du Nord (CELAT), at the Univer- at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts from sit6 Laval. Many costume studies included March to May 1991 was of this type. in this bibliography emanate from students In the same research forum in Dress, in this programme. In fact David-Thiery Nancy Rexford and Patricia Cunningham go Ruddel suggests that the term "ethno- on to discuss the second approach that does historian" has replaced the term "historian" not focus on an individual garment but uses in Quebec .5 clothing as evidence to answer an outside Dr. Jocelyne Mathieu explains how cos- question about people, for example about tume is approached today in Quebec by eth- their economic systems or cultural beha- nologists : "The study of costume through the viour. This approach is used by the material discipline of Ethnology embraces its distinct historian and the traditional historian alike. methodology. It attempts to explore a partic- The ongoing debate over "objects" and "doc- ular culture and civilization through the ex- uments" is discussed. Patricia Cunningham, amination of its dress in various contexts. in a section of the forum entitled "Beyond The study emphasizes interviews with indi-
43 viduals. This information is collated with ber of student theses in this bibliography other data, such as that from related written from the Department of Clothing and Textiles and oral sources, from iconographical evi- at the University of Alberta in Edmonton. dence and from the artifact itself. In Ethnolo- As part of a Faculty of Home Economics, stu- gy, this synthesis is particularly important. dents are required to use a social science Results from this study can further be en- methodology in their work, rather than an hanced through comparison with evidence historical one, which might sometimes more from other cultures or civilizations, and/or comfortably fit the subject. These theses from other historical periods. 116 While all or do, however, help to test and evaluate new parts of the ethnological perspective are ob- methodologies for the field. Content analysis, viously also used by other authors, its impor- oral history, material culture research, and tance needs to be emphasized to understand group testing for cognitive and effective costume history in Quebec. learning are methodologies recently used." Indeed, publishing on costume has been Looking back at our 1984 bibliography, extremely strong in recent years in Quebec, our introductory article pointed out the need as will be seen in this bibliography. In 1988 for future research to be more interdisci- two journals published there devoted an en- plinary in approach to sources . In recent tire issue each to the theme of costume. They years, the interest shown by ethnologists, are Cap-au-diamant: Revue d'histoire du historians and others makes for a rich diver- Quebec, a journal structured to have a popu- sity of documentation and interpretation in lar appeal, and Canadian Folklore canadien, publication. Current work found for this bib- a more scholarly one. liography reflects a broader base of disci- The current interest in social history, and pline and methodology than in 1984. Cos- in particular aspects of women's history, has tume history formerly tended to be written also helped to promote costume generally as by specialists in costume, who focused on a valid area of study by historians. An im- describing the garments themselves . Now portant subject we neglected last time was however we find that costume is beginning the clothing industry. We have tried to recti- to be considered as a valid subject by the fy this omission by broadening the scope of non-specialist. At the same time "costume our search, and by including a number of en- historians" are attempting to go beyond sim- tries which predate 1984 . Nevertheless the ply chronicling fashion change to use cos- increasing number of authors on this subject tume as a stepping-off point to explore wider since 1984, and the number of historians questions. Of the seven topics we suggested now turning their attention to the subject, is for further exploration in 1984, most have worthy of note. been pursued and subsequently published, There are probably two reasons for its cur- or are under current study. While current re- rent interest among historians . First, as search continues to open up new topics and Gerald Tulchinsky points out, the very char- directions, progress has indeed been made. acteristics of the industry - the large and rapid turnover of small shops, relatively sim- Anderson, Douglas N. "Redressing the Past: ple technology, and difficult-to-trace records the Fascinating World of Historical Cos- making research difficult - led to its neglect tume Design." Canadian Collector 20 by business historians.' The work of histori- (March/April 1985): 26-29. Despite the ans such as Tulchinsky has now piqued the title implying costume in general, this interest of others. article is a personal account about the Perhaps more importantly, feminist social process of reproducing military uni- historians are turning their attention to the forms of the 78th Highlanders ca 1869 to topic. The garment industry was not only the 1870 for the Halifax Defense Complex, leading industry in Canada at the turn of the by the artist who researched and pre- century but also has been the leading em- pared the illustrations used as specifica- ployer of women to the present day. A num- tions. General information on sources ber of studies included here examine the sta- used. French summary. Illustrated. tus of women and the relationship of gender, Back, Francis. "Le capot canadien : ses ori- as opposed to class, to the industry. gines et son evolution aux XVIIO et XVIIIO One further discipline to mention is that siecles." Canadian Folklore canadien of the Social Sciences, as reflected by a num- (revue de 1'Association canadienne d'eth-
44 nologie et de folklore/Journal of the worn between 1740 and 1760. Interest- Folklore Studies Association of Canada) ing documentation of the gradual disap- 10, nos. 1-2 (1988): 99-128 . The 1988 pearance of this type of clothing, espe- volume of this journal was entirely de- cially during the first quarter of the voted to costume, and presented ten arti- twentieth century. Also information on cles, written in English or French. Nine its use as a type of uniform for snowshoe fit within the parameters of this bibliog- clubs at the end of the nineteenth centu- raphy. This article is a definitive, richly ry. Perhaps could have mentioned pho- documented work on the evolution of tographic evidence of the same from the the most characteristic item of Quebec 1860s onward in the Notman Photo- dress, the capot - a hooded overcoat graphic Archives, McCord Museum of worn by men. Considerable commentary Canadian History. Unfortunately, in on previously enigmatic issues includ- keeping with the popular approach of ing the relationship of this garment to this journal, the article is not docu- that worn by sailors or sea-faring folk of mented. Illustrated with photographs Europe ; how this item, designed for and drawings . work, was adapted for more elegant Back, Francis and Luce Vermette . "Sources wear in Quebec in the seventeenth cen- pour 1'histoire du costume au Quebec ." tury; and its evolution, with modifica- Canadian Folklore canadien 10, no. 1-2 tion and/or embellishment from its early (1988) : 209-226. A very clear discussion days into the nineteenth century. Illus- of primary sources available for the trations include the author's drawings. study of costume in Quebec. These are Well documented . identified as being material (costume Back, Francis. "Des petits messieurs au capot artifacts themselves) ; iconographic bleu : le costume au Petit Seminaire de (replications of a reality, usually two- Quebec :" Cap-aux-diamants (Revue d'his- dimensional, which include costume, toire du Quebec) 4, no. 2 (Summer 1988): e.g., paintings, drawings, etc.) ; manu- 33-36. The first of eighteen articles from scripts (documents) ; and information in this 1988 issue of Cap-aux-diamants to print (e.g., newspapers, travel accounts be reviewed in this bibliography. This and pattern books) . Of these, the manu- issue was almost entirely devoted to var- scripts section in this article is of most ious aspects of costume. Editorial policy interest for costume historians since of the journal states that its subject of in- it incisively chronicles, describes and quiry is the Quebec past, with its ap- evaluates ten examples of this type of proach being a popular one . An over- documentation, e.g., post-mortem inven- view of the articles reveals that they are tories, marriage contracts, etc. Illustrat- not documented (i.e., there are no foot- ed. Bibliography. notes or endnotes) ; however the infor- Bara, Jana. "Fashion Plates and Muffins." mation contained within is of interest Horizon Canada (English edition) 5, no. and often suggests directions for further 53 (1986) : 1256-1261 . A popular ap- research . This excellent article focuses proach to the same subject presented in on the evolution of the blue wool uni- greater depth more recently in Dress, form (capot bleu) of the Petit Seminaire this article describes articles of winter de Qu6bec from its origin in the seven- clothing worn by young British officers teenth century to its gradual demise and their "muffins"(the mid-Victorian in the mid-twentieth century, and also term for marriageable young ladies of the its adaptation with modification by same social set). Includes some informa- other schools in Quebec . Interesting tion on fur garments, and Montreal as illustrations. the fur fashion metropolis of the north. Back, Francis. "S'habiller a la canadienne ." Presents a view of entertainment and Cap-aux-diamants 24, (Winter 1991) : Canadian winter social life . Not docu- 38-41 . An excellent overview of tradi- mented. Illustrated. tional male costume in what is presently Bara, Jana. "Cradled in Furs : Winter Fash- known as Quebec . Emphasizes utilitari- ions in Montreal in the 1860s." Dress an aspect of winter clothing designed to (Journal of the Costume Society of Amer- combat the cold . Focuses on garments ica) 16 (1990) : 38-47. Includes an over-
45 view of the fur trade in Canada since the and photographs. Documented . For inter- seventeenth century and a discussion of pretive value, emphasizes visual infor- Montreal's leading photography studio mation with 143 illustrations. Bibliogra- in the 1860s, William Notman and Son. phy. Information on publications from Also covers types of furs used in dress the Canadian Parks Service is available of the period, cut of this clothing, fur from Research Publications, Canadian merchants, and fur processing . Infor- Parks Service, 1600 Liverpool Court, mative . Documented . Illustrated with Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OH3. photographs. Bates, Christina. "`Beauty Unadorned :' Barbeau, Marius. "Tisseuses de ceintures Dressing Children in Late Nineteenth- fl6ch6es ." Canada frangais 28, no . 1 Century Ontario." Material History Bul- (September 1940) : 7-19. Discusses the letin 21 (Spring 1985): 25-34. A summa- history of the "ceinture fl6ch6e," as well ry of the report above . Addresses as describing such items as the textile's problems of practicality, and age and weaving technique, its colours, and gender differentiation . Documented. types of wool used. Mentions sashes Illustrated. found in various European collections . Bates, Christina, and Phil Dunning. "Selected Not documented . Reading List on Loyalist Costume for the Barrett, Lois (Pete) . "Clothes Had To Be Tidy Bicentennial ." Costume Society of On- and Clean ." Them Days (Stories of Early tario Newsletter 14, no. 1 (April 1984) : Labrador) 9, no. 3 (March 1984) : 33-35. part 2 . Intended for those wishing to Oral history recorded in 1982 from recreate costumes of the mid-1770s to Harriet Barrett of Happy Valley, Labra- mid-1780s, this outlines costume com- dor, commenting on Sunday clothes, ponents, and presents an annotated bib- aprons, laundry, and sewing. Illustrated. liography on the following subjects : Barrett, Lois (Pete) . "Things We Had, We background reading; history and de- Made ." Them Days 10, no. 3 (March scription of costume; drawings and pat- 1985) : 41-43. More oral history from terns; and textiles. Harriet Barrett, reminiscing about vari- Bazin, Jules . "L'album de consolation de ous articles of clothing made by her fam- Jacques Viger." Vie des arts 17 (Christ- ily when she was a child. Mentions the mas 1959): 26-30. The album under dis- Grenfell Mission and Hudson's Bay cussion is a rare collection of water- Company, but no dates given. Illustrated . colours by James Duncan depicting Bates, Christina. "Beauty Unadorned:" nuns' costumes seen in the province of Dressing Children in Late Nineteenth Quebec from the seventeenth century to Century Ontario. Microfiche Report Se- the mid-nineteenth .The dated illustra- ries, no . 382 . Ottawa : Environment tions of the earlier dress were not based Canada, Canadian Parks Service, 1984 . 3 on examples of costume but on descrip- microfiches. Mentioned as forthcoming tive information found in the archives of in our 1984 bibliography. Written by an the various orders. The text at the end historian as support material for an in- of the album was written in the 1850s terpretive programme for Woodside by Jacques Viger, the first mayor of National Historic Site in Kitchener, Montreal. In addition to his official ac- Ontario . The focus is on clothing for tivities Viger was interested in history children ages 3 to 15, of the urban mid- and archaeology. The album itself dle class, from Southwestern Ontario was titled "Costumes de communaut6s in the period 1880 to 1900. The report religieuses de femmes au Canada en addresses two main areas: the changing 1853." The title given to the album in societal attitudes to children and chil- this article's title is an invention of the dren's dress as an expression of those author, a curator at the time of the Bib- ideas ; and secondly the dress itself, liotheque municipale de Montr6al, and sources of supply and typical garments is seen as a private illusive pun. The text worn for different activities. Research is does not elucidate on the meaning the based on written and pictorial informa- writer attributes to its mysterious title, tion from Canadian and American fash- which in itself does not serve to eluci- ion periodicals, mail order catalogues, date but rather to mystify the nature of
46 the contents of the album. The article Blackstock, Pamela. "Nineteenth Century does however include the provenance of Fur Trade Costume." Canadian Folklore the album, which is on deposit at the canadien 10, no. 1-2 (1988): 183-208 . Bibliothbque municipale de Montreal . This article explores costume as it was Beaudoin-Ross, Jacqueline. "Clothing." The worn at the fur-trading posts in Canada Canadian Encyclopedia 1 : 442-444 . during the early and mid-nineteenth Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers Ltd., 1985 . century. Its breadth is wide, and brings A general overview of clothing in together many disparate research re- Canada with a concentration on that of sources for the first time. Surveys the Quebec and Ontario. Included are brief fashionable clothing worn by adminis- references to the garb of the coureur de trative staff, workmen, wives and chil- bois, the voyageur and the habitant, as dren, including M6tis and natives . well as the ethnic costume of recent im- Cross-cultural influence of clothing migrants . Consistent with the editorial styles is discussed. It additionally com- policy of The Canadian Encyclopedia, ments on sources for this clothing. the article is not documented . Coloured An excellent tool for further research . photographs of garments from the collec- Illustrations using various media . tions of the Royal Ontario Museum Bibliography. and the McCord Museum of Canadian Blackstock, Pamela . "Perfecting the Period History. Costume: Patterns, Prototypes and Pa- Beaudoin-Ross, Jacqueline . "The Influence of tience." Historic Sites Supplies Hand- Fashion on Folk Costume." Canadian book, 47-57 . Toronto: Ontario Museum Folklore canadien 1-2 (1988): 79-98. Ex- Association, 1989. Part of a collection of plores the dialectic of influence between fourteen monographs in a book designed rural dress and stylish wear. Uses pri- to help historic sites locate appropriate marily visual evidence and some docu- reproductions, accompanied by a com- ments to examine several examples of puterized database of suppliers. This ar- how eighteenth and early nineteenth ticle deals with the technical aspects of century Quebec rural costume was in- reproducing costume and includes fac- fluenced by French fashion . Suggests tors to consider, such as the choice of closer links with French fashion in the patterns, methods of having the cos- eighteenth century even after the fall of tumes made, construction and fit, fab- Quebec than previously assumed. The rics, and degree of authenticity. Bibliog- author then covers the history of the raphy of technical publications includes capot through to its development as the some Canadian titles. Red River coat so popular for children in Bouchard, Lorraine. "Le costume de la ma- the early twentieth century, to illustrate riee de la region du Qu6bec entre 1910 et how a colourful piece of rural dress was 1960 ." Master's thesis, "Arts et traditions adopted into fashionable wear. Suggests populaires" (Ethnology). Quebec City: directions for further research . Docu- Universite Laval, 1990. Due to plans mented. Illustrated. for publication this thesis is presently Beauregard, Yves, Alain Duscheneau and inaccessible . Jocelyne Mathieu. "Vingt-cinq ann6es de Bouchard, Lorraine. "Le costume de la ma- carribre : entrevue avec le couturier riee, reflet de la vie quotidienne?" Cana- Michel Robichaud." Cap-aux-diamants dian Folklore conadien 10, no . 1-2 4, no. 2 (Summer 1988) : 63-65, 68 . A (1988) : 53-78 . Discusses the genesis perceptive interview with well-known of both rural and urban bridal costume Montreal designer, Michel Robichaud. in Quebec between 1912 and 1960 . Reveals the couturier's own insight into Information is based on interviews the classical character of his style. The with brides and one seamstress. Focuses designer, not surprisingly, expresses on changing customs, and the influ- admiration for the work of the Spanish ences, socio-economic and other, which couturier, Balenciaga. Also comments on resulted in this evolution. 1945, the year the great interest Quebec women have in of the cessation of hostilities for World clothes. Not documented . Illustrated War II, is mentioned as a key date, one with photographs. in which white wedding dress became
47 (and continued to be for some time) 1'artisanat a la fabrique." Revue d'his- exceedingly popular. Illustrated; the pho- toire de 1'Amerique frangaise 31, no. 2 tographs are unfortunately not-num- (September 1977): 187-210. Clearly and bered or identified although they can be succinctly synthesizes the more relevant easily linked with the text. Bibliography. information found in the author's thesis Bouchard, Lorraine. "La mariee des annees above. As in the thesis, focuses on the '40." Cap-aux-diamants. 4, no. 2 (Sum- slowly evolving changes in shoe manu- mer 1988): 21-23 . Discusses the wed- facture from that of the master craftsman ding dress of Quebec in the 1940s, con- operating perhaps with journeymen and centrating on the elements, such as apprentices in his shop, to that of a large socio-economic, which influenced the industrially steam-powered operation . ultimate choice of gown. Suggests that Excellent and clear basic reference work. during World War II this clothing was Well documented . Not illustrated. often coloured, and frequently modest, Cass, Janice. "A History of Boys' Costume : being made in haste and without the 1900-1920." Alberta Museums Review availability of rich French fabrics. The (Spring 1984): 14-15. Background infor- resurgence of more sumptuous dress and mation for an exhibit at the Provincial the increasing predominance of white Museum of Alberta in 1984, on the from 1945 is noted. Not documented. changing roles of children between 1890 Illustrated. and the 1920s, as depicted through their "A Brief History of the Founding of the Cos- clothing. This article is descriptive only, tume Society of Ontario ." Costume Soci- based on secondary non-Canadian ety of Ontario Newsletter 17, no. 2 (Sum- sources, and lightly documented . mer 1987): 10-11 . Discusses Eileen Illustrated. Collard's career in Canada and the grow- "Centre de documentation Marius Barbeau." ing interest in costume through the Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter 1960s, culminating in the founding of 17, no. 3 (Fall-Winter 1987) : 6. Informa- the Society in 1970 . tion on this centre created in 1977 by the Burgess, Joanne. L'industrie de la chaussure National Folk Dance Ensemble "Les sor- a Montreal, 1840-1870: de 1'artisanat a tileges," which is based in Montreal . The la fabrique. Master's thesis, Sciences so- centre specializes in the dissemination, ciales (Economie) . Montreal : Universite and in some cases the conservation of du Quebec a Montr6al, 1977. 150 pp. A traditional costume, dance and music, survey of the shoe industry in Montreal and the publication of articles . from 1840 to 1870. The perspective is Charest, Nicole . Monsieur Mode. N .p. : Les primarily socio-economic . Of interest to editions de 1'Homme, 1988. 163 pp . A the costume historian is a description of biography of Montreal designer Michel pre- and post-industrial fabrication Robichaud, as well as a review of the methods in shoemaking . The latter in- city's fashion history from ca 1963 to cludes a discussion of the gradually in- 1987. Much of this latter history has not creasing use of mechanized tools includ- yet been previously collated . Also com- ing the sewing machine, and finally the ments of fashion design and industry introduction of steam. The development during these years in France, Italy, of retail and wholesale markets in foot- Germany and Japan. Not documented. wear is also investigated, as well as a fas- Illustrated with photographs and cinating inventory of tools and stock of a drawings . mid-nineteenth century Montreal shoe- Cleaver, Katherine. "Victorian Looking maker. It is of interest to note that by Glass ." Costume Society of Ontario 1861, 1300 shoemakers were employed Newsletter 18, no . 3 (Fall-Winter 1988): in the city. Only research known to have 11-12 . Excerpts from a paper on wo- been done on the topic. Charts . Bibliog- men's clothing of the 1880s which ac- raphy. All student theses are available companied an exhibit of the same name on microfiche from the National Library held at Ryerson Polytechnical Institute. of Canada. Focuses on underwear. Descriptive. Burgess, Joanne . "L'industrie de la chaussure Cleaver, Katherine. "Souffrir pour etre belle." a Montr6al: 1840-1870 - le passage de Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter
48 r
19, no. 2 (Summer 1989): 7 . A short re- culture. Well documented. Small black view of the exhibit "Suffering To Be and white photographs and some draw- Beautiful" held at the Musee de la civili- ings. Bibliography. For further detail, see sation in Quebec City in 1989. The ex- book review by Dorothy Burnham in this hibit was not only about clothes but issue. about all means women have used in the Collard, Eileen. "Canadian Trousers in Tran- past to make themselves look beautiful. sition, 1830-50." Cutter's Research jour- (See our entry under the exhibit title for nal 1, no. 4, (Winter 1990): 3 . Short in- the accompanying catalogue). troduction, unscaled pattern drawings, Cole, Catherine C. Garment Manufacturing descriptions and brief construction notes in Edmonton, 1911-1939. Master's the- for two pair of trousers from the 1840s. sis, (History). Edmonton: University of Cook, Mary. View From the West Hill . Alberta, 1988. 135 pp. The garment in- Carleton Place, Ont. : Wallace Enter- dustry in Edmonton at the turn of the prises, 1987 . 157 pp . Mary Cook is a century was significant in local terms. well-known Ottawa Valley author, jour- This study introduces the nature of the nalist and broadcaster. Her entertaining Edmonton industry, outlines the devel- anecdotal stories stem from her girlhood opment of some of the larger firms, no- on a valley farm during the Depression . tably Great Western Garment (GWG), While nostalgic in tone, and by her own and provides insight into government admission sometimes embroidered by legislation and labour relations . Busi- her imagination, they provide an autobi- ness and government records and inter- ographical perspective on simple day-to- views with retired workers were used. day events . For those interested in cos- Some points of interest are that garments tume, there are stories such as "The produced in the west tended to be utili- Hand-Me-Down Box," "A Cloud of Pale tarian ones for regional consumption, Green Organza," and "The Spanking less subject to fashion change; also that New Coat." Her three earlier books have labour relations in this period were rela- similar content. Illustrated with family tively harmonious compared to those in photographs. eastern cities. Tables and photographs. Cordonnerie traditionelle. Quebec City : Bibliography. Mus6e du Qu6bec 1977. 32 pp. An exhi- Cole, Catherine C., ed. Norwegian Immigrant bition catalogue of a travelling display Clothing and Textiles . Edmonton: Prairie on the domestic manufacture of foot- Costume Society, 1990 . 113 pp . This wear in Quebec, especially in the nine- nicely-presented book includes five pa- teenth and twentieth centuries . Docu- pers from a 1987 seminar on a topic pre- mented . Bibliography. Illustrated. viously neglected by Canadian costume "Costume Collections of Ontario: Museums historians. Papers by Heather Prince and and Private Collections." Costume Soci- Barbara Schweger discuss and describe ety of Ontario Newsletter 18, no. 2 (Sum- Norwegian costume and textile artifacts mer 1988): 11-12 . Phase 1 of a proposed found in Alberta (see entry for Prince's computerized registration of costume thesis on this topic) . Aagot Noss and collections. Sixty-nine are listed here. Carol Colburn provide an outside per- Dahl, Becky G. Grade 3 Students' Cognitive spective, discussing the Norwegian im- and Affective Responses to Wearing Re- migrant experience in the United States . production Costumes in the Edmonton David Goa's introductory paper provides 1881 Schoolhouse. M.Sc. Thesis, (Cloth- further context, by examining the impe- ing and Textiles) Edmonton: University tus for Norwegian migration to western of Alberta, 1988 . 261 pp. The author Canada, and the influence the Norwe- tested and evaluated student responses gian character and social and cultural in- to an interpretive programme where the stitutions have had. The overall theme of students themselves wore reproduction this book is the continuity of culture costume. She discusses the differences within a changing environment. This in both cognitive (thinking) and affective work has made an important contribu- (feeling) scores between the experimen- tion to expanding Canadian costume tal (who wore costume) and control history, and the presentation of material (who did not wear costume) groups . Re-
49 sults conclude support for the use of re- vice. 2 microfiches, 131 pp. Mentioned production costumes in this programme. as forthcoming in our 1984 bibliography. Emphasis on test methodology. Also The Machault was a French frigate scut- discusses educational programming in tled in 1760 en route to Montreal, carry- museums, experiential learning theory, ing military and commercial supplies . and use of replications . Theoretical . Included in the collection of artifacts re- Illustrated. Bibliography. covered from underwater archaeological Davidson, Maurice. Montreal's Dominance of excavation were approximately 170 the Men's Fine Clothing Industry. Mas- items which could be considered wear- ter's Thesis (Graduate Studies) . London: ing apparel; including clothing fasteners, University of Western Ontario, 1969. 261 accoutrements and textile fragments. pp. Listed in 1984 bibliography as not This report presents this material for seen. The earliest recent research on the comparative research purposes, and as industry, this geographer has studied such it describes and analyses them the location factors that contributed to from an archaeological perspective, em- Montreal's dominance relative to other phasizing details which identify and in- centres, especially Toronto, from ca 1870 dividualize each artifact . Also included to 1968 . Labour supply and organiza- are overviews of the dress of naval tion, organization of production and pro- officers and sailors ca 1760, and the de- duction costs, marketing and agglomera- velopment of both the textile and knit- tion are all considered . Concludes that ting industries in eighteenth-century Montreal's prime advantage was in the France . 61 illustrations include artifact abundant supply of cheap skilled and photos and line drawings. Bibliography. unskilled labour. Part of the research Davis, Stephen. "Up On Your Heels, Down for the 1938 to 1968 period involved an On Your Toes: Shoe Fashion in Canada extensive survey of firms in Montreal ca 1700-1760." Costume Society of On- and Toronto. Provides good information tario Newsletter 17, no . 3 (Fall-Winter on the state of the industry in the 1950s 1987-88) : 13-14. Survey of eighteenth- and 1960s, comparing leading firms, and century footwear styles and construction commenting on recent trends. Reviews techniques. Mostly based on a study of the usefulness of research sources. Well archaeological footwear excavated from documented. Short glossary. Statistical Canadian Parks Service sites, particular- emphasis, with maps and 108 tables . ly from Louisbourg and the Machault. Bibliography. Davis, Vaune. "A Made-To-Measure Exhibit Davis, Stephen. "Button, Button : Buttons for for Fashion Fans." Flare 11, no. 10 (Oc- the Collector - And the Archaeologist." tober 1989): 146. Information about the Canadian Collector 20, no . 5 (Septem- then soon-to-open "Measure for Mea- ber/October, 1985): 33-36 . Long of in- sure" exhibit at the Royal Ontario Muse- terest to collectors, buttons are now um. Illustrated with photographs of gar- receiving increasing attention by archae- ments in the exhibit. ologists as signposts reflecting technolo- Dawson, Joyce Taylor. "An Analysis of Litur- gy, fashion and social history. They are gical Textiles at Sainte Marie Among the often the only archaeological evidence of Hurons ." Material History Bulletin 24 what occupants wore. This article sur- (Fall 1986) : 1-12 . Through inference, re- veys the history and technology of nine- constructs the overall appearance of teenth century buttons. Comments that liturgical vestments and textiles used at buttons found during archaeological ex- the French Jesuit Mission, Sainte Marie cavations at National Historic Sites dis- Among the Hurons, from 1639 to 1649. play most of the types popular in the (The mission is now a reconstructed his- nineteenth century. French summary. toric site in Midland, Ontario.) Informa- Documented. Illustrated. tion based on the Jesuit Relations, corre- Davis, Stephen. Wearing Apparel From Le spondence between ecclesiastics, and Machau]t : A Descriptive Inventory other pertinent documents. Concludes (1982). Microfiche Report Series, no. 97. with discussion of probable suppliers in Ottawa: Environment Canada, Parks Ser- France from whom these artifacts could
50 be ordered, and their possible appear- iconographic sources to be of impor- ance . Documented. Photographs and tance here. Useful references to publica- drawings . (See also Folkes/Penny .) tions which are tangential to the subject. Dean, Ankaret. "The ceinture fl6ch6e . . . of Not documented . Illustrations in various old New France." Canadian Collector media. 21, no . 4, (July-August 1986) : 31-33 . Dumas, Monique. "Le feutre au Qu6bec: fa- Popular survey of the ceinture flechee, brication domestique des bas et des se- its history, revival in the twentieth cen- melles." Material History Bulletin 32 tury, characteristics and construction . (Fall 1990): 17-27. Interesting article dis- Not documented but based on Barbeau's cussing the domestic manufacture of felt work. Useful as a brief introduction to in Quebec, from its origins, to its disap- the subject. Illustrated. pearance around 1950. Commentary on Dionne, H6lene. Les contrats de mariage d technology, focusing on the fabrication Quebec (1790-1812). National Museum of felt socks and soles for footwear. Well of Man, History Division, Paper no. 29. documented . Illustrated with pho- Ottawa: National Museums of Canada, tographs and drawings. 1980. 174 pp. Clothing was considered The Engag6s. "An American Fur Company part of the basic property of a couple Voyageur's Contract ." Museum of the when they were about to marry in Que- Fur Trade Quarterly 23, no. 1 (Spring bec, and as such could be mentioned in 1987) : 12-14. Reproduces an official marriage contracts (see especially pages copy of a voyageur's engagement for 58 to 76). Garments so listed for men a trip to Michilimackinac, negotiated and women are discussed, and season- in Montreal in 1818. The contract is in ability and occasion are shown to be French with the article providing a short reflected in the costume. Includes quota- English commentary. As well as several tions from primary sources on this type items of clothing and equipment the of clothing . Documented . Illustrated. man received a pair of souliers de boeuf, Bibliography. which the authors found to be somewhat Dubuc, Elise. "Costumes des gens de mer unusual. They then elaborate on this du XVIe si6cle trouv6s dans 1'estuaire point, and mention that the French- du Saint-Laurent : un bon exemple de Canadian term "souliers de boeuf" is hardes de marins au temps de la decou- usually translated by the American verte du Nouveau Monde." Canadian Fur Company as "cowhide shoes ." Folklore canadien 10, no. 1-2 (1988) : Documented. 129-154 . A clearly written article of "Every Hour an Occasion." Costume journal great interest on Basque marine costume (formerly the Costume Society of of the sixteenth century. Research is Ontario (CSO) Newsletter) 19, no. 3 (Fall based on the recent discovery of seven- 1989) : 4 . Information on an exhibit pre- teenth century costume artifacts discov- sented by the CSO at Ryerson Polytech- ered during archaeological excavation at nical Institute in October 1989, of Red Bay, Labrador . Costume remains women's dress, 1900 to 1910. This arti- (just some fragments) include shirts, cle includes a general discussion on breeches and stockings. Discussion cen- fashions of this era, and one illustration. tres on the cut of these garments. Also Fallis, Donna. "World War I Knitting." includes information suggesting how Alberta Museums Review (Fall 1984) : other European mariners were dressed 8-10. Discusses the efforts of Albertan and who actually made these clothes . Il- women through women's groups, indi- lustrations, including photographs, and vidual volunteers, and the organized ef- drawings of great sensitivity executed by forts of the Canadian Red Cross Society, the author. Documented. Bibliography. to contribute to the war effort in World Dumas, Monique. "I:enfant, ce petit adulte . . ." War I, by knitting . Includes a list of Cap-aux-diamants 4, no. 2 (Summer women's organizations in Alberta that 1988) : 29-31 . An interesting article on actually participated . Emphasis is on the the problem of the documentation of influence of the Red Cross on standards, Quebec children's costume until the types of goods made and their distribu- twentieth century. The author perceives tion. Sees this as a social and economic
51 phenomenon which helped contribute pp. This small book is dedicated to and to the women's own sense of self-esteem based upon the work of the late Nancy and national pride. Uses photos, docu- Penny. Her research was applied to the ments and periodicals as reference. Doc- costuming needs of Sainte Marie Among umented. Illustrated. the Hurons and is a good example of the Fedorak, Rose . "Sweatshops in the Devel- type of information directed to inter- oping Canadian Garment Industry." preters at an historic site. The first part Canadian Home Economics journal 31, of the book, "social history," gives an no. 3 (Summer 1981): 164-185. Exam- overview on the clothing of the French ines in a general way the emergence, Jesuits, Indians and Indian children, and control and "eventual disappearance" of the cross-cultural influence between the sweatshop working conditions from the two groups . The second part, "technical late 1800s through to the 1940s. A useful history," describes the physical charac- short survey of improvements enacted teristics of individual garments worn by by legislation and union activity, though Jesuits and donnes (workmen). While Steedman (see entry) is better. Con- secondary sources are widely consulted, cludes that the unions were responsible most of the information comes from the for cleaning up conditions and improv- Jesuit Relations, first-hand accounts of ing wages, and that eventually the life in New France and the missions . Re- sweatshops disappeared. Other research search recent in Quebec (e.g., Back on disagrees with this conclusion (see for capots) has shed more light on this sub- example Johnson, Lepp, MacLeod, and ject, but nevertheless it is an impor- Mochoruk and Webber entries). Does not tant introduction to a little-researched consider the common use of "contract- period. Documented . Glossary . Repro- ing out" or "home work" that resulted in ductions of art work, mainly European . the same conditions outside the immedi- Bibliography ate factory. Documented . French ab- Gagnon, Louise. "L'apparition des modes stract. Short bibliography. enfantines au Qu6bec: reflets du cos- Ferland, Jacques. "`Not for Sale' American tume vestimentaire bourgeois." Master's Technology and Canadian Shoe Facto- thesis. "Arts et Traditions populaires" ries: The United Shoe Machinery Com- (Ethnology) . Quebec City: Universit6 pany of Canada, 1899-1912 ." American Laval, 1990. Due to plans for publication Review of Canadian Studies 18, no. 1 this thesis is presently inaccessible . (Spring 1988): 59-82 . An historical case Gallichan, Gilles and Jean-Ren6 Lassonde. study of the United Shoe Machinery "Les costumes sous differentes cou- Company of Canada's (an American sub- tures ." Cap-aux-diamants 4, no. 2 (Sum- sidiary) establishment of a monopoly in mer 1988): 15-16. Co-authored by two li- the Canadian industry in the early twen- brarians from the Biblioth6que nationale tieth century, and the ensuing govern- du Qu6bec, one of the stated aims of this ment investigation in 1911-12 . Uses article is to promote the rich holdings of marxist perspective to argue that class the Bibliotheque as a resource for cos- analysis and conflicting social relations tume. The text underlines the numerous in this industrial activity must be con- different approaches to the study of sidered in examining this early example Quebec costume . Aspects discussed of the technological dependency by include its role as protection, viewed Canada on the United States . Some through the New France colonists' adap- background information on the shoe in- tation of certain Amerindian sarto- dustry in Canada at the time may be of rial practices ; and its function as a politi- interest to costume historians . Heavily cal symbol, seen through the 6toffe du documented . pays costume of Quebec patriots in Folkes, Patrick, and Nancy Penny. Cassocks, the uprising of 1837 . Not documented . Doublets and Deerskins: Religious and Illustrated. Secular Costume on the Mission Frontier Gannag6, Charlotte. Double Day, Double of New France in the First Half of the Bind: Women Garment Workers. Toronto: Seventeenth Century. Midland, Ont. : Women's Press, 1986. 235 pp. Reports The Friends of Sainte Marie, 1988 . 67 on interviews held with male and female
52 factory workers in 1980 at Edna Manu- mentation on her subject, now in the facture, a coat-making firm in Toronto. "Fonds Madeleine Doyon-Ferland" at Most of the interviewees were immigrant the university. This article comments on women, and the book comes alive with her work, the author using as sources their own words. The author then dis- Doyon-Ferland's course notes on cos- cusses their double responsibilities of tume, and information from her deliv- work and home and those interrelation- ered papers . (These were collated in ships, the garment industry, gender and 1982 into an unpublished text by ethnic divisions of labour, the company Andree Paradis, entitled "Trois si6cles and the unions. Argues that neither tra- de costume au Canada, d'apres les docu- ditional Marxist nor Feminist theory ments du Fonds Madeleine Doyon- takes into account the duality of Ferland .") Doyon-Ferland in addition women's work. Chapter 3, on the gar- promoted the reproduction of authentic ment industry in Toronto today, includes Quebec traditional costume. This article, a history of Edna Manufacture, which written by an ethnologist, clearly was founded in 1939. No illustrations. overviews and evaluates this pioneer's Bibliography, mainly labour related. work. Documented . Bibliography. Garling, Carol. "Millinery : A Dying Art ." Godin, Christine. "Les femmes au chapeau: Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter une mode empreinte de la coutume ." 18, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 10-11. History Cap-aux-diamants 4, no. 2 (Summer of women's hatmaking in Toronto from 1988): 25-28. Discusses some aspects of 1890 to 1988, with information on the twentieth-century millinery in Quebec early period from advertisements, cata- from an ethnological perspective, based logues and labels in hats in the Toronto on interviews with milliners identified Historical Board collection. Also in- only by their first names. Focus is given cludes information on the millinery in these statements on the aesthetic, trade at present in Toronto . practical and sociological problems en- Giroux, Jacqueline. Femme de cmur et countered in the practice of millinery. femme de tetes. Montreal : La societe his- Not documented . Photographs, draw- torique du marigot de Longueuil, 1989. ings, newspaper illustrations. 116 pp. Basically a biography of well- Godin, Christine . "Creer des chapeaux : la known Montreal milliner Yvette Brillon, pratique du m6tier de modiste." Cap- active from the 1930s to 1960s, also a so- aux-diamants 4, no. 2 (Summer 1988) : cial history of Montreal's French east 51-54 . Again, an ethnologist's view of end and the city as a whole . From the the milliner's profession . Includes di- viewpoint of costume, it includes inter- verse information on their "job descrip- esting photographs of the milliner's very tion," including working hours, cus- large shop on Saint-Denis Street, her tomer relations, promotion, and division workroom and shop window . Informa- of tasks in the workroom . Oral inter- tive on the extent of her business : she views of some in the profession in Que- was known to have had as many as bec City, using first names only. Not doc- sixty-five on staff in her made-to-order umented. Illustrated by photographs. hat business . Some interesting discus- Godin, Christine and Jocelyne Mathieu . sion on Brillon's method of work, and on "Armand Caron: precurseur de la haute fashion shows in Montreal at the time . couture quebecoise ." Cap-aux-diamants The publication is strangely quiet about 4, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 55-57. An inter- her clients. Partially documented . Pho- esting interview held by these two eth- tographs and reproduction art work. nologists with designer Armand Caron . Godin, Christine . "L'ceuvre pionniere de This Quebec City designer reached his Madeleine Doyon-Ferland ." Canadian apogee in the 1950s creating models for Folklore canadien 10, no . 1-2 (1988) : well-known French-Canadian stars of 13-33 . Madeleine Doyon-Ferland was the stage and radio in Montreal . A1- professor of "arts et traditions popu- though this city is mentioned in the in- laires" at The Universite Laval from terview, the subject of Montreal couture 1944 to 1977 . Besides her pedagogical was not discussed. Not documented . Il- duties, she gathered a great deal of docu- lustrated with photographs.
53 Gordon, Joleen. "Handwoven Hats." Canadi- logues ; dressmaking and needlework an Collector 21, no . 4 (July-August manuals; and fashion periodicals. Some 1986) : 48-51. Popular article introduc- designs are speculative, some copied ing the traditional craft of straw, wood from artifacts . Scale patterns, construc- and rush hat plaiting or weaving in tion notes, fabrics and notions, and a Nova Scotia. See our bibliography for a glossary are also included . Documented. description of her excellent book by the Heavily illustrated. Bibliography. same title. Describes the history and pro- Hansen, Charles E., Jr. "The Traders' Dress." cess, and several hats in Nova Scotia Museum of the Fur Trade Quarterly 25, museum collections . Illustrated. no. 1 (Spring 1990): 1-5. Intended for Graham, Frank W. Ahead of Her Time: A the re-enactor, describes the costume Biography of Ellen Carbery. St. John's: worn by the trader, "the real fur trade ex- Creative Publishers, 1987 . 83 pp. Ellen ecutive," who normally dressed in ordi- Carbery was "a politician in her own nary European business garb. A couple right, a businesswoman, a writer and a of Canadian references. Documented . philanthropist." She was also a leading Illustrated. milliner in St. John's between 1887 and Hastie, R. "Development of the Apparel In- her death in 1915. Although it contains dustry of Winnipeg ." In Winnipeg, some very interesting information about 1874-1974: Progress and Prospects, edit- her millinery business, the book is frus- ed by Tony Kuz . Winnipeg: Manitoba trating for costume historians in its em- Department of Industry, Trade and Com- phasis on the other aspects of her life, merce, 1974. pp . 129-145 . Summarizes and in particular on her role as a leading the evolution of the industry from the citizen of St. John's. Information on fash- cottage and home crafts of the early set- ion is superficial and taken from C. W. tlers, through production by skilled arti- Cunnington (not Cunningham as stated sans in the 1870s and 1880s, to the man- on page 27). Documented, though most ufacture of apparel on a large scale. Al- notes are "social asides." though it has been claimed that the Win- "Halifax." Costume Society of Ontario News- nipeg industry, now the third largest in letter 14, no. 2 (Winter 1984-85) : 2. Note Canada, was first founded to provide ad- on an exhibit at Mount Saint Vincent equate supplies of work clothes for farm University entitled "Rags," devoted to and railroad workers, the author instead Nova Scotian clothing designers. 8 page found that the first provincially char- catalogue (not seen) . tered manufacturing firm (1902), re- Hamster, Ingrid. The Dress of Children quested the right to manufacture ladies (1987) . Microfiche Report Series, no . clothing. Using primary sources such as 303. Ottawa: Environment Canada, Parks the Manitoba Gazette from 1890 to 1974, Service. 2 microfiches, 142 pp. Follow- proves that throughout its 72 year histo- ing Christina Bates' study of children's ry, the industry has been an increasingly clothing in the social context (see Bates), reliable and stable contributor to the this was designed as a technical resource economy of Winnipeg and Manitoba . book on clothing for school children Discusses the pattern of establishment ages 6 to 12 for the period 1885 to 1890. and failure of factories, lifespan and cap- It was used by Bethune Memorial in italization, the growth of unions and the Gravenhurst, Ontario to support a pro- formation of the Fashion Institute of gramme of costume reproduction for Manitoba. (For a different interpretation school students. The preface gives a gen- see Lepp.) Heavy on statistics. One table. eral interpretive view on social issues of Annotated bibliography. the time, followed by chapters on indi- Hiebert, D . "Discontinuity and the Emer- vidual garments from underclothing up . gence of Flexible Production : Garment The prime sources for the designs were Production in Toronto, 1901-1931 ." Eco- school photographs, portraits and paint- nomic Geography 66, 3 (July 1990) : ings. However, for the detail required for 229-253. Not seen. reproduction costume a wider range of Holford, Mary. "Notes on Dress and Society sources was also consulted : artifacts in in Upper Canada." Costume Society of' Ontario collections ; mail-order cata- Ontario Newsletter 16, (Fall-Winter
54 1986-87) : 8-11. Extracts from a talk, fo- Johnson, Laura. The Seam Allowance: Indus- cusing on the period of the 1790s, with trial Home Sewing in Canada. Toronto: information up to the 1830s. Good infor- Women's Educational Press, 1982, 135 mation on sources for costume research pp . Based on conversations held be- for early Ontario. Basically a summary of tween 1980 and 1982 in Toronto, south- her article in Costume in 1983 (reviewed ern Ontario and Montreal, with 50 in our 1984 bibliography). One illustra- women who work at home doing indus- tion. Short bibliography. trial sewing, plus government officials, Holford, Mary. "Looking Back : the CSO trade union officials and employers, this Founding Conference ." Costume journal study by now falls into the costume his- (formerly the Costume Society of On- tory category. Proves that the practice of tario Newsletter) 20, no. 3 (Fall 1990) : homework still thrives . Homeworkers 2-3 . Included in the twentieth an- in Canada today receive lower wages, niversary celebration issue. Describes and work under worse conditions than the events of the conference day, and the rest of the labour force . Discusses gives a sketch of the Society's history. reasons for this system's continued exis- Illustrated. tence and what it will take to elimi- Hooke, Peggy. "A-Dressing the Past: Seneca's nate it. Chapter 2, by Robert E. Johnson, Fashion Resource Centre ." Costume covers the origins of industrial home- Journal (Formerly the Costume Society work in fairly general terms with some of Ontario Newsletter) 20, no . 3 (Fall Canadian content. Documented . Illus- 1990): 6-7 . Description of the recent trated with photographs. Labour-related founding of this resource centre, its col- bibliography. lection and resources . It includes over Jutras, V. P "Cordonnerie domestique ." Par- 2 000 historical garments and accessories ler frangais 13 (September 1914-1915): intended for use by students, industry, 25-37, 75-82 . This article defines the college and community. Illustrated . various types of footwear, both fashion- Humphries, Mary. "Profile - Costume Soci- able and traditional, made by domestic ety of Ontario: Alan Suddon." Costume cobblers during the 1850s. A glossary of Society of Ontario Newsletter 16 (Spring technical terms used in this activity is 1986): 10. Profile of this long-time CSO included . Documented. newsletter editor, retired head of the fine Kerkhoven, Marijke. "Prairie Panache." arts department of the Metro Toronto Li- Glenbow 6, no. 4 (July-August 1986): 10. brary system, and well-known costume Two evening gowns and one afternoon collector and lecturer. dress from the 1912-1916 period were Jamieson, Arthur. "Musers : A Gown Fit for a on display at the Glenbow Museum in Queen and a Queen Fit for All." Rotun- 1986, as the first of a miniseries on so- da 20, no. 2 (Fall 1987): 58-59. Part of a cial aspects of clothing. This article de- series intended for children, this article scribes the garments (one of them de- uses the description of a dress worn in signed by Poiret) and their fashionable Canada by Queen Elizabeth the Queen owner, Mrs. Lillian J. Young. Reprinted Mother during her 1939 visit, as the in- in the Prairie Costume Society Newslet- troductory note to information on the ter 1, no. 4 (n. d.): 2-3 . One photograph . current royal family. The embroidered Kerkhoven, Marijke. "Bloomers, Books and white satin Norman Hartnell dress is Belles : School Costume in Alberta." now in the ROM textile collection. Two Glenbow 6 (November-December 1986): photographs. 9-10. A small exhibit on this subject was Job, Marilyn. "From Inconspicuous to Proud: held at the Glenbow in 1987. This article A Look at the Design and Marketing of outlines changes in the Alberta school Maternity Clothes in the Twentieth Cen- system between the turn of this century tury." Costume Society of Ontario News- and the late 1940s, articles of clothing letter 15, no. 1 - 2, (Autumn 1985): 6-10. required by dress codes in certain Based on Eaton's catalogues, discusses schools, and personal accessories related clothes advertised as maternity wear to school activities. Not documented . from their first mention in 1908 to pre- Reprinted in the Prairie Costume Society sent advertising.
55 Newsletter 1, no. 3 (May-June 1987) : Catalogue to accompany the fine 1990 2-3 . One photograph. exhibit of the same name, which fea- Kimmel, Fran. "Kerby Museum of Fashion : tured outstanding examples of embroi- More than just Old Clothes." Discovery dered costume from Quebec museum (The National Lifestyle Magazine for Ma- collections. This catalogue is intended to ture Canadians) 9, no . 5 (June 1988): supplement the exhibit by providing an 28-30. Profiles the Kerby Museum of overview of different types of embroi- Fashion in Calgary, an historical collec- dery on western fashionable dress over tion and travelling fashion show created the past 200 years. While the catalogue in 1974. The collection includes over succeeds in this objective, and is clear 300 historical garments and accessories . and concise in style, it has no Canadian Models between the ages of 65 and 84 content, and is somewhat disappointing perform over 50 shows a year in Alberta. in its lack of a checklist of items in the Although the article assures us that each exhibit. Some documentation. Illustrated item is catalogued, inspected and sorted in black and white. Bibliography. between shows, and fragile ones are dis- LeBel, Alyne. "Une vitrine populaire: les played in showcases, this wearing of an- grands magasins Paquet ." Cap-aux- tique costumes which will result in their diamants 4, no. 2 (Summer 1988) : 45- destruction, is decried by museum pro- 48 . Documents the birth and growth fessionals . Illustrated. of an important department store in Klug, T. O . "Fashionable Quebec Doctor Pro- Quebec City, owned and operated by vides Eighteenth Century Suit for Recent three generations of the Paquet family. Study." Cutter's Research Journal 1, no. La Compagnie Paquet Limit6e closed in 2 (Summer 1989) : 1, 2-6, 8. The author 1981 after more than 130 years of opera- has provided drawings, 1/4 scale pat- tion. Not documented . Illustrations in terns and construction notes for a three- various media. piece patterned velvet suit from the LeBel, Jean-Marie. "Habiller la haute-ville." McCord Museum of Canadian History. Cap-aux-diamants 4, no . 2 (Summer The material has been dated to ca 1775, 1988): 80. Discusses four leading depart- the style of the dress coat and breeches ment stores in Quebec City in the nine- to ca 1790. The waistcoat was altered teenth century - John Darlington, Holt later. A description of the suit, and Renfrew and Co ., Simons, and Glover biographical notes on its wearer, Dr. and Fry and Co. Although brief, explores Philippe Louis Frangois Badelart (1728- a hitherto uninvestigated realm . Sug- 1802) have been contributed by the gests further directions for research. Not McCord. One photograph. documented . One illustration. Laforge, Val6rie. "Madeleine Doyon-Ferland." Leboeuf, Francine . "Le costume ." Video- Culture et Tradition 9 (1985) : 13-31 . presse 14, no. 8 (April 1988) : 24-25. A Outlines the education and professional popular brief overview of Quebec rural life of Madeleine Doyon-Ferland, the costume . Includes a discussion of the Laval university academic. The scholar initial Amerindian influence on this had multi-disciplinary interests, includ- costume and a description of early ing those of art, music and theatre. How- nineteenth-century garments of this ever, a major research focus became that type; also, the home manufacture of of rural costume in Quebec. Investiga- cloth, footwear and straw headwear in tion here was undertaken utilizing the Quebec . Other more heavily documented methodological approach of ethnology. articles discuss some of these subjects in This early evaluation of the work of the much greater detail (see for instance Laval university authority has been fol- Back, and Ruddel). Insufficiently foot- lowed by one, more profound, published noted. Two illustrations of Quebec rural recently. (See "Godin.") Documented . costume, which unfortunately are not One Photograph . Bibliography. related to the text. Le fil du temps: 200 ans de broderie sur cos- Lepp, Annalee, David Millar and Barbara tume. / A Stitch in Time: 200 Years of Roberts. "Women in the Winnipeg Gar- Embroidery on Costume. Saint-Lambert, ment Industry, 1950s-1970s ." In First Qu6bec: Marsil Museum, 1990. 36 pp. Days, Fighting Days: Women in Manitoba
56 History, edited by Mary Kinnear. Regina : Quebec City during the first half of the Canadian Plains Research Center, 1987. nineteenth century. Quebec costume, in pp. 149-172. Part of a volume on wom- general, is discussed in volume 2. Docu- en's social history in Manitoba. (See also mented. Bibliography. Illustrated with Mochoruk and Webber.) Proposes that drawings . the industry slump in 1957 was the be- Lessard, Michel. "La photographie t6moin et ginning of a new era in which traditional servante de la mode." Cap-aux-diamants craft skills and sweatshops were gradu- 4, no . 2 (Summer 1988): 59-62. An art ally replaced by assembly lines in large historian comments on aspects of the new "superfirms." The article traces documentary role of photography as a this change from the workers' point of tool for the study of costume . Includes view and highlights the various types of references to the portrait-photograph government aid that were crucial to this and the more casual snap-shot, as well process. Comments on the 1957 Swan as to other types of photography. Also Commission, a provincial inquiry into discusses the role of photography as a the predominantly female work force, commercial means of promoting and and the manufacturers' lobby, the Fash- marketing the latest sartorial styles . Ex- ion Institute . Disagrees with some of amples referred to are all from Quebec, Hastie's conclusions (see Hastie) . Like mostly Montreal and Quebec City. Use- most other current authors, comments ful as a tool for directions in further re- on continuing low wages and the wage search on the subject. Not documented . gap between male and female workers. Interesting photographs . Thoroughly documented . Tables. Biblio- Lessard, Pierre. "`Costumes populaires' sur graphic information in endnotes . cartes postales ." Cap-aux-diamants 4, Les chapeaux feminins d'hier et d'aujour- no. 2 (Summer 1988): 71 . Focuses on d'hui / Women's Hats Yesterday and four colour postcards of Quebec rural Today. Montreal: Chateau Ramezay, costume, designed by Madeleine Doyon- 1989. 90 pp. An excellent bilingual cata- Ferland and entitled "costumes po- logue from a hat exhibition held simulta- pulaires." These are deposited in the neously in three different Montreal insti- "Fonds Madeleine Doyon-Ferland." Not tutions : the Chateau Ramezay ; les documented . Colour reproduction of the Archives nationales du Quebec ; and the postcards. Maison de sir George-Etienne Cartier L6vi-Strauss, Monique. "Dendera: Threads of National Historic Site. The introduction Deception." Rotunda (The magazine of advises that an ethnological approach the Royal Ontario Museum) 21, no . 2 provided the framework for research . (Summer 1988): 46-50 . A renowned The publication includes a discussion of French shawl expert documents a mid- the birth and development of the hat in- nineteenth century French shawl in the dustry in general and in Quebec, also ROM's collection. This article traces the hatmaking at home. Interesting informa- scholarly research into legal records that tion on the teaching of sewing skills in disclosed a battle over counterfeit de- early Quebec convents and the begin- signs that may have involved this same nings of the textile industry. Translation shawl. A good example of the possible of uneven quality. Scholarly and well intricacies of costume and textile iden- documented . Photographs and reproduc- tification . Documentation given within tions of art work. body of article. Illustrated with pho- Lessard, Denis, France Bourque, Normand tographs and drawings. Legault, Jocelyne Mathieu, Gynette Lichtblau, Dorothy. "Couple Collects An- Tremblay, Guy Landry, Pierre Monette tique Costumes ." Canadian Jewish News and Lynda Dumais. Danses et costumes 28, no. 3 (11 February 1988): 36. A short regionaux au Quebec . Montreal : F6d6ra- profile of collectors Judy Herscovitch tion des loisirs-danses du Quebec, 1977. and Mel Orecklin, a husband-and-wife 2 vols., 189 and 268 pp. In Volume 1 we team who have collected costumes from have descriptions of types of dance Great Britain, Canada and the United prevalent in various regions of Quebec, States . as well as information on costume in
57 "London, Ontario: `The Fashion Subject."' strike and its failure. In discussing in Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter greater depth the reasons for its failing, 14, no. 2 (Winter 1984-85): 2 . Note on the author considers the economic con- an exhibit at Eldon House, London, of 13 text of the Depression ; the industry in costumes representing 200 years of fash- Canada and competition with Montreal ; ion from 1760 to the fall of 1984 . Cata- the social ideology of the time; working logue and poster (not seen). conditions ; the exploitation of women MacAndrew, Barbara. "Century and a Half of workers; and, their lack of participation Fashion." The Atlantic Advocate 74 (Oc- in unions. It may be interesting to com- tober 1983): 40-42. A very generalized pare the management perspective of R. P. description of fashion change from the Sparks in the same period (see Sparks). 1840s to the present, and commentary Macleod proposes that the strike's fail- on the recurring cycles in fashion. Only ure demonstrates that unionization was one Canadian reference. Some errors, for not able to meet the long term needs of example in the dating of an illustration working women. Concludes that the of garments ca 1900 as representing the 1931 strike was typical of the strike ex- 1840 to 1860s period . Not documented . perience of women to the present day. Redrawings. Documented. Five tables . MacDonald, Ann C. "Historic Costume on Marchand, Suzanne. "Le culte du corps ou the Island: An Analysis of Family Pho- le culte de Fame: mode f6minine et so- tographs/P.E.I. Women's Fashions of the ci6te qu6b6coise au cours de la p6riode 1870s and 1880s." Canadian Home Eco- 1920-1939." Master's thesis, "Arts et Tra- nomics journal 39, no. 1 (Winter 1989): ditions populaires" (Ethnology) . Que- 22-24. Using a sample of six from the bec City: Universit6 Laval, 1990. Due to many photographs brought in by stu- plans for publication this thesis is pre- dents during a project, concludes that sently inaccessible . clothing during this period in P.E.I. was Marchand, Suzanne. "La `gargonne:' un nou- similar in silhouette and general detail veau modele f6minin (1920-1929)." Cap- to that seen in the rest of the western aux-diamants 4, no. 2 (Summer 1988) : world. However, since the author herself 19-20. As indicated by the title, the arti- has attributed dates to many of these cle concerns the boyish style of dress of photos, we cannot really verify the accu- the 1920s. Its interest lies in the setting racy of the comparisons. It would have where this particular style is seen, that been more useful had she used dated of Quebec. Discusses its promotion in photographs. Black and white photos . Quebec's La Revue moderne, as well as Bibliography of three entries. its criticism by the clergy and some MacIntyre, Florence . "Clothes Make the Man: women's groups, exemplified, for exam- Fashions and Fabrics at Eighteenth- ple, in the magazine La bonne fermi6re. Century Louisbourg ." Canadian Collec- Not documented. One photograph and tor 20, (March-April 1985) : 45-47. A advertisements. very general review of eighteenth-centu- Marendy, Michael. The Development and ry costume as worn at the Fortress of Evaluation of Costume Reproduction Louisbourg, concluding with two para- Pattern Blocks for an 1880s Women's graphs on the reproduction process . Dress. M.Sc . thesis (clothing and tex- French summary. Illustrated with pho- tiles) . Edmonton: University of Alberta, tographs of interpreters wearing repro- 1988. 149 pp . The purpose of this thesis duction costumes. was to document an 1880s bustle dress Macleod, Catherine. "Women in Produc- in the university's Historic Costume and tion : The Toronto Dressmakers' Strike Study Collection, and to develop and of 1931 ." In Women at Work, 1850- evaluate a set of period pattern blocks to 1930, edited by Janice Acton, Penny reproduce this garment. Three processes Goldsmith and Bonnie Shepard. Toronto: were tested to determine which would Canadian Women's Educational Press, provide the most authentic reproduction 1974. pp. 309-329. Part of a collection of in a standard modern size 12 . Grading a essays on women's work in Ontario from pattern taken from the original garment a feminist perspective. Describes the was chosen as the most successful. Sug-
58 gests further experimentation is required Mathieu, Jocelyne. "Et si les habits par- to test the applicability of period draft- laient . . . savez-vous lire sur vos vete- ing systems and the potential use of con- ments ?" Cap-aux-diamants 4, no. 2 temporary ones. Tables and eight appen- (Summer 1988): 17 . An amusing short dices. Illustrated. Bibliography. article on the messages that our daily "Mary Holford, Assistant Curator, Textile wardrobe can convey. Not documented . Dept, ROM" Costume Society of Ontario Illustrated. Newsletter 16, (Fall-Winter 1986-87) : 7. Mathieu, Jocelyne . "Costumes et d6guise- A short profile of Mary Holford, covering ments de carnaval." Cap-aux-diamants her interests in costume at the ROM, and 4, no . 2 (Summer 1988) : 41-44. The the textile department in general. principal focus of this interesting article Massicotte, E.-Z. "L'an6antissement d'une in- is the evolution and genesis of types dustrie canadienne sous le r6gime fran- of disguises and attire seen during the gais ." Bulletin des recherches histo- Quebec Carnival, and on similar other riques 27, no. 7 (July 1921): 193-200. A occasions. The evolution towards a more partial listing of hat-makers who were Canadian profile in this dress for out- active in Montreal during the seven- door wear in the Quebec Carnival is teenth and eighteenth centuries. De- identified, culminating for men in a scribes the destruction of the so-called snowshoe costume in grey wool. Not hat industry in Montreal by French royal documented . Photographs. decree in 1736. However, it seems that Mathieu, Jocelyne and Monique Dumas . only one hatter who actually specialized "Une garde-robe du XVIIe siecle ." Cap- in beaver hats was really active in the aux-diamants 4, no. 2 (Summer 1988) : city at this time. Interesting inventory of 69. Comments on the importance, for the materials and tools used in hat-making study of costume in Quebec, of the in this period . Documented. clothing entries in this province's notari- Massicotte, E.-Z. "Chapellerie et chapeliers al accounts after death. Publication of en la Nouvelle-France." Bulletin des one example. Not documented . recherches historiques 30, no. 6 (June McGrath, Judy et al. "Waste Not, Want Not 1924): 164-165 . Relates an unsuccessful (Flour Bags and Other Handy Material)". attempt by a Parisian hatmaker to found Them Days 10, no. 2 (December 1984): a beaver hat-making enterprise in New 57-63. Transcripts of seven short oral France in the early eighteenth century. histories recorded in the late 1970s and Documented. early 1980s in Labrador on the theme Mathieu, Jocelyne . "Au sujet des rapports of reusing various materials, mostly entre le costume traditionnel et la mode. for clothing. Topical with today's inter- Le cas du costume canadien ." Canadian est in the environment. Illustrated with Folklore canadien 10, no . 1-2 (1988) : photographs. 35-52 . Scholarly and fascinating article McKay, Linda M. "Clothing as a Social Indi- by an ethnologist which covers more cator: 1760-1960 ." Canadian Home Eco- than its title suggests. In the first part of nomics journal 39, no. 3 (Summer 1989): the text costume theory plays a primor- 99-102 . Another general history of fash- dial part. Includes a discussion on the ion on the theme of the relationship be- manner in which certain norms affect tween women's dress and social condi- traditional costume's ability to absorb tions . Standard references works have fashionable influences, climate of course been consulted (Flugel, Laver, Payne) being important in Quebec . Also an his- and there is no Canadian content. Three torical overview of the increasing ab- illustrations . Short bibliography. sorption of modish influence in tradi- Mills, Ruth K . "Have our Cake and Eat It tional costume over three centuries . Too." Embroidery Canada 17, no . 4 Concludes with remarks on the problem (Summer 1990) : 15-17 . Reports on a of regional costume, and that of the fashion show held during "Seminar question of the existence of a Quebec '90" in Victoria, which included historic mode. Rich documentation. Photographs costumes owned by individuals and the and newspaper illustrations. Canadiana Costume Museum and Ar- chives of British Columbia. Outlines the
59 reasons for not wearing historic cos- Panache : 200 Years of the Fashionable tume, and alternative ways of enjoying Woman. Vancouver: The Vancouver Mu- them. Documented . seum, 1990. 46 pp. The text of this exhi- Mochoruk, James D ., and Donna Webber . bition catalogue consists of a brief "Women in the Winnipeg Garment overview of selected trends in the history Trade, 1929-45 ." In First Days, Fighting of western fashionable costume from Days : Women in Manitoba History, 1770 to 1990. It is written with flair, some edited by Mary Kinnear. Regina: Cana- striking insights and contains nuggets of dian Plains Research Center, 1987 . interesting information. For instance the pp. 134-148 . Argues that female gar- popular white of "Empire" garb (1790- ment workers were not simply passive 1820) is connected to the white linen un- victims. The authors set the context by derdresses of French women who had describing pay and conditions in the in- met with "Madame Guillotine." The di- dustry, then activities of the different mensions of eighteenth-century panniers unions, and women's responses . Points are discussed as well as those of the out, as have other social historians, that nineteenth-century bustle. Minimal Cana- apart from wages there were few con- dian content. Unfortunately loans of cos- crete gains made; women were not well tumes from other collections are not indi- served by their male-dominated unions, cated in catalogue. Not documented . and had to abandon union solidarity in Colour photographs, black and white and order to achieve wage parity with male colour illustrations. workers. Chronicles some of the strate- Paradis, Andree . "L'avc?nement d'un costume gies, struggles and defeats, and com- canadien : d'apr6s les documents du mends these women's resilience and Fonds Madeleine Doyon-Ferland." Cap- willingness to fight. Overall emphasis is aux-diamants 4, no. 2 (Summer 1988) : on union development. Documented . 11-13 . Based on the Madeleine Doyon- Photographs of union groups. (See also Ferland archives, outlines the early mod- Lepp, from the same volume). ifications made to French seventeenth- "New Period Dress Patterns From ROM" century civil costume in New France; Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter the birth of the textile industry here in 14, no. 2 (Winter 1984-85) : 15 . Explana- the seventeenth century with its subse- tion of the three pattern packages from quent development; and the birth of the Royal Ontario Museum, which in- shoe manufacturing in the same century clude scale patterns for nine dresses in this area. Concludes by connecting from the museum's textile department . the birth of Canadian costume with that See Holford and Barnwell in our 1984 of the utilization of etoffe du pays which bibliography. the author dates from the eighteenth Newell, B. K. From Cloth to Clothing : the century. Not documented . Illustrated. Emergence of Department Stores in Late Parr, Joy. The Gender of Breadwinners : Nineteenth-Century Toronto. Master's Women, Men and Change in Two Indus- thesis. Peterborough: Trent University, trial Town 1880-1950. Toronto: Univer- 1984. Not seen. sity of Toronto Press, 1990. 314 pp. Palmer, Alexandra. "Two Superb Gifts Up- Compares the development of two date and Enhance the Costume Collec- Ontario towns from the point of view of tion." Rotunda (The magazine of the the new "social feminist historian," that Royal Ontario Museum) 22, no. 3 (Win- of both class and gender together. The ter 1989-90) : 7-8 . Profiles two dona- towns are treated separately but in a par- tions : a "Bent Boys" label dress and allel way, and the first half of the book is jacket ensemble ; and a partially made of interest to costume historians. Paris, three-piece man's suit from "Lloyd Ontario, a knitted-goods manufactur- Brothers Ltd.;" both manufactured re- ing centre and home of Penmans Ltd ., cently by Toronto firms. Describes the is used as the example of a "woman's garments and their significance to the town," shaped by the large work force of collection. These garments are now in- women, who were more than often the cluded in the "Measure for Measure" ex- breadwinners. On another level it is a hibit. The dress ensemble is illustrated. community history, and it provides a
60 good background on socio-economic cance since there had been no study conditions in the garment industry. The done to that date on the subject. Some other town is Hanover, home to a wood- interesting information is revealed such working industry. For both towns the au- as that on men's ready-mades; these thor looks at labour recruitment and eth- were advertised as early as 1821, and the nic composition, the influence of gender business was particularly busy in the on company policy, sexual division of fabrication of uniforms for the militia. In labour, labour organization, and family addition, we learn of one successful and community values . Business dressmaker, Margaret Major, who em- records, newspapers, photographs and ployed as many as 17 apprentices in interviews were among the sources used. 1841, and also that dressmakers were Innovative and scholarly. Illustrated often expected to be milliners, and even with photographs. Bibliography. furriers as well . Heavily documented. Payette-Daoust, Michelle . The Montreal Charts. Bibliography. Garment Industry 1871-1901 . Master's Prince, Heather Diane. Norwegian Clothing thesis (History). Montreal : McGill Uni- and Textiles in Valhalla Centre, Alberta: versity, 1986. 147 pp. Between 1871 and A Case Study and Inventory in an Eco- 1901, the garment industry was the larg- Museum Framework. M.Sc. thesis (Cloth- est employer in Montreal, and Montreal ing and Textiles) Edmonton: University dominated the industry in Canada . of Alberta, 1988 . 227 pp. Based on a Focused primarily on the manufacture combination of complementary meth- of inexpensive menswear, Montreal's in- ods; oral histories; written and visual dustry was heavily dominated by large documentary sources ; and artifacts, both wholesale manufacturers, whose success surviving and no longer in existence. was achieved by a tremendous expan- The author examines and analyzes Nor- sion of the market, and a large semi- wegian ethnic clothing and textiles in skilled, essentially rural, work force. The Valhalla Centre as a reflection of that industry relied on contracting out work community's material culture. Examines to small shops and rural homes, usually the significance of these artifacts in the in dismal working conditions . Since community and demonstrates the conti- little had been published at that time, nuity and adaptation of tradition, and the author has provided a good introduc- that a continued interest is shown tion, relying heavily on primary docu- through the private use of such symbols ments, and using some American mono- within the home . Presents this case graphs . An excellent work with a thor- study as an example of the immigrant ough bibliography, although it might experience in Canada. Also discusses have been useful to have also consulted material culture research and the 6co- Kidwell's Suiting Everyone . One map, musee concept. Glossary and translation 20 tables . of Norwegian terms. Illustrations in- Poulin, Pierre. "Au tournant du siecle : ate- clude photos of artifacts. Bibliography. liers et manufactures de vetements ." "The Queen's University Collection of Cana- Cap-aux-diamants 4, no . 2 (Summer dian Dress." Costume Society of Ontario 1988) : 49-50. Rare article on Canadian Newsletter 17, no. 3 (Fall-Winter 1987- clothing manufacturing in Quebec City 88) : 12 . A profile of the Queen's collec- from 1870 to 1900. Not documented. Il- tion, formed by Dr. Margaret Angus and lustrations in various media. now housed by the Agnes Etherington Poutanen, Mary Anne. For the Benefit of the Art Centre . One illustration . Master : The Montreal Needle Trades Routh, Caroline. "The CSO Costume-of-the- During the Transition 1820-42. Master's Month." Costume Society of Ontario thesis (History). Montreal: McGill Uni- Newsletter 17, no. 3, (Fall-Winter 1987- versity, 1985. 199 pp. Focuses on Mon- 88) : 10. An ongoing series which begins treal's dressmaking and tailoring shops in this issue. The author describes and from 1820 to 1842, and their growth, illustrates, with a delicate touch and which resulted in changing socio- good detail, costumes from various economic conditions, including an in- Canadian museums and private collec- creased division of labour . Of signifi- tions. Descriptions are usually physical
61 ones only, but can include some social -. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Cos- context. Occasionally the illustrations tume journal 20, no. 2 (Summer 1990): are submitted by other people . This 6. Profiles the centrepiece of the Dugald issue features a dress ca 1918, made Costume Museum's "Silhouettes in from green fagonn6 velvet and other fab- Style" exhibit of 1990, an eighteenth- rics, from the private collection of Alan century brocaded silk open robe and Suddon. One illustration. matching petticoat. One illustration. -. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Cos- -. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Cos- tume Society of Ontario Newsletter 18, tume journal 20, no. 3 (Fall 1990): 7. A no. 1 (Spring 1988) : 5. Profile of a "1920- 1970 printed-silk jersey, Pucci design, ish" beaded net dress from the collec- evening sheath, from the Seneca College tion of the Glengarry Pioneer Museum, collection is featured. One illustration. Dunvegan, Ontario. One illustration. Rowat, Theresa. Apergu . Dressing Up: Cos- -. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Cos- tumed Canadians from Fancy Dress tume Society of Ontario Newsletter 18, Balls to Amateur Theatricals/Apergu. La no. 2 (Summer 1988) : 6. A mid-1930s valse des atours : Canadiens d6guis6s, evening gown in a private collection is des toilettes de bal aux costumes de featured. One illustration. the8tre. Ottawa: Photography Service Di- -. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Cos- vision, Public Archives of Canada, 1985 . tume Society of Ontario Newsletter 18, Brochure to accompany a travelling ex- no. 3 (Fall-Winter 1988) : 5. Description hibit of photographs from the National and illustration of an 1838 wool-and- Photography Collection . Points out the silk floral print dress from the Dugald popularity of fancy dress in Victorian Costume Museum, Manitoba. One times, whether for a large costumed ball, illustration. historical pageant, or a simple children's -. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Cos- play. Such photos of costumed Canadi- tume Society of Ontario Newsletter 19, ans are found throughout the Public no. 1 (Spring 1989): 8-10. A longer than Archives collection, and particularly usual examination of a pair of wool from the work of W. J. Topley of Ottawa. trousers found during the restoration of One page text and three large black-and- Montgomery's Inn in Etobicoke. With white photos comprise the brochure . contributions from other specialists, this Roy, Catherine L. The Tailoring Trade 1800- article describes the trousers' construc- 1920: Including an Analysis of Pattern- tion, condition, and conservation, and Drafting Systems and an Examination of includes some historical notes on possi- the Trade in Canada . M.Sc. thesis ble social context. It suggests a date of (Clothing and Textiles). Edmonton: Uni- the 1820s or 1830s and comments on versity of Alberta, 1990. 172 pp . The au- their evidence of long wear through ex- thor has attempted broad goals in this tensive patching . A pattern is available thesis, using printed primary sources through Montgomery's Inn. Not docu- produced by the tailoring trade between mented. Four illustrations. 1800 and 1920 to describe this period of -. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month." Cos- great change within the trade, and its de- tume Society of Ontario Newsletter 19, velopment in Canada . A key component no. 2 (Summer 1989): 5. Features an af- was the content analysis and practical ternoon or dinner dress, ca 1915-16, in testing of 102 pattern-drafting systems. windowpane check chiffon, from the Findings showed that technological collection of Alan and Mary Suddon . change affected the content and format One Illustration . of the systems; that the Canadian trade -. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Cos- was slower to industrialize than its tume journal (formerly the Costume So- American counterpart; and that while ciety of Ontario Newsletter) 19, no. 3 Canadians were active members of Ame- (Fall 1989): 8. A 1964 grey wool tunic of rican associations they used both British Mary Quant design is discussed this and American styling and drafting infor- time, again from the collection of Alan mation. A good tool for further research, and Mary Suddon. One illustration. with recommendations on potential di-
62 rections . Glossary . Good bibliography documented . Tables, and illustrations of plus a bibliography of the drafting sys- various types. tems studied. Tables. Schweger, Barbara. "Studying the Relation- Ruddel, David-Thiery . "Domestic Textile ship of Clothing and Climate in the Production in Colonial Quebec, 1608- Nineteenth Century Arctic ." Alberta Mu- 1840 ." Material History Bulletin 31, seums Review 11, no. 1 (Spring 1986) : (Spring 1990) : 39-49. Comprehensive 10-12. Reports on the methodology used well-documented historiography of do- in her study of nineteenth-century cloth- mestic textile and rural clothing produc- ing worn in the Arctic, which formed tion in Quebec focusing on its various part of a wider forensic study on the research methodologies. Interesting death of the crew of the Franklin expedi- example of the constantly evolving re- tion in 1845. Written and visual sources, search methods in the history of cos- plus surviving textile and leather arti- tume. In defining these disciplines and facts from inside and outside Alberta their scholars, the author has utilized the were consulted. Emphasis was placed most recent terminology. Thus for exam- on types of footwear and clothing assem- ple the term ethno-historian has replac- blies, and an effort to isolate factors that ed the earlier one of historian amongst affect thermal balance . Written sources Quebec scholars. Comments on the lack proved most useful. Points out the need of contributions from social and eco- to consider the complex interactions be- nomic historians towards research in tween the body, clothing and the envi- this area. Foresees, as an ideal, a more ronment in order to understand the his- multidisciplinary approach capable of toric clothing practices in the north. complementary and comparative work Documented . One illustration. on the subject. A definition for the term "Shawls: A Common Thread" (Burlington). ethno-historian would have been useful Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter for the non-historian, as would a refer- 14, no. 2 (Winter 1984-85) : 2. Note on ence to where the term was first used in an exhibit held in the fall of 1984 of 43 print. Illustrated. shawls at the Joseph Brant Museum . A -. "Consumer Trends, Clothing, Textiles three-leaf poster catalogue was prepared and Equipment in the Montreal Area, (not seen) . 1792-1835." Material History Bulletin 32 Shein, Brian. "The Way They Were ." Toronto (Fall 1990) : 45-64 . This far-reaching arti- Life 20 (November 1986) : 258-261, 272. cle by an historian embraces aspects of a The photo article, showing "then and number of subjects, and uses a variety of now" shots of clothing worn by notable approaches, its method being close to Toronto businessmen, is superficial . multidisciplinary. Through an analy- However, of greater interest is the light- sis of a large number of computerized hearted text, tracing the personal history post-mortem inventories, and "dona- and meaning of the author's own cloth- tions" (for definition of this word see ing symbols, a white T-shirt and a dark Vermette), two subjects are given focus. suit. Firstly the problem of the "homespun Silhouette: ]e costume feminin 1850-1930./ myth" is discussed. Secondly, the chang- Silhouettes : Lady's Fashion 1850-1930 . ing character of the wardrobes of four Saint-Lambert, Quebec : Marsil Museum, different socio-economic groups, as re- 1985 . 17 pp . A bilingual exhibition cata- vealed by the study of clothing entries in logue focusing on the Marsil Museum's post-mortem inventories, is elaborated costume collection. The costumes in the upon . Interesting commentary on the re- exhibit date from 1856 until the 1930s. lationship of the increasing size of indi- The catalogue documents the history of vidual wardrobes to the economy of the western fashionable dress for the period, time ; and on social implications of and also features photographs of twelve dress, this information being derived garments in the exhibition, accompanied from four mid-nineteenth century cana- by some of their history and related gen- dien novels . Some small errors in cos- eral information . Some documentation. tume content. Heavily and significantly Illustrated .
63 "Silhouettes in Style." Manitoba History 17 77-78. A popular article on the history (Spring 1989) : 22. The highlight of the of Creed's store on Bloor Street, which "Silhouettes in Style" exhibit at the began in 1914 as a custom-made wo- Dugald Costume Museum in 1989 was a men's dress shop, and the changes it blue-and silver brocaded silk gown ca experienced over three generations of 1780. This short article describes the family ownership. Focus is on the most gown and its provenance, and mentions recent changes. (Unfortunately this busi- that it was conserved by the Canadian ness recently closed.) Not documented . Conservation Institute, and documented Souffrir pour etre belle. Quebec: Mus6e de la by Aileen Ribeiro. One photograph of civilisation et Corporation des Editions the gown. Fides, 1988. This catalogue accompa- Smith, Dianne R. Dressmaking Occupations nied an exhibit held at the Mus6e de la in Edmonton, 1900-1930. M.Sc. thesis civilisation in Quebec City in 1988-89. (Clothing and Textiles) . Edmonton: Uni- It is essentially a collection of essays on versity of Alberta, 1987 . 235 pp. High- the subject by French, i.e., non-Canadian lights dressmaking as a flexible occupa- authors . Therefore it was not read for tion that offered a range of employment this bibliography. within the formal and informal econo- Sparks, R. P. "The Garment and Clothing In- my, which was especially important dur- dustries, History and Organization," ing periods of unstable economy. Con- Manual of the Textile Industry of Cana- centrates on information about the da (1930): 107-130. Perhaps the earliest dressmakers themselves, almost entirely history of the garment industry, this can women. The author found an overall de- be equally used as a primary document . cline in employment level and skill level Has been quoted by most researchers on in the period of study, and that the na- the subject since. Overlook the occasion- ture of dressmaking changed from cus- al lapses into a generalized "ancient" tom production to alteration or services history of clothing, and concentrate on for the home sewer. Emphasis placed on the excellent history of the Canadian the methodological approaches used: clothing industry from the late nine- content analysis of newspaper adver- teenth century to the time of writing. In- tisements, and oral history. Glossary . formation is based on the author's per- Bibliography. sonal knowledge (and management Smith, Janice I. Content Analysis of Chil- perspective) of the trade, reminiscences dren's Clothing in Eaton's Catalogue and of others, and his analysis of documents Selected Canadian Museums: 1890 to such as census returns. Covers mens and 1920. M.Sc. thesis (Clothing and Tex- women's clothing of all types, oiled and tiles) . Edmonton: University of Alberta, waterproof clothing, trade organizations, 1991 . 221 pp. After conducting two con- tariffs, and mortality in the industry . tent analyses, the author compared chil- Much useful information on the nature dren's clothing illustrated in Eaton's cat- of the industry, problems in production, alogues with examples from Canadian technological change, competition with museums. Analyses findings and raises the United States and Europe, and Cana- questions for further research related to dian businesses . Argues that the garment use, distribution, quality and quantity of industry merits protection and encour- garments sold through the catalogue. agement as the largest employer of wo- Examines regional differences be- men workers in Canada. Generalized tween Toronto and Winnipeg editions of and subjective in places as such reminis- Eaton's catalogue. Also discusses con- cences usually are, but valuable for tent analysis methodology, and mater- twentieth century research . No docu- ial culture research . Glossaries . Doc- mentation. Illustrations of prominent umented. Drawings, tables and charts. men in the industry. Bibliography. Steed, Guy P. F. An Historical Geography of Smith, Kathleen M. "Study the Creed's Fami- the Canadian Clothing Industries : ly Tree and You'll Find a Haute-to-Hip 1800-1930s. Research Notes No . 11 . History of Fashion in Toronto ." Toronto Ottawa : Department of Geography and Life Fashion 21, no . 19 (Holiday 1987): Regional Planning, University of Ottawa,
64 1976. 52 pp. Good overview of the de- ment, trade networks and social relation- velopment of the clothing industry in ships, and ultimately aid in helping to Canada, though his treatment of the understand the fort. Not documented. early nineteenth century has become Drawings and photographs. somewhat dated by more recent re- Tait, Elizabeth. Dressing Up History: A Study search. Contrasts Montreal and Toronto, of the Costume Programs and the Role of with some mention of Hamilton and Reproduction Costume as an Interpre- Winnipeg. Considers the problems of tive Tool at Historic Sites in Ontario. distance between suppliers and markets, Master's thesis (Museum Studies) . the shift in production from artisan to Toronto : University of Toronto, 1989. factory, introduction of new production 101 pp. Argues that costume, as a facet techniques, and the impact of urban Jew- of individual and group behaviour, can ish labour. Emphasizes the shifting orga- play an important role in museum inter- nization within the industry, and the pretation, and that reproduction cos- variety of factors contributing to the tume in particular offers more educa- pattern of localization . Naturally statis- tional potential than is currently being tics and geography are the focus. Uses realized. The methodology included a mostly secondary sources and govern- survey of, and site visits to 25 historic ment documents, but well documented . sites in Ontario to examine the signifi- Four maps and 8 tables . Bibliography. cance of reproduction costume, and the Steedman, Mercedes . "Skill and Gender in processes used to produce and interpret the Canadian Clothing Industry, 1890- it. The author found that although cos- 1940." In On the Job: Confronting the tuming interpretive staff in period repro- Labour Process in Canada, edited by ductions is a popular activity, sites have Craig Heron and Robert Storey, 152-176. concentrated on the technical process of Kingston and Montreal : McGill-Queen's striving for accuracy without addressing University Press, 1986 . This essay ex- the messages conveyed to visitors . She plores the complex role of women in the likens this to former costume publica- Canadian clothing industry from the tions which were descriptive without time of the custom tailor and dressmaker presenting the broader social signifi- to the era of the large factory. It argues cance. Unfortunately the thesis does not that throughout the industrialization propose alternative ways to interpret process there remained a clear sexual di- costume more deeply. However, of wider vision of labour that reflected the patri- interest are chapters on approaches to archal structure of Canadian society. historic costume within the traditional This period established a permanent museum context, and issues surround- separation in jobs for men and women ing the use of reproduction, specifically in the needle trades that remains to this reproduction costume. Documented . day. Excellent overview of the develop- Bibliography. ment of the industry, with considerable Taylor, Loretta M. Fabric in Women's Cos- information on technological aspects. tumes from 1860 to 1880: A Comparison Also traces the growth of unions and of Fashion Periodicals and Selected their perpetuation of the inferior role for Canadian Museum Collections. M.Sc. women despite other improvements. thesis (Clothing and Textiles). Edmon- Thoroughly documented . ton: University of Alberta, 1990. 188 pp. Syms, E. Leigh and Pamela Smith. "Unbut- The author's study of fabrics in dresses toning the History of Fort Riviere Trem- dating from 1860 to 1880 in 13 Canadian blante ." The Beaver 314 (Spring 1984): museums and her examination of dress 26-30. Describes the range of buttons fabric descriptions in Godey's Lady's found in the archaeological excavation Book and Peterson's Magazine of the of this fort, a North West Company fur same years reveals that fabrics both in trading post built on the Upper Assini- the clothing and in the fashion journal boine River in 1791, and used in that descriptions are similar. Contains useful decade. Like Davis comments that but- glossaries of nineteenth-century fabric tons can provide insight into the history and colour terms . Interesting brief histo- of technological discovery and develop- ry of the fashion journal, as well as infor-
65 mation on the textile industry in Canada. ally married middle-aged couples, in Charts . Extensive bibliography. which they transfer all or a portion of Tulchinsky, Gerald . "Hidden Among the their estate to the next generation in re- Smokestacks: Toronto's Clothing Indus- turn for guaranteed care in their old age. try, 1871-1901." In Old Ontario: Essays The provision of clothing is part of this in Honour of f. M. S. Careless, edited by care. Thus clothing needs for head-to-toe David Keane and Colin Read, 257-284 . are listed for both male and female, as Toronto: Dundern Press, 1990. Points well as their quantity and quality. The out that as early as 1871, the clothing in- rhythm of replacement for the garments dustry was the largest employer in as well as needs for upkeep could also Toronto. In the following three decades be included . Information for this article Toronto emerged as a leading centre for emanated from the author's Les dona- custom and ready-made clothing in tions 1800-1820 : activites domestiques Canada, capturing fully 25 per cent of et genre de vie. Rapport sur microfiche the national output and more than half no. 16 . Ottawa: Parcs Canada, 1982 (re- of Ontario's. The characteristics of this viewed in our 1984 bibliography). Ac- industry - the large number and rapid companying illustrations by Francis turnover of small shops, relatively sim- Back are based on a synthesis of the data ple technology, and difficult-to-trace found in this article, costume illustra- records - have led to its neglect by busi- tions of the period and travel accounts . ness historians. This fine article gives it Documented. Scholarly. a higher and well-deserved profile. The Walford, Jonathan . "The Social Fabric : author provides an excellent overview of Women's Fashion as a Reflection of the the industry's growth during this thirty- Times, 1850-1950." Museum Quarterly year period using a variety of documen- 16, no. 4 (May 1987): 15-19. Argues that tary sources. Concludes that this indus- a more sophisticated interpretation of try does not follow the usual business Western fashion is now demanded by models in its growth trends, moderniza- the public, which has been accustomed tion and structure . Well documented. to the attention given to accurate, aca- Six tables . demic recreations of historical costume Vallieres, Nicole. "ttude du costume: 1'infor- so important to many current film pro- matique au service de la m6thode ." ductions . A museum must be equally Canadian Folklore canadien 10, no. 1-2 rigorous in displaying and interpreting a (1988) : 227-243. Discusses methodology garment. Gives guidelines for selecting required for computer-assisted research and collecting, emphasizing the need to in the discipline of costume history. Es- collect everyday as well as fine clothing; sential as a guideline for this type of in- documenting the collection; and creating vestigation where a rigorous approach, the story line, recommending a balance including careful standardization of between basic description and a more data, is the only manner in which to in-depth interpretation of the social con- achieve justifiable conclusions. Touches text. Summarizes the change in fashion on the issue of the use of the video-disc, and silhouette in women's dress in this and of classification systems suitable for period. Illustrated. computerizing data on costume collec- Wells, Karen Leslie . Children's Cognitive and tions. Well documented . Illustrated with Affective Response to Costume Repro- diagrams . Bibliographical information in ductions Worn by a Female Interpreter footnotes. at the Victoria Settlement . An Alberta Vermette, Luce. "L'habillement traditionnel Provincial Historic Site. M.Sc . thesis au d6but du XIXe siecle." Material Histo- (Clothing and Textiles). Edmonton: Uni- ry Bulletin 20 (Fall 1984) : 44-47. This versity of Alberta, 1988. 206 pp. The au- excellent article by an historian discuss- thor tested the effect on grade 4 and 5 es rural Quebec costume of the early students' cognitive and affective re- nineteenth century. Evidence is based on sponses to an interpretive programme that found in 300 documents related to when delivered by a costumed, as com- the so-called donations. These are notar- pared to a uniformed, interpreter. She ial contracts signed by individuals, usu- found that the information transferred to
66 the subjects was greater when the inter- from obscurity as a tailor in Tillsonburg, preter was dressed in reproduction cos- Ontario to prominence as owner of a tume. Concludes with support for the chain of retail stores throughout Ontario, use of costume reproductions in inter- a manufacturing firm and a leading pretive programming. Emphasis on test ladies' department store in Toronto. The methodology. Also discusses learning in biographer presents the man and his per- the museum environment and the use of sonal life in balance with his business costume reproductions. Illustrated with life, with reference to the economic and photographs. Bibliography. political context of the day. He sees Whitfield, Eileen. "The Old Soft Shoe." Sat- Northway as a representative of the ex- urday Night 102, no. 8 (August 1987) : panding middle class, "men neither so 32-33. Profiles Sonja Bata, the shoe col- big as to be popular figures nor so small lector and connoisseur, with some as to be mere social statistics," yet wor- superficial information on shoes in the thy of a full-scale biography. Good infor- collection. No mention of the Bata Shoe mation about the Northway business but Museum Foundation . One illustration of little about their products other than that Mrs. Bata. they were reputed to be of fine quality. Wilson, Alan. John Northway: A Blue Serge However some dresses from the 1920s Canadian . Toronto: Burns and MacEach- are illustrated. Compelling reading. Doc- ern Ltd., 1965 . 235 pp. John Northway umented. Illustrated. emigrated from London in 1869 and rose
NoTEs
1. See Nicole Vallicres entry, "$tude du costume : 1982). See also conference review by Pamela 1'informatique au service de la m6thode." Buell in this issue. 2. R. Craig Miller, Modern Design (New York : 5. See Ruddel, "Domestic Textile Production in The Metropolitan Museum of Art and Harry Colonial Quebec, 1608-1840 ." N. Abrams, Inc., 1990). 6. Information abstracted and translated from 3. Nancy Rexford, Patricia Cunningham, Robert written correspondence of 12 May 1991 with Kaufman, Patricia Trautman, "Forum : Re- Dr. Jocelyne Mathieu, Ethnologist and Profes- search and Publication," Dress 14 (1988) : sor at the Universit6 Laval. 68-75. 7. See 'Ihlchinsky, "Hidden Among the Smoke- 4. E. McClung Fleming, "Artifact Study: A Pro- stacks: Toronto's Clothing Industry, 1871- posed Model," excerpted from Winterthur 1901 ." Portfolio 9 (June 1974): 153-161, and reprint- 8. See Becky Dahl, Heather Prince, Dianne ed in Material Culture Studies in America, Smith, Janice Smith, Loretta Taylor and ed. Thomas Schlereth (Nashville: The Ameri- Karen Wells. can Association for State and Local History,
67 Conference Report
Rapport de conference
American Dress as Social History PAMELA BUELL
A review of the Seventeenth Annual ject of a history of textiles in the colonial pe- Meeting and Symposium of the Costume riod in America. The extreme economic, so- Society of America, Boston and Plymouth, cial and political importance of textiles in Massachusetts, this period has been relatively unexplored in 15-19 May 1991 mainstream history. Ulrich examined the reasons for this void, and offered two hy- "The relevance of costume to social history potheses. The history of textiles is the histo- is that people made it or wore it." This sim- ry of women in this period, as these are often plistic statement effectively summarizes the the only records remaining of women's life theme of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting in the colonial era. Study of this topic has and Symposium of the Costume Society historically been compartmentalized into the of America, held in Boston and Plymouth, field of home economics, museums and Massachussetts, May 15-19, 1991. Two hun- academia . Ulrich legitimized the study of dred and fifty costume' enthusiasts convened costume in the field of social history by to examine "American Dress as Social Histo- proposing a wholistic approach, examining ry." The relevance and importance of this items of apparel connected to economic topic to the study of Canadian material cul- themes, transportation and trade, inter-racial ture was reflected in the large contingent of and ethnic identity and religious themes. Canadian participants at the symposium . As promising as the keynote address and Twelve individuals representing Canadian the theme of the symposium sounded, many institutions as diversified and as far flung as of the papers presented over the next three the Fortress Louisbourg, the Ontario, Prairie days fell somewhat short of their goal of ex- and national headquarters offices of the ploring costume in any real context of social Canadian Parks Service, the McCord Muse- history. Costume, like all artifacts when for- um, the University of Prince Edward Island, mally analysed, can reveal the attitudes, be- L'Universit6 de Montreal and the Bata Shoe liefs and assumptions that form a culture . Museum attended the four days of presenta- Using a well known methodology devised by tions and the tours of Plimoth Plantation and E. McClung Fleming for studying material Old Sturbridge Village. culture, objects can be "read" on many lev- The keynote address provided by Laurel els. Fleming's model is best recognized for its Thatcher Ulrich of the University of New five properties and four operations that Hampshire, entitled "A Social Historian's apply to these. The properties are: history, Perspective of Costume History," kicked off material, construction, design and function. the symposium on an upbeat note . The re- His operations are: identification, evaluation, cent author of two social history publica- cultural analysis, and interpretation . Identifi- tions, the Pulitzer Prize winning Good cation is the complete physical description Wives: Image and Reality in the Lives of of the clothing with regard to date, prove- Women in Northern New England, 1650- nance, materials, construction, use and 1750 and A Midwife's Tale : The Life of maker if known. Evaluation involves an ex- Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785- amination of quality of workmanship and 1812, she introduced her ambitious new pro- materials used in construction, as well as
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture mat6rielle 34 (automne 1991) 68 judgements on the aesthetic properties of a tive books, with descriptions and illustra- piece in comparison with others of its kind. tions in women's fashion journals and the Cultural analysis looks at an object in the Eaton's mail-order catalogue. context of its own milieu among the people Loyce Arthur of SUNY at Stoneybrook ex- and culture that produced it. Interpretation, amined "An Avon Lady in Philadelphia, the highest level of analysis, engages schol- 1938-1968: A Study of Beauty, Culture and ars to use their understanding of the his- an African American Women ." Avon afforded toric importance of an object in its time, and women the opportunity through self- place the object correctly. Demographics, promotion to become business women and economics, political and social history are "ladies" at the same time. This concept ap- drawn into making this assessment, and pealed to black women who were intent on from this analysis conclusions may be drawn establishing a respectable place for them- about culture.' selves in the postwar society of America. As social historians, we see the impor- Adrienne St. Pierre, an independent re- tance of interpreting the past to yield issues searcher from Dayton, Ohio examined, of particular interest and meaning to us "Luther Edgerton's Cloathing Books : A today. From topics as diverse as, "Social Re- Record of Men's Ready-to-Wear from the sponse and Clothing Adaptations of Civil Early Nineteenth Century." These business Was Amputees," to "Suburbanization, Auto- records from the first store in the Northwest mobility and Shorts: What it Takes to Bare Territory, in Marietta, Ohio, from 1817 to Men's Legs," conference attendees were tan- 1821 were used to describe ready-made talized with the prospect of new and revolu- men's garments and their costs . Through tionary glimpses of costume and social histo- these, the social and economic situation in ry. Unfortunately many of the papers did not the rapidly expanding western territories progress beyond the identification and evalu- was examined . The particular significance of ation levels of analysis. this paper was that it studied material cul- Linda Baumgarten, of the Colonial ture, minus the material, as there are no ex- Williamsburg Foundation, in "Underdrawers tant examples of this type of clothing re- and Waistcoats : Layered Clothing for Cold maining in museum collections . Weather," described Thomas Jefferson's The majority of presentations fell some- woollen undergarments in great detail but where between the merely descriptive and did not reveal much about the society that truly interpretive . Most attempted to stay produced Jefferson, the garments or the within the broad theme of social history, in- chilly Monticello that required Jefferson to deed choosing topics and examining cos- don these layered garments . tume items that might be too utilitarian and Patricia Warner of the University of commonplace to notice in any sense of con- Massachusetts in "The Comely Rowers, noisseurship or antiquarianism. The fact that Crew of Wellesley, 1876-1900: The Begin- the Costume Society of America chose as its nings of Collegiate Sport Uniforms for Wo- theme "American Dress as Social History," men," illustrated year by year the fanciful may indicate that costume has finally been costumes of the "singing crews" in their legitimized as a valuable cultural resource "tubs," but fell short of the cultural analysis deserving the scholarship of the members of that may have enlightened us to the broader this illustrious society. social context of these gaily uniformed stu- dents. A handful of presenters managed to delve NOTE beyond mere identification and evaluation 1 . Joan Severa and Merrill Horswill, "Costume and truly approached their topics through a as Material Culture," Dress 15 (1989) : 50. careful cultural analysis and interpretation BIBLIOGRAPHY including Christina Bates of the Canadian Fleming, E. McClung. "Artifact Study: A Proposed Parks Service with "How to Dress the Chil- Model ." WinterthurPortfolio 9 (1974) . dren? A Comparison of Prescription and Rexford, Nancy, Patricia Cunningham, Robert Practice in the Late Nineteenth Century." Kaufman and Patricia Trautman . "Forum : Re- She examined the juxtaposition of prescrip- search and Publication." Dress 14 (1988) . tion and practice in dressing children by Severa, Joan and Merrill Horswill . "Costume as comparing dress reform advice in authorita- Material Culture." Dress 15 (1989) .
69 Research Reports
Rapports de recherche
The Labels of Thomas Nisbet TIM G. DILWORTH
Thomas Nisbet, a Saint John . New Bruns- Published material on Nisbet up to this Fig. 1 wick, cabinetmaker (w. 1813-48) was unusu- time has indicated that he used two labels - A neoclassical writing al in that he labelled many pieces of his fur- an early label and a later one after he and his stand (ca 181.5) of niture, unlike most of his contemporary New son, Thomas Jr., formed a co-partnership in bird's-eye maple with Brunswick cabinetmakers. His paper labels 1834 known as Thomas Nisbet & Son.' As a mahogany moulding, not only indicated that the piece of furniture result of my intensive research on his la- which has Nisbet's earliest label attached. was his shop's work and gave the location of belled furniture, it has been determined that (All photography by his shop, but also listed what was available there are really three paper labels whicli h1? Roger Smith) used. In addition, there are three version of the second label. Knowing that a particular 1 sequence of labels existed even though it may not be possible to determine accurately all the dates when they were used allows a per- son to more accurately date both the labelled furniture as well as the pieces attributed to this cabinetmaker . Based on the present knowledge I have of Nisbet's labels, I will Fig. 2 present what appears to be the most logical Thornas Nisbe.t s earliest label (ca 181 .5) showing of use Nisbet's cabinet shop. sequence by the different border The earliest label (ca 1815) was found design from all other on a neoclassical writing table from a Saint Nisbet labels known to Andrew's home and is in the collection of date. the New Brunswick Museum (Fig. 1) . While
~t- i , `r
. - 1., .. k. . . 4A ! . . . . .~ " ., : ;. in both the furniture and upholstery lines .., , from his business - his labels were advertis- ing rather than identification labels. Most labels used by contemporary cabinetmakers in the United States were of the identifica- tion type while British cabinetmakers tended to use the advertising type of label more extensively.
Material History Revietr 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la cultare materielle 34 (automne 1E Fig. 3 THOS. NISBET, The second label used CABINETMAKER & UPHOLSTERER, bv Thomas Nisbet PRINCE WILLIAM STREET, showing the characteristic border WHERE may be had: Mattrasses var- design used on all ious kinds; Sophas and Sopha subsequent labels . Beds; Chairs; Tables; Sideboards; Por- table Beds and Writing Desks; Bed and Window Cornishes and Curtains made, and everything in the Cabinet and Up- holsterer line, on moderate terms. N. B . Old Furniture Repaired . ,Q&~ _/`~T l,1 ,~~_~~.~ ;' ",~, ~~ ~ Saint John, New-Brunswick
The W in WHERE is two lines in height, (, .\ i)r 1.* t, _N I A Y~E l? & TU PFI OLCT ;:R I-;I I, being the first letter of lines one and two of i'RI!~c.'1: it"ILI .I~ldf ST'RF.F:?', the listing of goods and services offered. It could not be determined whether it reads N'HLltl; ' . %Y ill', 1: .' .1), "everything" or "every thing" as on the later A1 1 Ii.Ati4Eti ~ariouskindi ; Sophasand S;tpha I:crt ; ; labels . The major differences between this 'C!ra:ri+ ; 'habirs ; Si('-boa:cfs ; Portable fird; 3na label and later labels, besides the border de- tVritirt, Desks ; I3rd and III1 i:tdotiS ('or ;;i.l:c-" ;t.:d t ;urtain . ; sign, is the positioning of "Saint John, New- ,:r(i ur~ry iLin; in the t'.aat.-- ; .T ._nd IJreo! .~lxuiu I,irt ., Brunswick" at the bottom of the label rather than after "PRINCE WILLIAM STREET;" the ,'" Old Ft: rt v t rt, it t: fZgaiwcl, or arcJcwr;r:d for 11'e;r. use of " . . .on moderate terms" rather than ' . . .made on moderate terms" and "Old Fur- niture Repaired" rather than "Old FURNI- TURE Repaired or exchanged for New." the remnants of the label are heavily stained The second label has the characteristic and foxed, the following can still be deter- linked border design (Fig. 3) which is used tnined . The border design is different from on all labels other than the one described all other variations of his labels (Fig. 2) . previously . The wording of the first version Nearly all the wording can be determined is as follows: Fig. 4 by extrapolation from later labels as the THOS. NISBET, The second version o( wording is similar on all his labels . It reads CABINETMAKER & UPHOLSTERER, Ni.tihvt's srctind label. as follows: PRINCE WILLIAM STREET, Saint John, New Brunswick; WHERE MAY BE HAD,
MATTRASSES various 7 ~ kinds; Sopha and Sopha Beds: xJIT, Chairs ; Tables : Sideboards ; Portable Beds and I sit1) It L1.1 _1 1 1 Writing Desks: Bed and Window Cornishes and Curtains ; J, 37 Y) L,~-'l and every thing in the CABINET and UPHOLSTERER Line, made on moderate terms.
Old Ft IRNITURE Repaired and exchanged for New. t ofya' . 0 .1 I I Il i I ~1~ I . j 1% ~ 1) , II, - -A The M in MATTRASSES is two lines in ~Iu( IiAbIcs ;AK height. ll~Ae Ma I W ~ I A- , '. # 0 "0., , - The second version of this label (Fig. 4) ., consists of a change in how the words are -iirf; -,111d IV f) inUCClUtc Mji,~ 40 positioned. While they are the same words, thev are on different lines as follows oil/ I, J : . ,y Writing Desks: Bed and Window Cornishes and Cur- -.;Qiy?A . 7, !." AIL _- tains; and every thing in the CABINET and UPHOLSTERER Line, made on moderate terms.
71 The third version (Fig. 5) consists of a minor change on one line where " . . .CABINET and UPHOLSTERER" becomes " . . .CABINET UPHOLSTERER." The wording in the third label (1834-I8), used after Thomas Jr. joined his father's busi- ness, was as follows: CI, ffjv 1.STE;ItF ::; THOMAS NISBET & SON, ILL[ A 1 sT11' ~
Cabinet Makers & Upholsterers, ,I' STREET, PRINCE WILLIAM WA t SAINT JOHN, NEW-BRUNSWICK, ~t
WHERE MAY BE HAD. MATTRASSES various kinds; Sofas and Sofa Beds ; Chairs ; Tables ; Sideboards: Portable Beds and Writing Desks : Bed and Window Cornices and Curtains ; and every thing in the CABINET & UPHOLSTERY Line. made on moderate terms . Mahogany in Boards, Planks and Veneers .
Old FURNITURE Repaired or exchanged for New.
The M in MATTRASSES again is two lines Fig . 5 in height . The third version o/' While the labels have been discussed No'rEs Nishet ;s second lohel. according to what appears to be the most 1 . Charles H . Foss, Cabinetinoke(s of the Eost- logical sequence, the versions of the second ern Seaboard (Toronto : M. F. Fehelev, 1977); Huia G. Rvder. Antique Furniture-1)y New label could have conceivably been used in a Brunslvick Craftsmen (Toronto : McGraw-Hill now re- different sequence . Further study is Rverson, 1965) ; Donald Blake Webster, quired whereby the labelled furniture is English-Canadian Furniture o( the GeoiKion grouped based on which label or variation of Period (Toronto : McGraw-Hill Rverson, label is attached to them . Based on these 1979); Antiques (April 1989) : 942-949 ; T. G. groupings, the sequence. for the labels and Dilworth, "'I'homas Nisbet : A Reappraisal of their versions will allow a more accurate His Life and Work," Material Histon~ Bulletin dating of Nisbet's labelled and attributed 15 (1982) : 77-82 ; Ne.tv Brunstvic.k Courier furniture. (Saint john), 26 April 1834, 7 )une 1834 .
Clothing the Past: Costume Research at the Canadian Parks Service GAIL CARIOU
The costume section of the Interpretation tume had increased to the point that the re- Branch of the Canadian Parks Service head- sources of the costurne unit were stretched to quarters office in Ottawa was established in the limit. The increased demand for cos- 1972 and since then has undergone a num- tumes resulted in the creation of a costume her of changes which reflect the changing resource centre at the headquarters office. focus of the branch as a whole. At present, there are approximately 1000 Originally, the in-house curators and de- costumed interpreters at 57 historic: and signers undertook not only site-specific cos- national parks across the country, represent- tume research and planned costume pro- ing periods and themes that range from grammes, but produced the costumes worn eighteenth-century French military establish- by interpreters at some national historic ments to an earlv_ twentieth-century prairie sites. By 1979 the number of sites using cos- farm .
72 Between 1984 and 1986 three of the re- for the construction methods used in the gional Parks Service offices hired costume production of these costumes. curators . The responsibility for conducting Due to the practical limitations of clothing site-specific research and for monitoring the hundreds of interpreters, individual original production of costumes by independent con- garments are seldom copied stitch-for-stitch, tractors was gradually decentralized to the except for display or education programmes . regional level. In addition, military curators Instead, principles and methods of clothing in each region are responsible for costume construction consistent with established matters related specifically to military cos- practices of nineteenth-century tailors, dress- tume. Fortress Louisbourg, with a costumed makers and home sewers are applied to au- staff of over 100 military and civilian inter- thentically styled and cut patterns. Rather preters, is the only site with its own costume than focusing exclusively on changes in curator. style, our recent research has emphasized At the headquarters level, our staff in- the technical aspects of garment cut and con- cludes two costume curators, a costume de- struction, which has been given surprisingly signer and a costume resource coordinator. little attention in the literature. Often, re- Occasionally, contract researchers and de- search on garment construction and produc- signers are hired for specific projects. tion is limited to descriptions of individual Though we are no longer directly involved garments, or is focused on the labour move- with site related matters we provide guid- ment within the garment industry, not on ance on national concerns, including the de- garment construction. velopment of costume standards and guide- This specific goal of producing authenti- lines, the operation of a research resource cally cut and constructed garments necessar- centre, and the compilation of interpretive ily directs our attention to original garments . activity resource manuals and source lists of Our costume documentation files, which costume reproduction suppliers and contrac- currently include information on several tors. We also respond to hundreds of in- hundred garments in collections throughout quiries each year from outside agencies, Canada, England and the United States, as researchers and members of the public. well as in the Parks Service collection, de- In addition, the costume unit continues to scribe the garments in detail, from both a initiate and conduct a variety of research stylistic and technical perspective. These projects .' details are analyzed to establish the predom- The changes in the direction of the branch inance of specific styles and the use of par- are reflected in the nature and focus of these ticular construction techniques . This infor- projects. Though our research is no longer mation has also been useful in developing site specific, we focus on broader social and dating chronologies. Unfortunately, everyday historical themes and provide "deep back- working class garments and those with ground," which, in the hands of the regional known provenance are more rare than we curators, can be applied at site level . For ex- would wish, and costume collections are ample, our research on protective foul- consistently weighted toward the middle weather clothing has application to sites and upper classes. As a result, written and throughout the system offering winter visual documentary evidence plays an programmes . equally important part in our research strate- Another example of one of our recent gies, especially when original garments are major projects is our ongoing work to pro- lacking. duce basic patterns, prototypes and research These sources include paintings, draw- reports for a broad range of nineteenth- ings and photographs, inventories, letters, century men's and women's garments which trade and mail-order catalogues, travel litera- can be used at appropriate sites across the ture, journals and memoirs, newspaper ad- system or as new costume programmes are vertisements, business records, registered initiated . Our intention is to represent fully designs, periodicals, and dressmaking and the range of garment styles worn during the tailoring construction manuals and pattern- nineteenth century with patterns adapted to drafting systems. modern standard size ranges. The accompa- Though some public repositories are rich nying prototype garments set the standards in resources most are weak in some fields,
73 .
notably in the area of fashion and garment manipulated. Source limitations must be trade periodicals. Fortunately, in recent years compensated for by consulting as wide a the Parks Service has assembled a large range of sources as necessary to provide the collection of original nineteenth-century required answers. In some respects our ap- women's fashion, needlework and home- proach tends to be closely allied with that of making periodicals which enjoyed wide- historical and experimental archaeologists . spread Canadian readership . A network We are concerned not only with conducting of devoted men's costume historians in costume research but with applying it. England and the United States has provided Within the context of a re-created historic us with copies of rare British and American environment, costumes are expected to con- tailor's periodicals subscribed to by Cana- tribute to the interpretation of the site in the dian tailors . In addition, we have a good col- same way as other objects . Since a costumed lection of nineteenth-century trade cata- interpreter is often the first point of contact logues and dressmaking and tailoring for the visitors to a site, the relative impact of construction manuals. costume may be disproportionately great. The costume research conducted by the The same stringent standards that apply to Interpretation Branch differs from that done the reconstruction, restoration and furnish- in either a purely academic or a convention- ing of historic buildings apply to the cos- al museum setting in one very specific way: tumes worn in those buildings. Our costume in a sense our "conclusions" are already research reflects the contribution period cos- drawn for us. No matter where our research tume makes to our interpretation of the past. might lead us, our research strategies and, consequently, the methods and sources we always conclude with the same use must NoTE end product: period clothing to be worn by 1 . For more information about the costume re- the interpreters at the historic sites. We can- sources of the Canadian Parks Service con- not limit our methods to prove a method- tact the Interpretation Branch, Canadian ological point, nor can our sources be re- Parks Service, 2630 Sheffield Road, Ottawa, stricted to those which can be neatly Ontario, K1A OH3 .
74 Notes and Comments
Notes et commentaires
Our Contributing Editors Nos redactrices invitees PETER RIDER PETER RIDER
The respected editor of one of Canada's lead- Le redacteur en chef 6minent de 1'une des re- ing history journals once commented that his vues d'histoire les plus importantes du Cana- authors had left him with few illusions about da se plaignait un jour de ce que ses auteurs human nature. He, in turn, assumed that one lui dvaient laiss6 peu d'illusions sur la na- promise in five would be honoured . While ture humaine. Pour sa part, il s'attendait A ce contributors to Material History Review have que seulement une promesse sur cinq qu'on demonstrated more reliability than this, the lui faisait soit respect6e. Bien que les colla- task of assembling one of our issues is not borateurs et collaboratrices de La revue without its frustrations and disappoint- d'histoire de ]a culture mat6rielle se soient ments. Thus the editors and editorial board montres plus fiables, la tache de rassembler always welcome the temporary assistance of les 6l6ments de 1'un de ses num6ros n'est pas colleagues who are willing to share the chal- sans engendrer des frustrations et des d6cep- lenges and rewards that come with working tions. Pour cette raison, les responsables de on this publication. la r6daction ont toujours fait bon accueil a Readers will quickly note that the content 1'aide temporaire de coll6gues prets A of the current issue of MHR is significantly partager les joies et les defis de ceux qui tra- oriented towards the history of costume in vaillent a la publication. Canada, particularly mass-produced items . Les lecteurs et lectrices se rendront vite This is due to the efforts of two contributing compte que le contenu du pr6sent num6ro editors, Catherine C. Cole and Pam Black- de la Revue est ax6 de fagon marqu6e sur stock. Both will be known to many of our 1'histoire du costume au Canada, et plus par- readers as senior researchers in their field in ticuli6rement des vetements confectionn6s Canada. Catherine is, in addition, a member en s6rie. Ce num6ro a t;t6 rendu possible of our editorial board. They undertook to ar- grace aux efforts de deux r6dactrices in- range for the preparation and review of sev- vit6es, Catherine C. Cole et Pam Blackstock, eral articles and other material at a time dont les noms seront familiers a plusieurs when both were extremely busy. Pam has d'entre vous en raison de lour contribution been working on a special project with the importante a la recherche dans lour domaine Canadian Parks Service while Catherine has au pays . Catherine est en outre membre been completing arrangements for a move to du Comite de r6daction de la Revue. Toutes the Solomon Islands . The editors of MHR are deux ont accepte de travailler a la pr6para- fortunate to have had the help of these two tion et la r6vision de plusieurs articles et dedicated scholars with this issue and wish d'autres textes A une 6poque ou elles 6taient to thank them for their endeavours on our extremement occupees : Pam travaillait a un behalf. projet sp6cial pour le Service canadien des parcs, tandis que Catherine se pr6parait a d6m6nager aux Iles Salomon. La r6daction de la Revue s'estime heureuse d'avoir pu compter sur 1'aide de ces deux sp6cialistes lors de la pr6paration de ce num6ro et tient a les remercier du devouement dont elles ont fait preuve.
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture matMelle 34 (automne 1991) 75 Recent Acquisitions, Newfoundland Museum, St. John's WALTER W. PEDDLE
Recently, the Museum collected a pine pic- ture frame (Fig. 1) from the town of Cupids, Conception Bay. The applied rope-twist and shell carvings link this generously decorated item to Ireland . The rope-twist motif is com- monly found on buildings in Irish coastal towns as well as on pieces of Irish furniture. Shell carvings were used by Irish carpenters as decorations both on shop fronts and on furniture. (See Bernard D. Cotton, "Irish Ver- nacular Furniture," Regional Furniture 3 (1989)). The picture frame is finished in sev- eral contrasting colours over a white ground. The rope-twist carvings are painted bronze ; the shell carvings and the tiny pyramid- shaped pieces of wood (many of which are missing) surmounting the chip-carved crosses are highlighted with a brown pig- mented glaze; and the remainder of the item is painted red . The frame measure 34 .5 cm by 32 .5 cm and was probably made in Cupids ca 1900. The Newfoundland Museum also collect- ed a nineteenth-century painted pine table (Fig. 2) with a games board chip-carved on the surface of the top. This Newfoundland- made table was acquired from the Hoddinot family in Grand Falls. Despite the fact that ings similar to those gracing the corners of the carving (Fig. 3) is covered over with sev- the table top were decorations employed by Fig . 1 eral layers of paint, it is obvious that it was Irish carpenters . Pine picture frame. executed with great skill . The chip-carving At first glance the table itself, unlike the Cupid's, Conception Bay. Ca 1900 . suggests the influence of Scandinavia and, chip carving, appears to be an unimpressive, s4 .s cfn x 32.s cin. of course, is a naively assembled, piece of work. When it is perhaps, Ireland. Chip-carving, The applied rope-tivist examined carefullV, however, evidence of in- Scandinavian vernacular device. Shell carv- and shell carvings link genious craftsmanship is revealed . The this decorative itern to not simply squared legs, for example, do Ireland. pass through the lower shelf. Cut into the sides of each one is a shoulder or groove, in which the lower shelf is snugly fitted . More interestingly, the tops of the legs do not ter- minate at the underside of the table as they appear to do. Instead, each one of the leg tops is reduced in size so that it forms a tenon which passes through an open mortise to rest flush with the top surface of the table . The visible ends of these through tenons are 1 chip-carved to match and enhance the other Fig. 2 chip-carved decorations which adorn the top Nineteenth-century of the table. They can be seen just in front of painted pine table with each one of the four shell or fan carvings. A n gaines board truly observant individual might notice that chip-carved on the the end of one of these four visible tenons is surJace ofthe top.
76 1 Fig . 3 Chip-carved detail on the table top. F.~;~.I ~~i~ ~a~r~~~~~~~ .~~~r::~~~>,~~~~~,
..r. ~11 r r.r11G11 : .,6" .ArA ~ t IN. FA ~(A Z :IN .N ' 'A \
carved differently that the other three. While ducing the number of loops in his pattern to three have a pattern consisting of four loops, four. one is favoured with six. Perhaps the carver Another reason the table, itself, may ap- first completed the pattern of six loops to be pear unimpressive at first glance might be consistent with what he had already done on due to the simplicity of its design . Perhaps the games board. Having then experienced the maker chose to keep the design of the the difficulty of carving on endgrain, he pru- table simple so that it would not compete for dentlv decided to make his task easier bv re- attention with the excellence of his carving .
Invitation to join the Regional Furniture Society WALTER W PEDDLE
The Regional Furniture Society was founded Society receive regular illustrated newslet- in England in 1985 to promote the study and ters containing details of relevant exhibi- appreciation of regional furniture, particular- tions, book reviews, articles of general inter- ly that which is commonly called "country" est and events such as lectures, conferences, furniture. In addition to all branches of do- courses of study and workshops . Each spring mestic furniture, the Society is interested in the Society also publishes a scholarly, well furniture made for institutions and places of illustrated journal entitled, Regional Furni- work. The Societv is also concerned with the ture, which is sent to members onlv. social history of furniture use and under- The Regional Furniture Society's interests takes inventory analysis, the study of work- are not limited to Britain alone. The study of shop practices and construction techniques . other countries' furniture traditions is being The study of vernacular architecture is pur- encouraged in the extension of membership sued since it suggests how furniture styles in the commonwealth countries and the arose in relation to house construction, and United States. The Society has over 500 mem- how the social use of furniture was dictated hers in Britain, between 75 and 100 in the by the layout of the house. Members of the United States. but only four in Canada, and the Society would like to have its Canadian Members also have the opportunity to net- membership increased. Society members re- work with people having similar interests for flect all levels of interest ranging from a mild the purpose of exchanging information and/ fascination for antique furniture to a more se- or pursuing a cooperative project. The cost rious interest in material culture generally. of membership is £16 per individual per The informative publications and newslet- year, or £28 for 2 years; £19 per family or in- ters mentioned above keep members in- stitution per year, or £34 for 2 years. A formed about the latest developments in fur- money order in English pounds is required. niture and related research both in Britain Requests for membership along with the and elsewhere and can provide individuals required fees should be sent to: Regional interested in finding links between the early Furniture Society, c/o Walter W. Peddle, furniture of their particular areas and old- P.O. Box 282, Spaniard's Bay, Newfound- world examples, with comparative models. land, AOA 3X0.
78 Reviews
Comptes rendus
Thomas J. Schlereth, Cultural History and Material Culture: Everyday Life, Landscapes, Museums ANN GoxMAlv CoNnoN
Schlereth, Thomas J. Cultural History and is our chronicler, our bibliographer, probably Material Culture: Everyday Life, Landscapes, our foremost advocate . At the same time, he Museums . Ann Arbor, Michigan : UMI Re- is also our pied piper, a tunesmith whose search Press, 1990. xxiv, 440 pp ., 163 illus. siren song invites our diverse collection Cloth US$45, ISBN 0-8357-1899-9 . of researchers, curators, souvenir hunters, and museum managers to join hands with his and dance together into an unspeci- In his famous inquiry into the implications fied future . This new work exemplifies of democracy for American development, Schlereth's dual role. It is both scholarly ref- the French sociologist Alexis de Tocqueville erence and siren song. An evaluation of its expressed grave concern that "amongst importance must address both aspects. democratic nations .. . life is generally spent The work divides into two parts . The in eagerly coveting small objects which are largest portion is a series of ten research within reach." De Tocqueville feared that essays which use artifactual evidence to ex- this preoccupation with "the pursuit of com- plore themes in American social history. fort" and physical enjoyment would enervate Most are set in the nineteenth century, often the souls of democratic citizens and distract in Chicago or the American midwest. They them from more strenuous, loftier goals. "A range in subject matter from mail order cata- man cannot enlarge his mind as he would logues to world's fairs, from urban artisans to his house," he noted. Small satisfactions, children in photographs, from rural land- vulgar pleasures threatened to lull democrat- scapes to city pavements. Each essay is ic communities into mediocrity, to confine gracefully written and unfailingly accompa- their ambitions to easily attainable, petty nied by a connoisseur's collection of apt desires, so that over time they could "lose photographs, amusing anecdotes, and biblio- sight of those more precocious possessions graphical references . which constitute the glory and the great- Yet for all their undeniable technical vir- ness of mankind" (Alexis de Tocqueville, tuosity, these descriptions of encounters Democracy in America, ed. John Stuart Mill between the American people and their ma- (reprint, New York: Schocken Book, 1961) 2: terial possessions lack urgency or bite. They 156-8,292) . seem peripheral, devoid of both conflict and De Tocqueville's apprehensions are not enduring significance . This arises from shared by Thomas J. Schlereth. In his latest Schlereth's lack of interest in the negative publication on material culture studies in potential, the messy underside of his topics. North America, Cultural History and Materi- For example, did the Chicago World's Fair al Culture, Schlereth's message once again is mark the moment when Americans shifted celebratory. Readers familiar with this schol- their allegiance from a transcendent Chris- ar's previous work are well aware that over tian deity to an earthly, man-made electric the past decade he has carved out a unique generator? Henry Adams, an acute eyewit- position within the material culture field. He ness, thought so, but Schlereth's celebratory
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture matErielle 34 (automne 1991) 79 description of the fairs takes no note of this settings . Despite the greater density of the criticism . Or, how innocent are children's subject matter, the same aura of optimism photographs? Do they merely define child- and innocence prevails . We get personal hood more precisely, as Schlereth suggests, vignettes on the author. He is a farm boy, an or do they document the development of intellectual historian, a gardener, a professor, more manipulative, more intrusive adult an admirer of fine craftsmanship. His job is controls, as feminists have argued? Even the simply that of a recorder, a faithful observer, chapter on mail-order catalogues, for me the a fair-minded patron of material research . best read in the entire book, is one-sided. Yet beneath this geniality and openness, Schlereth captures the exuberance, the the undeniable charm and generosity of insouciant commercialism of this new mar- Schlereth's approach, there lies a specific ket device wonderfully well . But the unfor- philosophic assumption and a very pur- tunate side effects of the catalogues, their poseful social agenda. Like the nineteenth- assault on rural culture and the imposition century entrepreneurs and curators whom of middle class, urban values, are missing. he admires so much, Schlereth is a posi- Above all, what about Chicago, the city tivist . He genuinely believes that all human whose very name has come to symbolize experience can be subjected to laboratory American social tensions? Schlereth gives us analysis, to the so-called scientific method . It the boosters, the planners and the architects, follows logically from this assumption that but no race riots mar his text, no machine what material cultural studies and museums politics, not even a Jane Addams much less most urgently need is, quite simply, more. an A1 Capone . More data, more measurements, more re- In short, although Schlereth occasionally search, more reviews, more inventories of refers to such notions as hegemony or patri- objects, photographs, scrapbooks, and land- archy, his basic enthusiasm imparts a sunny, scapes, more conferences to pool our finds, squeaky clean, fourth of July feeling to his more slides to document them, more associa- text. Some will find this wholly delightful, tions and more museums to extend their but serious students must question its validi- power. ty and its potential influence on material cul- There is no doubt in Schlereth's mind that ture research. Are our explorations of objects out of this vast, ever increasing assemblage and our exhibits limited to the sunny side of of objects and data, truth will emerge. A sim- life? And if so, how far have material culture ple, spontaneous "inquiry approach" to ob- studies really come from the sentimental, jects will produce enlightenment. The con- pious banalities of the nineteenth century? tribution of "ordinary people" to history will Schlereth's evidence is not encouraging become apparent . Progress will ensue. Peo- despite all the academic paraphernalia. And ple will write their own histories. The faith yet in the very same season when this book of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Auguste Comte, was published, a television documentary and John Dewey will be vindicated . series on the American Civil War (Ken This philosophic outlook, this faith, is Burns, The Civil War (New York: Florentine widely shared within our field. It empha- Films, 1990)) was able to use precisely the sizes quantity over quality, process over same evidence - objects, photographs, and results, doing over thinking, and method landscapes - to probe the most fundamental over theory. And it poses two fundamental struggles of our species. War versus peace, challenges: one concerns the allocation of love versus hate, brutality versus tenderness scarce resources; the other involves the very were depicted with both historical accuracy nature of democracy. and stunning sensitivity. Why is it that so To put the first issue bluntly, can muse- much material culture work avoids the big ums afford Schlereth's omnium gatherum questions, the ravaging experiences, the leap approach to material culture? Competition into the dark recesses of the human condi- for cultural funding is already severe in tion? The problem is clearly not one of Canada and increasingly so in the United insufficient evidence . States. Museums must continually demon- The other, more theoretical portion of this strate their value as keepers of indispensable book is equally troubling. It deals with cur- collections, teachers of important truths, rent approaches to both the interpretation of sites of culturally meaningful expression and objects and their exhibition within museum fulfillment. And their curators, God bless
80 'em, must be one part entertainer, one part with our goods and our gospel of consump- researcher, one part teacher, and one part tion has provoked both emulation and brilliant administrator! This is the real chal- exploitation . lenge facing museums today. I was disap- One could go on about the poisoning of pointed that Schlereth had nothing to say the natural world, the destruction of the about the training of curators. And I found landscape, etc. My point is, and I think Tom his clinging to the image of the museum as a Schlereth would agree, that museums and community attic seriously out of date. Surely material cultural studies are ideal sites from museums must pursue a very different strate- which to contemplate the impact of objects gy if they are to survive - consisting of well upon humanity. Such projects are not with- defined goals, carefully selected collections, out risk, as the recent uproars over the "Into and profound respect for the intelligence of the Heart of Africa" exhibit at the Royal Ont- museum goers, especially their willingness ario Museum and the Robert Maplethorpe to confront hard truths and their need to photography exhibit in the United States probe the complex meaning of the world chillingly attest. Perhaps what we need is they have created. not more data, but more courage : a firm What is that world created by our demo- sense of the importance of our cultural mis- cratic societies? Small objects? Petty plea- sion and a willingness to contest the role sures? A preoccupation with physical ease? objects play in what de Tocqueville calls De Tocqueville's forebodings about the "the greatness and the glory of mankind." capacity of creature comforts to enervate our Schlereth's new book is a superb place to souls seem even more salient today. Yet sure- begin the dialogue which we must all under- ly that is not the whole story. The world is take in order to meet this challenge. Al- full of strenuous challenges and many of though I and perhaps others may disagree them, ironically enough, involve objects. The with individual points, we must all be grate- generation of electric power, once such an ful for the range of his subject matter, the unquestioned boon, is now a more compli- depth of his research, and the profundity of cated part of our lives. The coming of mass his commitment. I urge everyone to read it. industrial society, with its densely packed They will find new insights in every chapter, cities and standardized habits of dress and interesting comparisons of Canadian and behavior, has raised new questions about American practice, and a truly midwestern sexual identity and reduced the number of cornucopia of strategies to explore the mean- safe outlets for our aggressive impulses . The ing of the object . penetration of less industrialized societies
Catherine C. Cole, ed., Norwegian Immigrant Clothing and Textiles DoxoTHY K. BuRNHAM
Cole, Catherine C., ed. Norwegian Immigrant what extent the textile making skills of the Clothing and Textiles . Occasional Paper homeland were utilized as adjustment was no. 1 . Edmonton : Prairie Costume Society made to a pioneering life. It is not easy to 1990. 113 pp., 58 illus. Paper $13 .00, ISBN gather the necessary funds for a publication 0-9694539-0-6. and to expend the energy necessary to turn the passing excitement of a one day seminar into a permanent contribution but, with this In May 1987 at the Beaver House Gallery in small book, that has been accomplished . Edmonton an interesting gathering took Congratulations to the Prairie Costume Soci- place. Canadian and American researchers ety and Catherine C. Cole, editor, and to all came together with a Norwegian costume others who have worked on the project. expert to discuss what information exists The publication is well designed, the concerning the clothing worn in North cover is attractive, the format excellent but America by Norwegian immigrants and to the type is rather too small for comfort. The
81 size is modest, but within its slender 113 had an internship at Vesterheim in Decorah, pages there are five important essays con- Iowa and the opportunity to study the west- cerning a so-far almost ignored subject. The ern immigrant textile experience . In her essays provide easy and interesting reading essay, she fits the Norwegian contributions even for the nonspecialist. As the texts are in with the general picture of development well supported by footnotes and there is a as that part of the country opened up: home long and varied list of suggestions for further production, professional work on a local reading, the earnest student will find the scale, small factory work and finally, all pro- way open to a rich area for costume research. cesses out of the home and into large facto- The scene is set by David Goa, Curator ries. As the area of settlement she deals with of Folk Life at the Provincial Museum of predates the Norwegian presence on the Alberta, Research Fellow of the Calgary Insti- Canadian prairies, only part of the informa- tute for the Humanities, lecturer in Religious tion she gives applies directly to a Canadian- Studies at the University of Alberta and him- based textile and costume use; nevertheless, self of Norwegian descent, a combination of her information provides valuable back- experience that provides rich insights for his ground for Canadian Norwegian studies. introductory essay. Humour there is but, as The fourth essay, "The Tradition in with so many others who found their way to Alberta: A Case Study of Valhalla Centre," by North America, emigrants from Norway were Heather Prince, is apparently based on re- making a serious escape from a way of life search done for a Master's thesis for the that was becoming increasingly difficult both University of Alberta. Valhalla Centre, in economically and religiously. Facts are given northwestern Alberta, was founded as a Nor- concerning areas of settlement, dates and wegian Lutheran community by a missionary sizes of the waves of newcomers but, more -evangelist, Halvor Nilsen Ronning. Where importantly, the thrusts back of the decision better to look for Norwegian textile tradi- to emigrate are brought into focus: a growing tions? The periods of major settlement are of desire for democracy, the spread of educa- late date, 1912-1920 and again 1925- 1929. tion generating a middle class that had little Many of the settlers came to Valhalla after to look forward to in Norway and, above all, some years in the United States and their old the strength of the pietist movement. In ten country traditions had already weakened. very thought provoking pages a firm founda- Few of those who came directly from Nor- tion is provided for the costume research way were still accustomed to wearing dis- contained in the papers that make up the rest tinctive folk costumes but,' treasured in of the book. various families, Heather Prince discovered The second essay, "Tradition and Transi- articles of clothing and household textiles tion: Norwegian Costume from Norway to that had been brought when people came the United States 1840-1880," is by the well- from Norway or that had been sent later by known authority, Aagot Noss, head curator family members. She also found distinctive- and in charge of the folk costume depart- ly Norwegian taste in the embroidery done ment at the Norsk Folkemuseum, Oslo. As locally for such things as cushion covers and indicated by the title, only costumes worn in decorative table linens. It is known that Nor- Norway and their adaptation to life in the wegian settlers did do simple weaving in United States are covered . An interesting Alberta, but there was no evidence for it in body of information is given and the refer- Valhalla. The spinning of wool was common ences from letters written home are fascinat- in the community and garments knitted from ing, providing rich and very human insights the homespun yarn show the influence of into the changes the newcomers were facing. Norwegian patterns . In Valhalla Centre after One wishes very strongly that similar quotes more than 75 years, ties with Norway were from letters written from Canada could have still strong. been given; but, in spite of the later time The fifth essay, "The Farvolden Collection frame for settlement on this side of the bor- of Norwegian Costumes and Textiles," by der much of the information is relevant. Barbara Schweger of the Boreal Institute for The third article "Immigrant Handweav- Northern Studies, describes in considerable ing in the Upper Midwest," also concentrates detail material brought by one family who on the United States. The author, Dr. Carol came from the Telemark region to Alberta. Colburn, as a graduate museology student Most immigrants arrived with few posses-
82 sions but the Farvolden exit from Norway in tion after arrival in Alberta. David Goa, in his the years following 1922 must have been a introduction, tells of a baptismal blanket major operation. It seems that nothing was woven by Nona Farvolden, donor of the col- left behind and the numerous large crates lection to the Museum and to whom this vol- that came with them contained not only the ume is dedicated, but in Schweger's article useful things needed to start a new life but there is not a word of description and no pic- family treasures and memorabilia of all ture - possibly the article is not photogenic kinds. What remains has now been given to but it was a bit of a let down that this piece the Alberta Provincial Museum in Edmonton of documented Norwegian-Canadian weav- and as most pieces have good documenta- ing was ignored. tion they provide a valuable resource for In spite of this last small criticism, this is those interested in Norwegian decorative arts an excellent and interesting publication and and costume. Disappointingly, nothing is one that deserves a wide distribution . recorded concerning the Farvolden's produc-
Paul Rutherford, When Television Was Young: Primetime Canada, 1952-1967 JOHN E. T~NOMEY
Paul Rutherford, When Television Was made-in-Canada brand of entertainment, Young: Primetime Canada, 1952-1967 Toron- news and views ;" 2. the "art of television .. . to:University of Toronto Press, 1990. 637 pp., broadly defined to include both the styles 66 illus . Paper $25.95, ISBN 0-8020-6647-X. and the messages programmers and produc- Cloth $65 .00, ISBN 0-8020-5830-2. ers offered viewers;" and 3. the answer to the "McLuhan Question . . . what happens to society when a new medium of communica- At long last students and scholars in the field tion enters the picture?" (pp. 5, 6). of Canadian communications have an in- Rutherford further tells us that his book is depth historical analysis of Canadian televi- "a viewer's history" focused on "what people sion programming even if limited to the saw in the way of home-grown shows when prime time hours (7 pm to 11 pm) and the they tuned in the TV set" (p. 6). monochrome years (1952-67). The first three chapters are on the struc- With the exception of the study of Canadi- ture of the Canadian system of television and an television drama by M. J. Miller, Tune how it was shaped by CBC/Radio Canada, Up The Contrast : CBC Television Drama CTV and other private broadcasters . The Since 1952 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1987) richness of detail in these chapters indicate and F. B. Rainsberry's A History of Children's that Rutherford and his team of researchers Television in English Canada, 1952-1986 thoroughly mined the lode of historical (Metuchen, N .J. : Scarecrow Press, 1988) materials on broadcasting found in periodi- insights on television programming had to be cals of the time, government documents and fathomed from the published reminiscences CBC archives. More data was gathered via and biases of on-air personalities such as personal interviews and by monitoring Knowlton Nash, Peter Trueman, Alex Barris, recently created oral history tapes of public Warner Troyer, and Roy Bonisteel . and private broadcasting decision makers. Paul Rutherford, chairman of the Univer- The larger second part of the book con- sity of Toronto's history department and sists of seven chapters on the genres of prime author of several books on Canadian media time programming. They are reviewed in history, states his book is an amalgam of chronological order as each genre attained three distinct subjects: 1 . the story "of the prominence. Rutherford labelled his five noble experiment of a national programming genres: Information (newscasts, panel discus- service . . .that strove to supply viewers with a sions, talk shows, etc.) where the viewer is
83 provided data about reality, Display (variety, stubborn persistence and efforts in the the arts) where performers demonstrate their realm of programming were impressive talents; Contests (sports, games, quizzes) (p . 8). . .I trust that I've avoided the dangers if this book has the taint where rules govern the performance of the of nostalgia, even of a personal journey through my past . participants ; Storytelling (all fictional drama); There's definitely a particular kind of plea- and Commercials. sure, rare for a historian, in being able to He calls his method of reviewing each talk about one's own experiences (p . 9) . genre "close readings," a technique of view- ing analysis based on the semiotic technique A prime example of Rutherford's pointed described in Fiske and Hartley's "Reading rhetoric is found in his chapter "Expecta- Television" (London: Methuen, 1980) . A tions," which sets the scene for the begin- research protocol on the "viewing analysis" ning of television in Canada . Here a dozen technique is provided in an appendix. pages headed "McLunacy?" contain a sca- Some readers will be disturbed by thing critique of Marshall McLuhan. Rutherford's approach to his subject. Careful- McLuhan's gospel was too flawed to deserve ly measured terms of traditional historians favour. His letters show he never under- are not to be found here . Paul Rutherford's stood why .. .Perhaps more important, style of exposition is personal, provocative, though, students and the fashion-minded opinionated, unequivocal, and colloquial . public just got bored with a person whose For this reader, admittedly once involved as insights, however outrageous, were no longer novel. He suffered, in short, the fate a CBC middle manager in the events Ruther- that awaits any pop star whose image ford describes, his approach proved totally becomes too stereotyped in the minds of the engaging . There simply are no dull moments. fickle audience (p. 37) . In his opening chapter, "A Personal jour- ney," readers are given a hint that Ruther- This is an important and timely book, as ford's personal views will play a significant the future of CBC's television programming part in his book. is once more the centre of debate. Paul Rutherford's encyclopedic work, 637 pages Readers will detect my sympathy for the dozens of charts, tables, and CBC, especially the English service, which supported by major resource for struggled to meet an impossible mandate as photographs, should be a well as to satisfy public demands. I didn't anyone hoping to make a meaningful contri- begin with that view- but the evidence was bution to defining CBC's future role in Cana- convincing: while CBC made mistakes, its dian television.
Garth Clark, Robert Ellison, and Eugene Hecht, The Mad Potter of Biloxi: The Art and Life of George E. Ohr American Craft Museum, George Ohr: Modern Potter (1857-1918) Canadian Museum of Civilization, The Turning Point: The Deichmann Pottery (1935-1963)
JOHN B. COLLINS
Clark, Garth, Robert Ellison, and Eugene funded in part by the National Endowment Hecht. The Mad Potter of Biloxi: The Art and for the New York State Council on the Arts, Life of George E. Ohr. New York: Abbeville and Mr. and Mrs . Thomas C . Dillenberg, Press, 1989. 192 pp., 300 illus. Cloth US$65, mounted at the Everson Museum of Art of ISBN 0-89659-927-2. Syracuse and Onondaga County, Syracuse, New York, 15 February to 14 April 1991. George Ohr: Modern Potter (1857-1918). Curator: Dr. Martin Eidelberg American Craft Museum, New York City;
84 The. Turning Point: The Deichmann Potteiy by Princeton University, "The Arts and (1935-1963) . Canadian Museum of Civiliza- Crafts Movement in America 1876-1916." In tion, Hull, Quebec, mounted in the Arts and the catalogue . Dr. Eidelberg wrote that this Traditions Hall. was an experimental period for art pottery Curator: Dr. Stephen Inglis tending toward oriental influences and Duration : 17 January 1991 to 1 March 1992 inspired by the ideals of craftsmanship advo- cated bv William Morris . The earlier work of Ohr included in the 1972 exhibition would The publication of The. Mad Potter of Biloxi: appear to fit this description, though Dr. the Art and Life of George E. Ohr by Abbe- Eidelberg pointed out the history of the ville Press and the exhibition "George Ohr : Biloxi potter was still somewhat unclear . Modern Potter (1857-1918)" curated by Dr. Unfortunately, with no catalogue to ac- Martin Eidelberg of Rutgers University for company the current exhibition, Dr. Eidel- the American Craft Museum, New York, are bere was not orovided with the oooortunitv coincidental in time and theme but other- wise distinct events . Together they reflect 1 a current interest in George Ohr, whose Fi g. 1 important contribution to the history of GGeorge Ohr. Tall vase, American art pottery remained obscure until ca 189.5-1900 . Height, 1972, when over 7 000 pieces of his mature 13 1/2 in . Private work that had been packed away in crates Collection, New York. were purchased by an antiques dealer from (From the book reviewed his family in Mississippi. with the permission of It was in 1972 that the first serious study Abbeville Press) of American art pottery in the context of the Arts and Crafts Movement was undertaken by Dr. Eidelberg in an exhibition organized
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to reflect on almost 20 years of study and awareness of Ohr's work. What makes Ohr fascinating for us now, and this can be attributed to the availability of his more Fig . 2 mature work, is that he made beautiful pot- George Ohr. Vase, tery while breaking the number one rule of ca 189.5-1.900. good Height, 7 5/8 in . Private craftsmanship. Few of the pots, espe- Collection, New York. cially of the later work, could be said to be (From the book reviewed entirely useful. Spun to thicknesses of only a with the permission of few millimetres, the pots were then folded Abbeb7lle Press) into themselves, twisted, crimped or col-
ti 5 pieces from the book are missing from the 82 exhibited works dating from 1882 to 1907 . Fig. 3 The exhibition had originally been con- George Ohc Pitcher, ceived to contain 190 pieces, but this had to ca 1895-1900. be reduced due to prohibitive insurance Height : H in . Private costs. Collection, New Yor Each of the essays in the book take on a (From the book revii different theme with Eugene Hecht concen- trating on Ohr's biography, Ellison on the sources and context of Ohr's style and Clark the more difficult issues of artistic expres- sion and Ohr's use of language, which he claims in its abruptness, disruption, and play with conventions anticipates the mani- festos and poetry of the European dada and futurist movements . Yet Ohr would appear to have fostered no movement and it is clear from the handbills referred to that it was not his intent to propose a radical vision of the world, beyond the promotion of his own work as part of it. As all authors point out Ohr was a proud loner, albeit one of obvious humour and good will, with few steady pat- rons and little to document his work other than what he embellished for the contempo- rary, of which the authors provide plenty of lapsed until they were barely recognizable as examples. One of the primary references for functional shapes . Ohr's glazes are colourful, each of the three essays is the autobiographi- unpredictable, often combined in unlikely cal article of 1901 in Crockery and Glass experimental patterns on a single pot. His Journal, "Some Facts in the History of a trademark "lava glaze" is a thin red glaze, Unique Personality," illustrated with a pho- that has bubbled, burst and hardened into tograph of Ohr grinning behind his 18-inch crusty glass accretions on the surface. It is at waxed moustache. once visually stimulating, yet deterring to In Hecht's essay we find that Ohr was the the touch. son of a blacksmith who began his potter's The Abbeville publication, of a very high apprenticeship in 1879 with a New Orleans production standard and finely illustrated potter of utilitarian ware. By 1884 Ohr was with colour plates, serves as a good introduc- to claim for the benefit of souvenir hunters tion to Ohr's life and work in the essays that no two pieces he made were alike, by Eugene Hecht, Robert A. Ellison, Jr. and although in reality Ohr produced a substan- Garth Clark. References to dating and chro- tial quantity of utilitarian ware to support his nology are scattered through all three essays. family . During the early 1890s, Ohr began to This kind of overlay, while allowing for dif- manipulate his forms as well as to expand to ferent interpretations of the facts, is no sub- colour range of his glazes . Much of this work stitute for a catalogue raisonne where one was destroyed in a fire of 1894. The rationale expects a more complete and focused assess- for the dating of pottery illustrates in the ment of how Ohr's life and work affected his book is not explained but seems to be broken stylistic development. The exhibition at- into periods, ca 1888-94, ca 1895-1900, ca tempts this kind of connoisseurship of Ohr's 1898-1910, based on the style of signature work by period, starting off with the earlier Ohr used during these years. utilitarian and novelty items and ending Ellison's essay, "'No Two Alike:' The Tri- with unglazed bisque ware, all arranged in umph of Individuality," is the most satisfy- cases dwarfed under the tall ceilings of the ing in its discussion of contemporary sources Everson Museum of Art in Syracuse, New that raise questions as to whether Ohr's work York, a centre for ceramic studies designed belongs strictly within the context of the Arts by I. M. Pei . Many of the more intriguing and Crafts Movement. His role model was no 1 William Morris, but Bernard Palissy (1510- Fig. 4 90) the French sixteenth-centurv ceramicist George Ohc Handled whose eccentric table settings and decora- vase, ca 1895-1900. tions for the Royal Court had been published Height: 8 in . Private in the 1850s . Contemporary comparisons Collection, New York. made by Ellison include the line of folded, (From the book reviewed bent and indented pots designed by with the permission of Christopher Dresser for Linthorpe Pottery Abbeville Press) of Middlesborough, England ca 1879-82, which in the English context is less like art than novelty or whimsy . In France a more serious approach to adventurous, high-fired colours was undertaken by Ernest Chaplet and Auguste Delaherche. Ellison presents some convincing comparative illustrations of the work of Delaherche, as well as tenth- century Chinese examples and Greek red- figured vases to show that Ohr had studied his field carefully. While Ellison points out on page 76 that Chaplet and Delaherche exhibited pieces at the Chicago Worlds' Columbian Exhibition of 1893, he neglects to mention what Hecht discussed many pages before, that George Ohr was there also. Obvi- ously Ohr recognized the "novelty" trend in ceramics as a legitimate pursuit for a serious potter and he didn't hesitate to explore its expressive limits with the help of traditional sources. ural world as aberrant, wilted, uncontrolled, Ohr's best work both confirms and chal- while his glazes preserve the failures and lenges the principles of the Arts and Crafts mistakes of nature. Movement that had been developing since George Ohr's claim that no two of his the mid-nineteenth centurv. An enthusiasm pieces were alike was not simply a promo- for art pottery, produced primarily for aes- tional slogan to sell souvenirs of Biloxi ; it thetic or decorative purposes, grew in the also served as a parody of what the Arts and 1870s with exposure to imported Japanese Crafts ethic had become by the end of the ceramics and intolerance with unappealing nineteenth century in the wake of the move- industrially-produced decorative art . To ment's popular commercial success . To meet resolve this problem John Ruskin and the demand for their work, American art pot- William Morris had advocated that there teries such as Rookwood, Greuby and Van should be no distinction between the artist Briggle hired staff to apply prescribed glaz- and artisan or technician, that no decorative ing and decorative painting to pots mass- art could be of good quality unless there was produced from moulds, forcing art potteries joy in the making, that there should be a to embrace the very production techniques more honest approach to form and ornamen- for which they had been founded to provide tation and experimentation and exploration an alternative . The attractively decorated, of the full possibilities of materials. In order functional shapes developed by art potters to achieve a decorative art with greater aes- would eventually be adopted by industry thetic value, followers of the Arts and Crafts in the "Machine Art" era of the 1920s and Movement turned to nature for inspiration. 1930s. At a time when this transition was Art potters who adhered to the movement underway, Ohr perceived his "babies," as he most often interpreted nature as strong, per- called them, as art works that could never be fect and fertile in sensuous organic forms duplicated by a machine . As he maintained integrated into the decorative scheme of the full control of his pottery from concept to vessel . Ohr, however, in his mature work firing, Ohr should more properly be seen as a presents us with a contrary vision of the nat- forerunner of the studio-potter.
87 died in 1896 just as Ohr entered his mature ment of the pottery is made evident in the period, would have approved of the Biloxi exhibition with the inclusion of charcoal and Potter's style. Both men's careers were com- pastel studies on paper. One sheet is covered mitted to preserving the artist's role in mak- in quick sketches of shapes for vases, bowls ing and proposing an alternative to machine and plates, another sheet contains working production, but Morris was bound by the drawings for the "After Dinner Set" commis- craftsperson's ethic of fitness for purpose and sioned in 1951 by the City of Saint John for a romantic obsession with the past . Ohr's Queen Elizabeth 11 . In this drawing the coffee obsession was with what Garth Clark terms pot and cups are drawn precisely, and the "theomorphic role" of the potter; the act accompanied by notes as to weight, dimen- of creation that led Ohr to reveal a degree sions and scale. It is doubtful if Ohr, on the of individual presence in the manipulated other hand, ever picked up a pencil to devel- forms and experimental glazes that would op his ideas, as the result seems so much have been alien to Morris. Ohr's fortunes, like the outcome of chance and impulse at however, were very much tied to the Arts the wheel. and Crafts Movement . His retirement from the art pottery business in 1915 was a result 1 not so much of neglect of his work as it was Fig . 5 general decline in interest in the hand- of a Deichmann Pottery. made object as industrial production came to plate with animal supply the variety and quality of art pottery design. Stoneware p at considerably lower prices . 1950 . (Courtesy The exhibition, "The Turning Point: The Canadian Museum ~ Deichmann Pottery 1935-1963," at the Cana- Civilization) dian Museum of Civilization from 17 January 1991 to 1 March 1992, provides a unique opportunity to contrast the art pottery prac- tice of George Ohr with the next generation of studio potters represented by the ceramic work of Kjeld and Erika Deichmann . The exhibition highlights a major acquisition from Erika Deichmann-Gregg of work sur- veying the couple's early struggle with local clays to the successful production of domes- tic and decorative ware. The ceramic pieces are supported in the exhibit by sketch books, The Deichmanns are recognized today as photographs, a visitor's register and note- Canada's first studio potters and the forerun- books containing glazing recipes . National ners of the craft revival of the 1960s. While Film Board documentaries from the 1950s the Deichmanns chose an isolated location are a rich source of information about the for their studio on the Kingston Peninsula Deichmanns' working methods, though their after their arrival in Canada in 1934, they continuous play in the exhibition space maintained close contact with Maritime art- tends to be distracting. ists, as well as colleagues in the Canadian Kjeld studied philosophy before travelling Guild of Crafts, founded in 1936. Family to Paris, Munich and Florence to study photographs in the exhibition show the cou- painting and sculpture. Attracted no doubt ple with artists Louis Muhlstock and Millar by Canada's aggressive immigration cam- Brittain . Portraits of Erika by Brittain and paigns, he first settled in Saskatchewan Jack Humphrey from the late 1930s reveal a where he met Erika, who was visiting with fascination with her striking Scandinavian her parents . In 1932 the couple moved to features . An oil on panel of the potters' stu- the Kingston Peninsula in New Brunswick dio, ca 1940, by Peggi Nichol Macleod de- where Kjeld first discovered his interest picts the couple hard at work watched by in clay. After apprenticing with a Danish pot- their three young children. It was under the ter in 1934 they returned to the Kingston auspices of' iho Canadian Guild of Crafts Peninsula and built a studio. His training as that the Deichnnanns' exhibition career was
88 launched at the Paris World's Fair in 1937. forms of Deichmann pottery had become Evidence that the Deichmanns were instru- more ambitious and freely interpreted. An mental in establishing professional creden- example is the 1955 double-flared stoneware tials for the studio potter is provided in the bowl, glazed in copper carbonate with a light exhibition with the inclusion of a number of surface colour of alkaline blue. magazine features including the widely read The cases surveying the period 1955 until Canadian Geographic Journal. Kjeld's death in 1963 represent the real The 70 pieces included in the Canadian maturity of the Deichmann pottery. An Museum of Civilization exhibition are dis- exceptional range of technique and glazings, played in large glass cases with unobtrusive including beautiful thrown porcelain pieces white metal frames. They sit on raised plat- and the use of magnesium carbonate pebble forms of a light wood with a muted grain glazes reflect the Deichmanns' continuing finish that works well with the range of glaze interest in ceramics as a venue for the appli- colours. The exhibition catalogue was, unfor- cation of aesthetic principles. A statement tunately, delayed in production, although it made on the occasion of a 1961 exhibition at will be available for review in the next issue University of New Brunswick reflects the Deichmanns' desire to have their pottery Fig. 6 viewed within the context of current artistic Erika Deichmann . Little practice: "Our approach to our work is an animal. Stoneivare attempt to capture and express the abstract creature, ("Goofus"). in line, colour, texture and shape." As crafts- Ca 1957. (Courtesy people Canadian Museum of the Deichmanns' work remained tied Civilization) to tradition of Far Eastern ceramics and the example of such studio potters as Bernard Leach, who had studied with the Japanese. A porcelain bowl from 1959 to 1962, Erika relates, was gas-fired (in an alternating atmo- sphere), "with a widely flanged edge - what the Chinese call the 'white lip.' " In addition to the lighter forms of Far Eastern ceramics, the influence of the freer shapes popularized in commercial ceramics by such designers as Russell Wright and Eva Zeisel, are also sug- gested in this period . A lamp base shows that the Deichmanns could adapt traditional pottery techniques to new and innovative forms required for the modern household. It of Material History Review. The catalogue is clear that the functional role of the large should be of great use in documenting the scale pieces contained in the final case in the Deichmanns' style, which develops discern- exhibit is secondary to the Deichmanns' ably from case to case through the exhi- interest in decorative form, colour and sur- bition. An informative commentarv on tech- face texture. The tall bulb-shaped porcelain niques and glaze mixes by Erika Deichmann- vase of 1963, for example, would be reminis- Gregg however, accompanies the labels cent of the 1930s work inspired by tradition- of each piece. The case containing the ear- al Danish forms, were it not about a half liest work from the mid-1930s show the metre high and left in the unglazed bisque Deichmanns working with simple forms in state. One can only guess what a few more dark glazes inspired by traditional Danish years of Deichmann production would have pottery and fired in a wood-burning furnace. yielded. Examples from the 1940s show a broadened The narrator of the National Film Board range of sources evident in the yellow glazed documentary included in the exhibi- "Kish" bowl of 1942, inspired by archaeolog- tion broadcasts loud and clear that the ical excavations of the ancient citv in south- Deichmanns were "working together as fami- ern Iraq, and the "Porringer" bowl of the lies did ages ago," implying they were not same year, recalling a popular form for early only reviving a craft, but a way of life that soup or porridge bowls . By the 1950s the was contrary to the urban . industrial boom of Turning Point" contains a quote by Kjeld 1 Deichmann that expresses sentiments close Fig. 7 to George Ohr's claim of no two alike : "The Deichmann Pottery. real craftsman is essentially an experimenter Tall balb-shaped vase who dislikes repeating himself. He is happi- Porcelain vessel, 1963 est when he is creating fresh designs and Gift of Mrs . Erika finding new ways of expressing old truths ." Deir,hmanr}-Gregg. It is clear from the publication and exhibi- (Com-lo,;v Canadian tion reviewed that Ohr was indebted to tradi- Mu.srurn ~)/ Civilizalio tional practice, but there was also a pro- vocative side of his work that explored the structural and functional limits of the medi- um, limits that the Deichmanns would appear to have adhered to faithfully. While Ohr's example of independence and insis- tence on the integrity of his craft as an avenue for personal expression reflect the influence of William Morris and look for- ward to the generation of studio potters that included the Deichmanns, he did not share with them the craftsperson's love of detail, but was rather more interested in the expres- sive gesture . This lead to a body of work that sometimes obscures the delineations between pottery and sculpture and places Ohr's example closer to the work that dealt the 1950s, just as George Ohr in his time was with problems of formalism during the craft proud that no machine would ever duplicate revival of the 1960s. his work . One of the last nanels in "The
l;uratorial Ntatemel The 7lirning Point: The Deic6mann Potter STEPHEN INGLIS
In January, 1991, "The Turning Point: The ueicnmann . in ixovemuer iaaa, i iraveiieu w Deichmann Pottery (1935-1963)," an exhibi- Fredericton and selected 64 pieces from tion on Canada's first studio potters, opened Mrs . Deichmann-Gregg's personal collection, at the Canadian Museum of Civilization . In which were acquired by the CMC through March 1992 it will begin travelling to six donation and purchase . I returned to New other locations across Canada . This state- Brunswick again in the summer of 1990 . It is ment outlines the background to the exhibit this collection with its accompanying docu- project, the collection on which it is based mentation that was on exhibit in the Fine and the c:uratorial objectives . Crafts Gallery of CMC's Arts and Traditions In the Spring of 1987, Erica Deichmann- Hall, and presented in the catalogue released Gregg of Fredericton, New Brunswick, came in June 1991 . to Ottawa to receive the Order of Canada in The collection is significant because it recognition of her pioneering contribution documents the Deichmanns' entire career to the crafts in Canada . During her stay, we from first firing to last and because it is fully met and she agreed to facilitate an acquisi- described by the artist . Some of these pieces tion by the CMC of ceramics spanning her were retained for the 55 vears since the *. ., ,~ .~ . ,_ served for the 27 years since their produc- movement. Their innovative ceramic work is tion ceased . Although other examples of emphasized as is their search for markets Deichmann ceramics exist, in public collec- and contacts. We have used interview tran- tions in New Brunswick and Ontario and in scriptions which describe these searches. private hands, this is probably the most The Deichmanns were instrumental in important single group of work. gaining support for craftspeople . Excerpts The Deichmanns are widely acknowl- from their brief to the 1951 Massey Com- edged tobe the first studio potters in Canada; mission on the Arts are included . Historical that is, the first to set up a studio, kiln and photos of the pioneering demonstrations and other facilities, which enabled them to pro- workshops in Montreal and New York, for duce a personalized series of domestic and example are displayed as are early magazine decorative art pottery as a means of making a articles and film footage on their work and living . In this sense, they are the precursors contribution to Canadian art and tourism in of virtually all the contemporary ceramists New Brunswick. represented in our fine crafts collection. The A third objective was to identify the social collection and exhibit in this way provide an and cultural context of the Deichmanns' historical perspective on our collection, on work and lifestyle. The thematic focus here is those of other institutions and on those of vis- the artistic milieu in which the Deichmanns itors who own or collect Canadian ceramics . worked. Through them, the contact between The exhibition project had four main the crafts movement and the wider artistic objectives . The first was to document the movement in Canada is explored . Their cir- development and scope of the Deichmanns' cle of friends in New Brunswick included ceramic production . The thematic focus here Millar Brittain, Jack Humphrey, and Kay was the development of the career of Erica Smith among other painters, photographers and Kjeld Deichmann as exemplified by and supporters of the arts who frequently their work, from rough ware made with local visited and stayed with them. clays and fired with wood in the 1930s to the The artistic energy of this "salon" in the more sophisticated forms, surfaces, colours Maritimes is highlighted by original draw- and techniques which characterized their ings and paintings of the Deichmanns by final work in the early 1960s. Emphasis was other artists, most of which were originally placed upon the vast range in quality, style exchanged for ceramics. We have also in- and function of work during their career, cluded photographs of these friends together. their constant experimentation with clay Beyond this, their position as important pio- composition and glaze types (over 3 500 neers in the crafts and as respected citizens glaze tests), and the division of labour by of New Brunswick is recorded through which Kjeld did the throwing and Erica the examples of their commissioned work, parti- painting and glazing. cularly for the Royal Visit of 1951. This thematic focus was developed by A fourth objective was to contribute to the arranging the collection chronologically, recognition of various cultural groups in highlighting the earliest, latest and best- Canada. The thematic focus here involves known pieces . In addition, the technical the Deichmanns' Danish origin and the developments and innovations are described influence of this heritage on their work. This in the artist's own words (from Erica's taped was developed through text drawn from in- descriptions). The working processes are terviews with Erica Deichmann referring to presented through excerpts from taped inter- their origins. Attention is given to the Scan- views and historical photographs of Erica dinavian design elements evident in their and Kjeld working in their studio. Film ceramics, particularly in the painted designs. footage of the Deichmanns at work augments We have also included personal and profes- the photographs . sional memorabilia referring to Denmark, as A second objective was to examine as- well as family photographs. This theme is pects of the history of the studio crafts move- also alluded to in the exhibit design by use ment in Canada. The thematic focus here of Scandinavian influenced elements, for was the pioneering role of the Deichmanns example, "Danish modern" furniture, which in the studio crafts in Canada and on their became extremely popular in Canada during work within the wider context of the crafts the latter part of the Deichmanns' career.
91 Through this project, we suggested an im- by focusing on the "pioneers" of the studio portant Danish-Canadian contribution to the crafts movement. In this case, this study of arts in Canada . the Deichmanns' career builds a useful foun- This project furthers our efforts to docu- dation to the appreciation of the work of ment the social and cultural context and over 100 Canadian studio ceramists current- meaning of the arts and crafts in Canada ly represented in our collections.
92 Contributors
Collaborateurs
JACQUELINE BEAUDOIN-ROSS is Curator of ANN GORMAN CONDON is a Professor of Costumes and Textiles at the McCord Muse- History at the University of New Brunswick um of Canadian History, Montreal . (Saint John) and is coordinator of the Materi- al History Programme . Her research interests PAMELA BLACKSTOCK is Senior Curator extend as well to the Loyalists in Canada. (Costumes) with the National Historic Sites, Interpretation Branch, Canadian Parks Ser- Tim G. DILWORTH is a Professor of Biol- vice, Ottawa. She is currently on an eighteen- ogy at the University of New Brunswick, month assignment with the Interpretation Fredericton and a Research Associate in the Branch's Visitor Activities division Curatorial Division at Kings Landing Histori- cal Settlement near Fredericton. PAMELA BUELL is a curator with the Ontario Region of the Canadian Parks Ser- MARIE DURAND est une ethnologue in- vice in Cornwall, Ontario. She was previous- d6pendante qui s'interesse plus particuliere- ly Director of Heritage House Museum in ment aux vetements et aux textiles. Elle d6- Smiths Falls, Ontario, and Education Officer tient une maitrise en ethnologie de 1'Uni- at the Diefenbaker Centre at the University of versit6 Laval avec sp6cialisation en culture Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. mat6rielle.
DOROTHYK. BURNHAM, formerly Curator of STEPHEN INGLIS is Chief, and Curator of the Textiles at the Royal Ontario Museum and South and West Asia Programme, at the currently Research Associate at the Canadian Canadian Centre for Folk Culture Studies at Museum of Civilization, has had a long and the Canadian Museum of Civilization. distinguished career in research and publish- ing. WALTER W. PEDDLE is Curator of History at the Newfoundland Museum and an expert in GAIL CARIOU is the Costume Curator in the the vernacular furniture of Newfoundland . Interpretation Branch of the Canadian Parks Service, Ottawa. THERESA ROwAT has held a number of posts at the National Archives of Canada CATHERINE C. COLE, former Curator of since 1980, including Photo-archivist and Western Canadian History for the Provincial Curator of Costume Documentation. She is Museum of Alberta, is currently preparing currently working in the Public Programmes to replace Barbara Riley as Cultural Affairs Branch. Advisor for the Western Province of the Solomon Islands . Catherine has served on CATHERINE ROY, a custom tailor for ten the Editorial Board of the Material History years, completed her M.Sc. in costume histo- Review since 1987. ry in 1990 and is the Acting Curator of the Clothing and Textile Collection at the Uni- JOHN B. COLLINS is Curatorial Assistant, versity of Alberta . Twentieth Century Art and Design, at the Na- tional Gallery of Canada . His graduate work JOHN E. TWOMEY is a retired Professor at Carleton University was on Canadian in- of the School of Radio and Television Arts, dustrial design. Ryerson Polytechnical Institute, Toronto .
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