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The Scientific Discovery of Glaciers in the American West Andrew G. Fountain Department of Geology, Portland State University The American West has been the proving ground for a number of earth sciences, including the study of gla- ciers. From their discovery by Western science in the late 1800s and continuing to the present day, studies of these glaciers have made important contributions to our understanding of glacial processes and to the recent assessments of global sea level rise. The growth of this science was founded on the interplay between trained scientists and dedicated nonprofessionals. This report summarizes the early history of glacier discovery and explorations in the West. Key Words: climate change, environmental history, glaciers, historical geography, western United States. 美国西部长久以来是若干地球科学的实证场域, 包含冰川研究。从西方科学自 1800 年代晚期发现冰川 至今, 冰川研究对我们对于冰川过程与晚近对全球海平面上升的评估, 做出了重要的贡献。此一科学进 展, 建立在受训练的科学家和勤奋的非专业者之间的互动之上。本报告摘要西部发现及探索冰川的早期 历史。 关键词： 气候变迁, 环境历史, 冰川, 历史地理学, 美国西部。 El Oeste norteamericano ha sido campo de pruebas para un numero de ciencias de la tierra, el estudio de los gla- ciares incluido. Desde su descubrimiento para la ciencia occidental a finales de los anos~ 1800, hasta el presente, los estudios de estos glaciares han contribuido de modo importante a nuestro entendimiento de los procesos gla- ciales y a las recientes evaluaciones del ascenso del nivel del mar. El desarrollo de esta ciencia se fundamentoen la interaccion entre cientıficos de formacion y legos dedicados. Este informe resume la historia temprana del descubrimiento y exploracion de los glaciares del Oeste. Palabras clave: cambio climatico, historia ambiental, gla- ciares, geografıa historica, Estados Unidos occidentales. he scientific history of the glaciers in the Amer- importance is self-evident by financial investment, ican West, defined by the Rocky Mountains exploitation, and profits obtained. For noncommer- Tfrom California north to Washington, east to cial, scientific discoveries, like a new species of but- Montana and south to Colorado, has not been well terfly, verification and importance are established by explored. Previous reports have either emphasized science via publication of a peer-reviewed journal mountain explorations (e.g., Farquhar 1965; Becky article. From that article, credit of discovery is 2003) or focused on the broader careers and context of bestowed. Where the layperson might make a dis- the explorers (e.g., Goetzmann 1966; Wilson 2006). A covery, it is typically a scientist who understands its notable exception is O’Connor’s (2013) examination relevance to science. The discovery of glaciers in of the history of glacier observations on the Three Sis- the American West follows this theme, in addition ters volcano in Oregon. This report examines the to a relatively unusual situation, in which an ama- “discovery” of glaciers in the American West, encoun- teur challenged the established scientists. tering the notion of discovery in a scientific sense, and The Native Americans clearly encountered glaciers summarizes the history of glacier observations from prior to the arrival of Europeans (Cruikshank 2005). these early years to the rise of “modern” glaciology More than 10,000 years ago the Bering Land Bridge after World War II. connected Russia to Alaska and migrating peoples tak- The discovery of glaciers in the American West is ing the land route had to pass through the ice-free cor- somewhat clouded and follows a common experience ridor between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice in the earth sciences—the locals knew what was sheets to make their way into the warmer climates to there before science announced the discovery. A the south (Hopkins 1967). Alternatively, a coastal classic example is the discovery of Lascaux cave and route passed by immense maritime glaciers in southern its paintings by two local teenagers and the subse- Alaska (Fladmark 1979). Along either route, glaciers quent scientific investigation (Bahn 2007). For com- were encountered, but no written or pictorial record mercial discoveries like oil and minerals, their of these experiences remains. Since that time, Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 0(0) 2017, pp. 1–10 Ó 2017 by American Association of Geographers Initial submission, January 2016; revised submission, August 2016; final acceptance, October 2016 Published by Taylor & Francis, LLC. 2 Fountain archeological and historical evidence testifies to the was readily able to identify one. Harper’s Magazine presence of Native Americans in alpine glacial envi- might not be a scientific journal but, unlike today, ronments (Coleman 1869; Kautz 1875; Lee 2012). there were few science-dedicated journals, and it was For Western science, the presence of glaciers in common for alpine observations to appear in publica- southeast Alaska was well known. These glaciers, large tions such as Harper’s, The Atlantic Monthly, Overland and terminating in the ocean, were reported by the Monthly, or the Sierra Club Bulletin. Coincidently, the first Russian fur traders and later mapped by Captain same month that the Coleman article appeared, Vancouver (Vancouver 1798). The presence of gla- George Gibbs, a naturalist on the Northwest Boundary ciers in the American West was less clear. The settle- Survey (1857–1862) between Canada and the United ment of the West, between the 1840s and the 1880s, States, reported on his landscape observations at a occurred during the end of the Little Ice Age, that meeting of the American Geographical Society of period of time from about 1450 to 1850 when global New York. His report included observations of glaciers air temperatures were cool and cold, snowy winters in the Cascade Range of Washington (not far from were common across the Northern Hemisphere (Mas- Mount Baker), and his written report, which was pub- son-Delmotte et al. 2013). In the high alpine land- lished four years later, included a sketch of one of the scape, winter snows typically lasted until late in the glaciers he observed (Gibbs 1873). summer, blanketing the glaciers and hiding them from view, much like it does today after a snowy winter and cool summer. As we see later, this became the central The Scientist question asked of amateur sightings of glaciers: Were they true glaciers or just accumulations of seasonal Clarence King was a graduate of Yale College in snow? 1862, where he studied chemistry and the relatively A few observations of glaciers were recorded as early new discipline of geology (Goetzmann 1966; Wilson as the 1840s, but they were buried in internal military 2006). After graduation, rather than enlist in the reports or land survey reports, and only a few made it Army and serve in the Civil War, King traveled west, to newspaper accounts (Coleman 1877). In no case finding volunteer employment with another Yale man, were the reports particularly detailed or widely distrib- Josiah Whitney, director of the California Geological uted. Moreover, these claims, if known to science, Survey. The Survey spent the summers exploring and were not followed up and critically examined. Accord- mapping the high Sierra Nevada including Yosemite ing to the informal rules of scientific “discovery,” the Valley. Returning east in 1866, King conceived a plan person who first publishes the findings in a peer- to map the geology of the Western United States and reviewed journal receives the credit. Just announcing lobbied Congress for the funding. By 1867, he was it in a newspaper is insufficient; the claim has to be leading the United States Geological Exploration of critically examined by professionals. The discovery of the 40th Parallel, sponsored by the War Department glaciers in the American West is credited to Clarence (King and Gardiner 1878). The composition of his sur- King, who walked on a glacier in September 1870 and vey team departed from the practice of previous sur- published his account in March 1871 (King 1871b; veys by hiring specialists (e.g., geologists, botanists), California Academy of Sciences 1872). The first credi- rather than naturalists, helping to usher in a new era ble published account predates King by two years, of scientific exploration (Goetzmann 1966). By late however, in the November 1869 issue of Harper’s Mag- summer, King’s survey had reached California and he azine by E. T. Coleman, a landscape artist and enthusi- journeyed to Mt. Shasta, thought to be the highest astic climber living in Victoria, British Columbia, mountain in the continental United States (Wilson Canada (Coleman 1869; Stevens 1876). He described 2006). While exploring the mountain he encountered a mountaineering trip in 1868 to reach the top of a glacier and was photographed standing it on 11 Sep- Mount Baker, across the sound from Victoria in the tember 1870 (Figure 2). Like Coleman, he had also Washington Territory of the United States (Figure 1). been to Switzerland and knew a glacier when he saw His narration describes a number of glaciers encoun- one. He named the glacier Whitney Glacier, after his tered, including observations of glaciers on nearby friend, supervisor, and state geologist of California mountains. Coleman, whose climbing experience in (Guyton 1998). This must have been a bit of fun on Switzerland was known at the time (Stevens 1876), King’s part at Whitney’s expense because prior to the must have had experiences with glaciers in Europe and discovery Whitney wrote that no “living” glaciers Scientific Discovery of Glaciers in the American West 3 Figure 1. Image of Mount Baker from Coleman’s (1869) article on climbing Mount Baker and observing glaciers. Source: Courtesy of Harper’s Magazine. Figure 2. Clarence King on the Whitney Glacier, 11 September 1870. Source: Photograph by C. E. Watkins, courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey. 4 Fountain existed in California (Whitney 1869). In addition to They did not highlight the uniqueness of their obser- exploring Mt. Shasta, King had sent team members vation, nor did they include context for the impor- north to Mt. Hood, outside of Portland, Oregon, and tance of their observation.

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