Slum, Squatter, and Quasi-Squatter Housing Depravity in Yogyakarta

VOLUME 4 No. 1, 22 Desember 2014 Halaman 1-102

SLUM, SQUATTER, AND QUASI-SQUATTER HOUSING DEPRAVITY IN YOGYAKARTA

Arap Matinguny Adris Graduate School Universitas Gadjah Mada

Suratman Worosuprojo Faculty of Geography Universitas Gadjah Mada

M. Baiquni Faculty of GeographyUniversitas Gadjah Mada Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Studi ini bertujuan memperdalam pemahaman tentang permukiman kumuh,liar,dan kuasi-liar di perkotaan Yogyakarta. Secara khusus mengkaji hubungan antara faktor-faktor penduduk dan proses perbaikan permukiman oleh warga sendiri. Pemukiman semacam ini sangat dipengaruhi oleh pendapatan rumah tangga,beban ketergantungan,dan status kepemilikan tanah. Studi ini juga mencoba merumuskan model Client-Oriented untuk penanganan dan meneliti teori dasar penyediaan rumah tinggal oleh warga secara mandiri. Studi ini menemukan teori sebagaimana diusulkan J.Turner dan kawan tidak berdasarkan teori tertentu atau filsafat.Dengan ini studi mengajukan filsafat Etika Kepedulian dan PrinsipCovering Law sebagai titik berangkat perumusan kebijakan tentang perumahan ini oleh masyarakat. Model ini merupakan alat untuk penentuan tingkat perumahan dan ketersediaan fasilitas di permukiman.

Kata Kunci: Pemukiman kumuh, Liar, Kuasi-liar, Client-Oriented model.

ABSTRACT This studyaims at deepen our understanding of the slum-squatter housing issue in relation to the differences in household socio-economic factors. The theoretical basis of the study comes from literature on self-help housing,consolidation, and marginality especially by J. Turner and colleagues. Three household factors are key to the processes of taudification and consolidation in this city namely, income, dependency burden, and land tenureship. This studyattempts to synthesise a facility allocation model i.e. a Client-Oriented model; and to establish the theoretical background of the concept of Self-Help housing advocated by Turner and friends. The study finds out that self-help housing as proposed by these researchers lacks a theoretical and philosophical setting. In this context, the study advances the Self-Care Ethic philosophy and a Covering Law theory as the departure of self-help and housing consolidation policies in urban settlements. With this in mind, the Client-Oriented model is instrumental because its purpose is to determine the degree of housing and facility in a settlement.

Keywords:Slum, Squatter, Quasi-Squatter, Self-Help Housing, Client-Oriented Model.

22 ARAP MATINGUNY ADRIS, SURATMAN WOROSUPROJO, DAN M. BAIQUNI e SLUM, SQUATTER, AND QUASI-SQUATTER HOUSING DEPRAVITY IN YOGYAKARTA

INTRODUCTION of housing. First, the slum-squatter dilemma Urbanization has been rapid in the Re- must be considered from a geographical per- public of Indonesia and squatter settlements spective for many reasons in terms of; juris- thus, proliferating amidst the aging estab- dictional partitioning and tapering summed up lished legal slums. Typical public reaction to by Lasswell’s (1958) famous aphorism ‘who squatter phenomenon has been largely nega- gets what?’ In the spatial context, this involves tive. But to some extent, the reaction has been asking the question ‘who gets what where?’, positive especially in the cities with greater (Smith, 1977). The second perspective derives traditional ties such as Surakarta and Yogya- from the need to account for this differentia- karta. Indonesia’s urban population living in tion and the immediate question is explana- low quality housinghave utilized quasi- and tory i.e. ‘Who gets What Where Why and How?’ extra-legal adaptations to appropriate land Within these perspectives, the immediate is- for housing. In within this, housing consolida- sue of concern is: How marginal are slum and tion process occurs, as a resultant of ‘Expec- squatter households in Yogyakarta city? Do they tative Property Rights’, (de Soto, 1983; Garr show any significant differences at all in the pro- J.D., 1996). In Indonesia where the police even cess of housing consolidation?” eschew overt conflict wherever possible, the expectative property rights manifests itself Grounded Theory and Covering Law when a squatter housing is not undisturbed Theory Developed (Ginness, 1986). This study thus investigated The model put forward here is the ‘Cli- situations triggering off a greater degree of ent-Oriented model’ to urban housing and fa- housing consolidation than have legal land cility allocation. To attain this objective, the tenure arrangements in Indonesian cities. study advances the Covering Law Thesis to There are three forms of tenure rights in Yo- the process of urban settlement planning and gyakarta slum area. The first form of tenure through a grounded theoryperspective, it at- system is of those possessing a lease of an un- tempts to show how the covering law and care known length on the land question, and hence ethic principles can be attained. The study be- is owned by the sultanates and its royal court, gins with a perception of gaps in knowledge; the Kraton. This group of individuals mainly and then focuses on three issues: (a)why do in Blimbingsari, have the right to use but not some slum – squatter residents not consolidate? ownership and so popularly known as Magar- (b)what is the effectiveness of the government ar- sari. Squatting on this land is similar to doing chitect-designed housing programmes (RSS and so on government owned land. The second RSn) in alleviating housing depravity problem? system is that of individuals occupying state (c)what is the effectiveness of self-help housing land such as along R. Code valleys, besides motorised by Kampung Improvement Program railway tracts and known as Wedikengser (KIP) to alleviate this housing marginality or de- and form genuine squatters. The third system pravity issue? is that of genuine landowners with full rights A theory can refer to wide philosophi- over the land mainly in Sendowo, and the right cal perspectives and in 1989, Jahoda distin- to confer to friends and relatives thus, Hak- guished theories intodown–to–earth explana- milik. This process of conferring thus leads to tions, and high-level abstractions. Empirical a fourth system of tenureship i.e. quasi-squat- studies tend to produce down–to–earth the- ters or Ngindung. This multi-tenurial system is ories but describe the results as high–level a component of Adat, Indonesia’s unwritten, abstractions. Down–to–earth explanations dynamic, and localised system of law. specify particular groups or situations and The study at the outset addresses two as- encompass deviants for instance, a study pects vital in the distribution and allocation such as on slum-squatter settlements. High–

23 | VOL 4, NO. 1, DESEMBER 2014; 22-38

level abstractions in contrast, aim to be com- interactional patterns can be described as prehensive and thus generalise situations but systems; people also interact with ‘envi- usually ignore deviants. Another clarification ronmental matrices’, and these interactions is by Merton (1957) who distinguishes be- within the groups of organisms and between tween a Grand theory, Middle-Range theory,and it (shelter) and the milieu, can also be consid- Minor working hypotheses. ered as a system-Ecosystem. Thus at this stage, the question is how Hence housing consolidation ethic iden- does our experience of the Covering Law tifies the logic of domination as the perpetua- theory and Client-Oriented model (COM) tor of the oppression upon of the urban poor advanced here fit with Jahoda’s and Merton’s and their settlements. The study thus identi- distinctions? The study at hand generally not fies housing consolidation or improvement only seeks to produce explanations of hous- process as an ethic that should form the basis ing depravity occurrences from empirical in- of policies on low-income housing develop- vestigations in Yogyakarta but also develop ment. This is because in this process is bound more abstract observations from accumulat- the Care Ethic Philosophy. ed knowledge on slum-squatter settlement management propelled by the philosophies Care Ethic Philosophy of sustainability and Self - Care Ethic. This study observes thatin Turner’s the- In as far as the Covering Law theory for- ory of housing consolidation, there are two warded here is concerned, it is a middle-range vital aspects: (1) poor man’s experiences must theory because it links concepts such as land be taken seriously and (2) these experiences must tenure, income, dependency burden, etc. de- be central to developing slum-squatter housing rived from earlier results elsewhere. With this consolidation theory. In respect to this goal, background, we suggest the Client-oriented the study develops an ethical system based model to urban housing and facility allocation on the values generally associated and ex- can be applied to part of society in need and pressed by the poor in their settlements. This thus developing further original theories or kind of housing consolidation theory is the approaches. The argument forwarded here “Care Ethic”. is a reaction against the aberration theory ad- Housing consolidation process in Yo- opted for quite long, expressed through three gyakarta city exhibits a model of moral de- various views on slums i.e.: slum-squatter in- velopment or responsibility similar to that ability, unabsorbed immigrants, centres of attributed by Turner to Latin American slum- political unrest. squatter settlements. This shows how an eth- A truly scientific approach to settlement ic of care originates in slum - squatter settle- would seek a theory which, when interpret- ments. However, what we ought to observe ed, can predict the observable settlement pat- is the fact that our pain for the death of the terns in all past, present and future human urban environment is fundamentally, com- habitats. Basing on available literature, one passion for the senseless destruction of life. may wonder whether Turner’s ‘housing as a The compassion felt is the essence of a new process’ is indeed philosophically founded. paradigm. This study names it the paradigm It is a form of theologicalphilosophy, due to its of feeling the life of the “other”. The idea that the role alienation hence not deeply founded. poor should claim aspects of themselves that However, from an ecological viewpoint, we have been disvalued by the elitist and pro- view it as a systems philosophy with a strong letariat culture could be ethically vital. Rec- organismic emphasis that stresses the inter- lamation of historically developed ways of relationships between subsystems. Human- life might serve as the basis for an ethic that beings interact among themselves, and the subverts oppressive values and represents

24 ARAP MATINGUNY ADRIS, SURATMAN WOROSUPROJO, DAN M. BAIQUNI e SLUM, SQUATTER, AND QUASI-SQUATTER HOUSING DEPRAVITY IN YOGYAKARTA alternative paradigms. For example as per rials collection and availed to those needing the results of two pilot studies in Surakarta precedents set; (c) instituting a new school (ArapMatinguny, 1996; 2004 and Yogyakarta of the built environment; and(d) initiating a 2005), we find that important insights into program to design a proscriptive law to en- the values of bonds of affection and virtues able a self-governing form. of friendship (expressed as ‘Gotong-Royong’) This is because for all developing are gotten through the analysis and experi- countries, housing policies have been ence of friendship between the poor and the based on wrongly stated problems. There non-poor. is no greater evil than a problem miss- The concept of care ethic is rooted in the stated. No policy can be well formulat- principle that “people are far better-off when edwithout comprehension of underlying they are free to make their own contributionsin the design, construction, or management of issues. Ecologically, housing is a sub- their housing. As such, in order to achieve system of the general system and so any a viable care ethic housing policy, the study subject matter of value must have three advances three proscriptive principles that elements: people, the things they do, and are worthy of noting: (i). necessity of self- the relationships between the two. Thus government in local affairs for which the building as per Bertalanffy’s (1948) gen- principle of local and personal freedom to eral systems model, a slum-squatter set- build must be kept; (ii). necessity for using tlement can be expressed as in the follow- the least vital power, weight, and size of tools ing Figure 1 below. for the job, and (iii). planning is an essentially legislative, limit-setting function and so must Organism Function Environment cease to be confused with design that deals with laying down lines of action. Figure 1. Bertalanffy’s Model Recognises These Turner (1976) makes an outcry that “No Relationships as Feedbacks and Feed-Forwards. generally known and recent thesis deals with this vital principle of proscriptive law Hence organisms (man) and environ- in housing and environmental planning”. As ment (settlement) through functions interact such, Turner called for an effort into thought, as can be expressed in housing consolidation. research, action and development. To initiate Housing consolidation is the interaction of the these activities, he advanced four proposals people (organisms) and their products (built- that need attention:(a) setting up an interna- environment) through the medium of their tional communications network to intensify roles and responsibilities (ethics). However, in usage of existing channels of communication this study, these are translated as organisms so as to increase universal access and reduce (carers), past experience (feedbacks) and future the risks of exploitation; (b) setting up a num- expectations (feed-forwards). Perceived as such, ber of interconnected centres for case mate- the model can be modified as Figure 2 below:

Feedback from past EXPERIENCE

Previous Organism Environment Modified Function Context (ACTOR) ACHIEVEMENTS Context

Feed forward ----- FUTURE EXPECTATIONS

Figure 2. Bertalaffy’s Simplyfied Model for Housing Process

25 | VOL 4, NO. 1, DESEMBER 2014; 22-38

From Figure1 above, Bertalanffy’s model Research Method and Design observes that there are three elements: Organ- The idea of synthesis adopted here is ism, Function and Environment. Modifying this cause - effect approach. The cause - effect analy- model in 1948, he shows that there are three sis is a scientific method based on the view elements viz: the pre-existentcontext, the subse- that the past can explain the present. In this quently modified context, and the direct relation- study, we look for causal relationships by ships (feed-backs and forwards) which by-pass comparing data on housing depravity in Sen- the particular process. What these relation- dowo-Blimbingsari study area in Yogyakar- ships, organisms, functions, and environment ta. Close examination of, “who” is deprived in this model means, is not clearly stated, and of “what” and “where” is vital for it can re- hence it is not a surprise that policies based veal its causes, extent and the trend “why”. on such a model are destructive because the By following the same households to housing problem is not correctly stated. this time, the main objective is to provide a The task of this study is to emphasise longitudinal data set for housing improve- their interdependence; and to identify the ment. The study generally collected continu- critical model or theory linking all the tasks ous data on the physical conditions of hous- involved in the housing process. For long, it ing histories covering any improvements has been difficult to know the laws govern- within the period 2007-2012. Other areas of ing the use and management of space, and the schedule such as looking into the degree the social as well as the economic nature of of marginality or depravity, however, was its provisions. Thus, the basic argument ad- limited to collecting information on the re- vanced here is that: Without a thorough un- spondents’ current situation at the point of derstanding of accurate and complete theoretical study. What is clear is that the quantitative models of the built-environment, no correct law data sets not only allow housing consolida- for any housing process or system can be writ- tion and marginality to be analysed but also a ten. Therefore, in line with Turner’s outcry sequence of observed outcomes measured at for a new thesis and theoretical model, Ber- periodical basis. Finally, the policy dilemma talanffy’s model has to be revised. In the re- discussed at the conclusion is: “If we are to vised model as figure 2 above, it is realised target housing assistance to the worst-case needs, that at any level of organisation i.e. either should we plan along the dualistic connotations of personal, group or government, actions gen- formal – informal, legal – illegal, or slum – squat- erate and are generated by the experience of ter again if the rift is narrowing?” past actions, administration, information, or These are the policy issues that will norms (bulk of housing laws). help shape out the focus on the findings in The primary research goal isto identify this study. However, for purposes of clarity, factors within slum–quasi–squatter house- the study adheres to the latter perspective of holds that affect housing consolidation(self- housing as a process leading us to housing help housing) and marginality processes consolidation process. Slum - squatter com- through studying the values, attitudes, and munities are deprived of what they need for behaviours of households. Stated simply as livelihood but they see it with others in the to:(a) describe levels of marginality amongst same environment. Knowledge about the slum – squatter households; (b)inquire into marginalised man and slum-squatter settle- the means by which they have managed to ments is essential for adopting sound de- cope up with it, and(c)develop some theoreti- velopment strategies and effective policies cal model that may be useful to urban facility against marginality and taudification. Taudi- allocation planning. fication is the process by which slums form.

26 ARAP MATINGUNY ADRIS, SURATMAN WOROSUPROJO, DAN M. BAIQUNI e SLUM, SQUATTER, AND QUASI-SQUATTER HOUSING DEPRAVITY IN YOGYAKARTA

How many marginal households are there? Where this philosophy of Self-Ethics Care advanced do they live? Under what circumstances are they here is a combination of two philosophies i.e. precisely living? ‘Self’ and ‘Ethics Care’ as can be explained Answering these questions is the first below: step toward understanding the impact of governmental policies on marginality and hence (a) Philosophy of ‘Self’ growth of slum- squatter settlements. These “Self” in relation to an individual until three types of families-slum, quasi-squatter, today, man finds hard to identify himself just and squatter households - in Yogyakarta city as he finds hard to identify others. We try to are alike and so, lifting them out of marginal- answer at times because we want to know, ity and taudification will depend largely on a but at times for practical reasons. Who am I?, better understanding about them. Who are you? We at times point to ourselves: The study also gets involved in devel- “I think”, “I must”, “I hope”. Are we at that oping an instrument to measure residential very moment at the level of consciousness? consolidationby designing two independent Or when the authorities talk of community tools – Housing Consolidation and Material houses (perumahanrakyat), are they conscious consolidation indices – which when put togeth- of the community? So if not, how can we be er form a global consolidation index. These conscious of ourselves? Just as much has been tools are attained definition of one or more said about the nature of man and whether he indicators for each sub-component, and as- has an essence, we must also investigate the signing weights and values for each indica- nature of “self” and its essence to the process tor and its categories. The values of the sub- of housing and facility allocation. components in the following ranges: Even though we cannot provide a per- fect definition, it is a vital concept of life. We 0-13 (too temporal and excellently perma cannot disregard “awareness”, “self-conscious- nent respectively); and ness” and “mind” from our interpretations 14-18 (availability of basic facilities water about human issues without disregarding and sanitation). central issues in human experience.There are 19-31 (permanent housing with sophisti many aspects of “self” which must be under- cated facilities) stood before we can talk of “Self-Help” and Housing. Self must be viewed as: the centre To answer adequately the policy ques- of Individuality (self-hood); a Controller; some- tion for which the study has been designed thing private; and a subject. – What makes for the effective implementation of a self-help housing or consolidation policy?both (b) Ethics Care Philosophy qualitative and quantitative methods of anal- Ethics means customs, culture or habits ysis have to be used in an integrated man- and as such, it implies habits of livelihood ner. To analyse residential segregation, three said well to an individual or to the whole techniques: the Index of Dissimilarity (ID); the community as a whole. These good habits of Index of Segregation (IS); and the Location Quo- livelihood are adored by the whole society tient (LQ) were employed. in question and are passed from generation to generation. These are locally local princi- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ples, laws or norms informally taught to the Philosophy of Self-Care Ethic and young generation. In short, these determine Self-Help Housing what can be said good or bad habits and the What is meant by “Self”, Ethics Care and consequence of violation is a natural cuss by their relation to housing? In a wider context, the ancestors (hukum karma).

27 | VOL 4, NO. 1, DESEMBER 2014; 22-38

Thus, ethics is the content of informal deontology is not concerned with the impacts education about how an individual is supposed of the action at all. But according to self-care to lead a normal life as a humanbeing. Irrespec- ethic perspective, demolition will be evalu- tive of their differences, all ethics and mor- ated immoral because of its negative impacts. als have one thing in common i.e. they are in- Hence, in a situation of slum-squatter settle- tended for either the betterment or worthiness of ments, deontology cannot provide an answer humankind as a human being and his harmony that respects the laws of moral universality. with the entire environment. Secondly, approach of Teleology stresses At this point, ethics calls for a critical the importance of the goal or the impact of evaluation of all aspects related to merits and an action to be taken, i.e. choose an action that demerits as a whole. Thus issues such as who is brings with it morally good results, and so it affected; what is affected; and what is the loss?,etc. means an action like demolition is not mor- are the foci. Therefore, Care ethic philosophy ally good because it brings with it loss. Thus, as advanced here needs help from other dis- teleological ethics also does not provide a sat- ciplines to arrive at a valuable moral decision isfactory answer. or recommendation, and hence can be con- Thirdly, approach is Virtue Ethics or sidered an interdisciplinary philosophy.This is prioritisationstresses the development of a a concrete situation because it argues for the moral character within every individual of two perspectives of ethics and morality.First- society. This perspective is in line with that ly, ‘act as per the norms and principles available of the great philosopher Aristotle who argues that are noted satisfactory. Secondly,‘undertake a that moral values are founded and derived from critical reflection to make a right decision as per one’s experiences in the community, from the your own conception (self A)’. This means ad- ways community figures and leaders perceive and ministratorsmust be open-minded. Thus as a handle problems in life. leader, the first question is ‘who am I (Self A)?’ By listening first to other voices especially from the low-income communities and (c) Self - Care Ethic Philosophy taking into account their contributions, expe- Basing on these two differences, the Self- riences, and relations in the cities, the self-care Care Ethic philosophy is philosophy accord- ethics philosophy advances the Covering Law ing to the second perspective: a critical reflec- theory based on values of care, harmonic relation about the norms and values or moral principles tionships, and trust based on the following as- adored by the community all long in relation to the sumptions: living environment; and a critical reflection of the (i) Man becomes or realises the ‘self’ ways man (self A) perceives man (self B), nature anywhere whenever he is involved in and settlement (It). From this critical reflection, an inter-subject relationship, a proper way of perception, decisions, and ac- (Self A Self B); tions considered right especially in the framework of rescuing housing and environmental (ii) There is harmony (kesataraan) amongst crises may be formulated. Therefore, the Self– all other ecological species that motives Care Ethic philosophy is grounded on the crit- man to love, conserve, preserve and care ical reflection. This perspective provides three for organisms as well as him-(self) as a different approaches namely deontology, tele- member of that ecological community ology, and prioritisation. Self It); Firstly approach deontology as far as the question above is concerned, will answer ‘do (iii) mankind has a moral obligation or respon what becomes your obligation or responsibility as sibility to one another and to nature i.e. re provided by norms and values available’. Here verence or respect for life; and

28 ARAP MATINGUNY ADRIS, SURATMAN WOROSUPROJO, DAN M. BAIQUNI e SLUM, SQUATTER, AND QUASI-SQUATTER HOUSING DEPRAVITY IN YOGYAKARTA

(iv) life, be it of mankind or other living ingsari). However, within these neighbour- species has some moral and ethical hoods, quasi-squatters are found too wherein values i.e. it is valuable. This is the through infilling process, families have occu- element of humanity for by humanity, pied privately held-parcels of land on either man must have respect and feeling for social relationship or rental terms. Differenc- the entire ecological system. es in land tenure legalitydefinitely affect the process consolidation. Thence in this study, These assumptions can diagrammati- three types of communities can be identified cally be shown as in below. i.e. slums, quasi-squatters, and squatters bas- Self (A) ing on the legality of the lot occupied. In all, the distribution of these settlement typolo- gies can be seen in the concentration of communities according to their socio-economic characteristics (marginality levels) and the location quotients of urban facility needs as Self-Care Ethic shown in the following Table 1. Philosophy As argued by many scholars (Turner et al. 1969), the security of tenure is vital in the process of housing consolidation. This study shows that land tenure is not the utmost factor. There are other factors with an equal in- Self (B) It (C) fluence such as income, age of the household Figure 3.Graphical Representation of the Self- head, dependency burden, and educational Care Ethics Philosophy. levels attained by household heads. Factors like duration of stay, population nativity, Henceforth, in housing and facility pro- additional income, job type, and adult pop- vision in urban environments, the model ulation size although having large correla- from this self-care ethic philosophy with the tion values with consolidation, their level of principle of virtue or respect for life is housing significance is intolerable even at a 0.25% or consolidation process through self-help (go- 0.75%confidence level. tong-royong). Through self-care ethic philoso- As such, it was established that most phy, slum-squatter household heads try to important factors are income (inc.), number show the value in their helpless family mem- of children in a household (XI), age of house- bers. The responsibility, obligation and love hold head (a), level of education attained expressed by this self-help housing consoli- (ed), job type (jb), population nativity (pn), dation arise as an ethical norm and principle and land tenure status (TS1). The regression colouring a unique relationship amongst the programme generated a correlation matrix residents. and the following model1 (m1):

Research Findings 0.46inc.+0.20ed–0.28XI–0.14a-0.57TS1–0.07jb– 0.08pn(m1) Sendowo-Blimbingsaristudy area displays (.000) (.090) (.031) (.117) (.000) (.095) (.237) varying physical, demographic, and socio- economic features. Some of the neighbour- (values in the parentheses are T Test significance hoods here are genuine slum settlements levels). (Sendowo), whereas others are squatter areas where families have relocated themselves on All variables in this model showed sultanate and publicly owned land (Blimb- a multiple correlation coefficient (R) of

29 | VOL 4, NO. 1, DESEMBER 2014; 22-38

0.96740, and the coefficient of determination HQI = -0.49inc. – 0.59TS1 – 0.25X1 (m2) (R2) of 0.92729, thus explaining 94% of the (.00) (.00) (.029) heterogeneity in housing consolidation in this area.Factorssuch as household income These factors produced a correlation (.46), land tenure (.57), and the number of coefficient (R) of 0.786 and coefficient of children in a household (.28) are statistically determination (R2) 0.58 and therefore, it significant at 0.05 confidence level. implies that they account for 58% of the total variance in housing. Thus in Sendowo- Table 1: Research Results on Location Quotients in Blimbingsari, the most important factor is Sendowo-Blimbingsari land tenure status with a negative correlation Sendowo_Blimbingsari factor of -0.59 then followed by income -0.49. Household (Household Type) Characteristics Slum Q.Squatter Squatter (LQ) (LQ) (LQ) The Provision of Basic Housing and Chn (mean) 1.71 1.70 1.72 Related Facilities Age <30>60 18.2% 17.8% 25.6% The action of welfare planning and other Inc.

30 ARAP MATINGUNY ADRIS, SURATMAN WOROSUPROJO, DAN M. BAIQUNI e SLUM, SQUATTER, AND QUASI-SQUATTER HOUSING DEPRAVITY IN YOGYAKARTA incomes below the general median income ering these factors. Thence weighting house- of this group (Rp250.000,00) per-month; low hold needs by these factors, the following levels of education or illiterate; household equation (model 2) was obtained: heads engaged in informal manual occupa- tions; elderly headed households or recent Zi = 0.32w + 0.16t + 0.77h – 0.60a (m2) immigrants; and thelandless, i.e. quasi-squatters and squatters. While the unweighed model equation (m1) has a correlation coefficient of 0.92 and (b) Determining the Spatial a correlation determination (R2) of 0.86, we Distribution of Housing and Facility find that this model under-predicts the needy Needs households when predicted results are com- Funds for population service systems pared with the reality as indicated in Table 2 are allocated for areas but these areas are below. large jurisdictionally to serve as meaning- But when this model is weighted (m2) ful targets for locating individual family fa- by household characteristics, the realised re- cilities. Units are needed with areal extents sults tend to match with reality. For example and target populations that do not exceedthe in this area, the total predicted number of the service capacity of the facility, unlike the needy households is Zi = 85.88, with water = situations in RWs 42 and 56. In RWs 42 and 21.75; toilets 20.841; houses 38.87; and all 3.88 56, one standing water pipe serves over 65 as clearly shown in Table 3 below. This fact households. Large numbers of households to is supported by the change in the coefficients be served by a facility, also constraints the or- of correlation and determination (R2) that ganisation of the facility’s upkeep. rise to 0.956 and 0.913 respectively; as well This study accomplished it by deriving as the standard error that drops from 0.453 a regression equation employing socio-eco- in the unweighted model (m1) to 0.23 in the nomic variables tabulated at the survey tract weighed model (m2). level. We substitute the same variables into the equation as a weighting variable to esti- Table 2: Comparison between Predicted results and the Reality mate the number of households in need of Sendowo-Blimbingsari housing facilities at the RT/RW areal block Facilities needed units. The resulting model (m1), estimated Reality Predicted by stepwise regression procedures, explains Water (w) 24 21 89% the variance in the housing marginality Toilet (t) 22 19 problem or needing facilities across the sur- Housing (h) 41 33 vey tracts; All (a) 4 2 Total 91 75 Z = 0.55 + 0.214 + 0.89 – 0.66 (m1) i w t h a Source: Processed and analysed Field Data, 2007 – 2012. Once Z , a percentage figure is calculated where,w-water, t – toilets, h – housing, i for each areal unit, it is multiplied by both the and a – needing all three facilities. number of families in the jurisdictional block (RT) and the average number of children However to establish the magnitude of below 15 years of age per household to esti- household characteristics on the model, the mate the actual number of the needy people model equation was run first without consid- as spatially presented below (Table 3).

31 | VOL 4, NO. 1, DESEMBER 2014; 22-38

Table 3: Spatial Distribution of predicted needy population inSendowo-Blimbingsari. Needy HHs Children Adults Total RW No % No % No % No % 67 2218.2 34 13.2 7819.6 112 17.5 64 2218.2 26 15.0 92 23.1 118 20.6 42 2823.1 47 22.2 86 21.6 133 21.8 38 2016.5 35 19.3 51 12.8 86 14.5 56 2924.0 51 30.5 9122.9 142 25.6 Tot. % 121 87.05 19332.7 39867.3 591 100

Source: Processed analysed Field Data, 2007- 2012. A high concentration of housing needoc- steps were undertaken by establishing the:(i) curs throughout the jurisdictional units, with average demand for water per household, exception of those areas RWs 67, 64 and 38 i.e. 22 litre buckets (40 litres/household); (ii) i.e. 18.2% and 16.5% respectively. This may time taken to fill each bucket including wait- be attributed to the fact that in Yogyakarta ing and this was around 5 minutes in the day- city, residents of these jurisdictions have time and about 3 minutes at night i.e. 4 min- well-defined tenure rights. utes / bucket;(iii) duration of operation of the pipes i.e. 12 hrs/day and hence (12 hours) = (c) Definingwhichtarget areal units. 720 minutes;(iv) one tap serves (720 ÷ 10) = The result of step 2 is a map portraying the 72 households or 360 people daily at constant spatial distribution of the need for either facil- pressure use;(v) next population of the area, i.e. ity. This indicates several neighbourhoods that on average, it is about 321.62 persons/ ha.(vi) are possible candidates for receiving extensive number of standpipes needed per hectare i.e. housing assistance. Illustrating a procedure (321.62 ÷ 72) = 4.47 standpipes;(vii) distance of for placing centres in these areas, attention is all households from the nearest standpipe i.e. focused upon the highest and most extensive dividing a minimum standard for location e.g. peaks on the need services. This is accom- 200 metres (World Bank Standard, 1998) by plished via two steps i.e. location quotient and the number of standpipes per hectare (200 ÷ spatial population threshold results per facility. 4.47) = 44.74 metres of nearest standpipe; and If n jurisdictional areas are established finally,(viii) amount of population pressure for assistance, one locational strategy is to exerted on the already existing facilities. It is choose the n highest peaks on the surface. A an important variable in any planning process set of criteria may be used to maximise the and was computed with the following formula: number of people served within the con- I= Pa-Pt straint, allowing no facility overstrained, and F holding a minimum i.e. the total number of where,I is the pressure index exerted on people or households served by a facility. the facility (F), Pa is the actual population The provisional problem then becomes one being served by the facility less those with of deciding which areas best meet these crite- individual connections, and Pt is the thresh- ria. This is achieved through formulating the old population that one facility is expected to problem as a threshold population model. serve in a neighbourhood (72 households). Therefore to determine the number of This figure gives the number of people in a standpipes, vital factors influencing sustain- locality in need of the facility. A pressure in- able usability of the utilities are residual mains dex of zero shows negative pressure with no pressure and the number of people or house- problems and hence there is no need for an holds to be served. To analyse standpipes and additional facility. The results of this analysis water closet toilet facilities, the following eight are presented as follows Table 4 below:

32 ARAP MATINGUNY ADRIS, SURATMAN WOROSUPROJO, DAN M. BAIQUNI e SLUM, SQUATTER, AND QUASI-SQUATTER HOUSING DEPRAVITY IN YOGYAKARTA

Table 4: Population-Facility Pressure and extra facilities needed in Sendo-Blimbingsari

Area No of Area Ha Pop. Density Fac. Pa Pt Index Extra Distance RW Hhs (prsns/ha) avail. (I) Need (metres) 67 83 1.93 219.3 1 40 72 -32.0 1.1 7.84 64 92 2.34 212.3 2 47 72 -12.5 0.95 8.70 42 239 2.98 385.0 2 63 72 34.5 1.8 13.13 38 306 3.21 410.0 3 158 72 28.7 2.2 36.74 56 181 1.54 576.0 3 214 72 47.3 3.5 43.67 Ttl 901 12.00 367.9 11 1051 23.7 9.6 44.74

Source: Processed analysed Field Data, 2007 – 2012. From Table 4 above, it we see that RWs dential succession (Burgess, 1952). A major 67 and 64 have lower pressure values and assumption of this model when applied to so no need for additional facilities. Whereas ghetto areas is that levels of squatter segre- RWs like 42 and 38 are really in dire need for gation will diminish over time as the squat- more facilities. We also see that the need for ters assimilate into mainstream urban soci- more facilities is great because few house- ety. Nonetheless, these overall patterns of holds have their own direct water supply spatial segregation vary considerably be- and water-closet toilet connections. This can tween different household subpopulations be proved by average distance needed to in terms of household characteristics and reach the service i.e. 44.74 metres. hence housing consolidation. Finally, results of this study reveal that quasi-squatters are Patterns of Residential Segregation the least segregated from slum dwellers; amongst Slum-Squatter Households. and the squatters are the greatest segregated The underlying framework for much of from slum households as indicated Table 5 this section is the ecological model of resi- below. Table 5 Indices of Spatial, Residential Segregation and Location Quotients

Factors Slums(Xi) Q-Squt(Yi) Squtrs (Zi)

IDXY IDXZ IDYZ ISXY ISXZ ISYZ Loc- Quotients (LQ) Land tenure 52 68 64 24.8 45.1 47 2.44 1.12 4.46 Nativity 5.0 6.0 5.0 8.5 13.1 15.0 1.01 0.99 0.95 Education 9.1 31.1 36.3 28.8 89.7 62.8 16.74 16.12 4.6 Occupation 11.5 30.5 33 24 46 16.5 9.0 7.35 37.4 Income 17.2 19.8 27.3 53.75 49.5 47.1 5.31 1.99 0.77

Source: Processed and analysed Field Survey Data, 2012.

An urban area is distinguished into and squatters (19.8%); and quasi-squatters three spatial spaces; the city of death, the city and squatters (27.3). This implies that slum, of superfluity, and in between these spaces, is quasi-squatter, and squatter households in the city of needs. The city of needs just as in this city have a more similar spatial distribu- between Yogyakarta city and Gondolayu and tion pattern than either between quasi-squat- Jogoyudan, is an example of the city of needs. ters and squatters households. This strongly In this sense, considering only the indices supports the fact that the process of quasi- of dissimilarity, we see that in Yogyakarta squatting i.e. ‘ngindung’ or ‘magarsari’, does these indices are very low. The indices of dis- occur on privately held parcels that may be similarity recorded are such that between: belonging to the already established slum or slums and quasi-squatters (17.2%); slums other household type.

33 | VOL 4, NO. 1, DESEMBER 2014; 22-38

On the other hand, the indices of residen- • A function is an activity performed by tial segregation are very low too, implying that a structure that maintains a system of for example in terms of income, there is vital which it is a part. segregation of settlements. For instance, the • The theme of organic analogies points to index of residential segregation (ISXY) between the methodological strength of functionalism slum and quasi-squatter households is 53.75%; lying in its support of reciprocal and for both slum and squatter, it is 49.5%; and relationships, conditions, and feedbacks. for quasi-squatter and squatter households it In this sense, the study defines a func- is 47.1% (Table 6) above. This implies that action as (i)the contribution that some item cording to income alone, there is no meaning- makes towards the maintenance of some given ful spatial separation amongst the residents. subsystem,or system; and (ii)a mathematical ex- Nevertheless,according to the nature of land pression between variables or as an ‘indicator’ of tenureship, we see the existence of a meaning- the use-value and hence the Client-Oriented ful residential segregation between the already model (COM) synthesised here. established households i.e. the slum residents HQI = 0.47inc. – 0.33TS1 – 0.16X1 (m2) and the arrivals consisting of quasi-squatters (.00) (.00) (.029) and squatters as indicated above. Theoretically, we advance an optimal The model consists of two definitions housing consolidation model by referring to of (Xi) - the set of all slum–squatter household identified psychological or economic concepts characteristics and (HQI) – the set of all non- so important to our analysis of human deci- positive slum–squatter physical characteristics. sion-making. With this, we find ourselves in This model states the principle of transivity. the kind of theoretical structure, which explic- itly includes behavioural notions. The axiom- Slum, Quasi-squatter, and Squatter atic treatment of this slum – squatter housing Settlements are Necessary Evils consolidation problem that begins by describ- The poor and unemployed may see the ing the postulates and assumptions usually concept of welfare state as promising securi- made with respect to the general characteris- ty or even affluence. The professional admin- tics of slum – squatter settlements. istrators and academicians usually conceive Basedon the fact that studies on human poverty as a suitable ground for potential settlements appear to have a range of phe- social problems, and therefore call for an ef- nomena that can be described and analysed ficient instrument to control these economic with reference to a ‘unity’ or to a ‘system’, and social problems. By this time, even the such a unity or system is not necessarily pur- tax-paying man on the street and professional pose-predetermined but rather individual- administrators have accepted most features determined. Therefore: of poverty as at least necessary evils. The ex- • phenomena must be understood in the istence of slum, quasi-squatter and squatter light of functional associations and settlements in most urban areas are an indi- circular causations within the wholeness. cation of the feature of poverty in these areas • culture is an indivisible wholeness and hence are necessary evils. from which an explanation for single In this study, I should like to offer some occurrences such as slum-squatter observations on what I consider to be the log- settlements may be derived. ic of development of an instrument that can • A slum – squatter household is a be applied to control these evils and hence functional unit ─ an ‘organism’ which is move towards the welfare state. During my more than its parts. extended stay in Indonesia, I was amazed at

34 ARAP MATINGUNY ADRIS, SURATMAN WOROSUPROJO, DAN M. BAIQUNI e SLUM, SQUATTER, AND QUASI-SQUATTER HOUSING DEPRAVITY IN YOGYAKARTA the unusual mutuality of admiration between shelter, or in need of other settlement-related developing world (African and Asian coun- facilities. Studies on human settlements espe- tries) and the developed world (Europe and cially slum-squatter settlements all along can the U.S.). Asians and Africans are led to be- be said to be descriptive or positive, because lieve that the Europeans and the Americans here theories seek to account for observed are far ahead of us in almost every area of phenomena. In positive theories the observa- life. Academic experts in social policy studies tions of discrepancies between the predicted in developing countries do agree that their state and the actual state of settlements may countries are quite backward compared to stimulate an advance or changes in the theory; western countries. It is true that the success whereas a normative theory is used to create in the western world is simply conditioned a world that is ‘rational’, and such a theory is by the residue of the post-fascist period of useful for town and regional planning. “re-education” that is still very prevalent. The essential characteristic of the Client- Of course, it is true that the proportion Oriented Model is its normative character. of people who starve or suffer from other un- The theoretical construct is not intended to met needs such as in housingcan vary con- show how the slum-squatter settlements are siderably. But two essentials are overlooked actually, but how they should be organised. by this kind of qualification i.e.: commitment This model is expected to be used as a device of these nations to the goal of welfare; and whose utility is measured by the success of the western world created endemic systems its predictions, and not by its implicit valid- in the developing world. ity or truth. The approach to its laws in this context is instrumentalism. In this sense the The Self-Care Philosophy and the Client-Oriented Model will be perceived as Client-Oriented Model (COM) an instrument of manipulation rather than/ or Self-help housing through the process as an explanatory device. of housing consolidation amongst all types The Client-Oriented model seeks to be a of households is an expression of the set- working approach to those involved in hous- tler’s priority for home ownership and hence ing policy formulation by integrating slum- ready to settle, consolidate and improve his squatter structures as the problematique. The family’s status. This process is tied to three approach posits that the total need of urban principles of housing viz: self-government in housing and facilities should be approached housing; appropriate technologies for housing; from the components’ side because of the and housing through limits. According to the differences in household characteristics i.e. third principle, people in their own locali- (dependency ratios, income, education, and ties have ultimate authority over housing land teneurship. Linking variables into an es- as investment and maintenance depends on timating equation, we obtain the following. resources that only they can use economical- Chn(X1) -.376 Needy Population ly. This principle would require central au- .395-.104 thorities to guarantee limits to private actions thereby ensuring equitable access to resources and avoiding exploitation or domination. The Client-Oriented model (COM) re- .138 alised here can serve as a method for esti- mating future land requirements and their probable positions within and around a city. This is useful especially from its ability to .136 determine the number of people in need of Income (X 2) -.352 Land Tenureship

35 | VOL 4, NO. 1, DESEMBER 2014; 22-38

As such, the present study has attempt- individuals laddered with wrong attitudes ed to focus analytically on the policy issue and extremity. The attitude upon slum – through the operationalization of the Client- squatter settlements is not, an issue of formal Oriented approach in relation to the goal of or informal; legal or illegal neither standard sustainable cities. Thus from the planological nor substandard. Here, the approach to slum view point, slum-squatter eradication and – squatter development ought not to be that sustainable development attainment implies of either freedom or determinism but rather, dealing primarily with the needs of the ur- that of both/and. This leads us to the process ban poor. Therefore, the Client-Oriented of housing consolidation proposed by Turner model is to determine the target population John and colleagues in the 1970’s. by answering the questions: Who needs What, Although much has been talked about Where, and Why? housing consolidation or self-help housing process, we see that the idea of self-help by Philosophical Perspective Advanced Turner J lacks a philosophical attitude or In building the attitude advanced background. The attitude advanced here is here, we argue out that we ought to have the one that combines together determinism and Power of the Will to Believe. According to Wil- freedom and continues to stress the impact of liam James (1911), the only way of mankind cause – effect element due to man’s participa- out of his problems is subjectivism because tion not only as a critique but also as a creator of according to it, a small degree of a given act is his environment. Here we neither agree with good for it will lead to a better level of good- the inter-deterministic view which does not ness. Such a perspective is only possible if we observe that there are decisions made with- can regret against our own actions. In this out adhering to the cause – factors and hence context without regret, a determinist think- side up with freedom advocates; nor do we ing of all that which are possible without agree with determinism because of extremity comprehending clear facts about experience and so does not side with freedom and so in will pave way to pessimism which will lead itself has no sense of moral responsibility. The him to believe that everything is really good. attitude towards slum – squatter settlements This kind of optimism will bring along taken here is that of self-determinism wherein with it a greater degree of ignorance about the SELF acts as the cause, centre of creativity, ethics, or in other words, some kind of status and has the freedom to choose. that eventually leads to disaster. An example From the biotic perspective, life is in- is seen in the various governmental policies tended to uphold the maintenance of the on slum-squatter settlements expressed in organism as a whole and therefore housing form of massive destruction by authorities policies should be directed to the attainment and widespread community protests. We of this objective for SELF is a biotic organ- cannot understand the will to act whatever ism on one hand. Our perception here is that the feelings upon it unless we believe that mankind is a unity organism characterised such an action is actually good or evil. We with a sense of self-consciousness, ability of in- cannot tell that an action taken is bad unless dividual intuitiveness and response, being a cen- we regret its occurrence. tre of creativity, and also to certain limits the In between the two extreme attitudes ability of self-formation influencing the behav- upon slum-squatter development of freedom iour of others and paving direction to new and restraint to build, we advance a new or processes in the outside world. As such, it third attitude wherein, we argue that either implies that man has freedom to choose that those who violate the freedom and effort to can be proved by his attempts to consolidate choose or those who violate determinism are his shack.

36 ARAP MATINGUNY ADRIS, SURATMAN WOROSUPROJO, DAN M. BAIQUNI e SLUM, SQUATTER, AND QUASI-SQUATTER HOUSING DEPRAVITY IN YOGYAKARTA

CONCLUSIONS that in the program, strategic planning is a There are four major aspects of the hous- “big picture”, an approach that is concerned ing problematique: affordability defined in with identifying and responding to the most terms of the ratio of housing costs to income; fundamental issues facing the community adequacy that includes quality and over- or an organisation. If the Indonesian gov- crowding; neighbourhood conditions; and ernment is to alleviate the problem of slum- availability in terms of supply. Adverseness squatter settlements, then it should embark of one or all of these housing aspects in any on the NMP – Reform Wave hypothesis that city conjures up images of low quality and more-orientation in the public sector will lead overcrowded conditions that are principally to greater cost-efficiency for governments. the concern of low income or minority peo- In short, instead of entrusting the construc- ple. tion and provision of low-income houses to It is clear that not all critical events are private sectors, the government itself should guaranteed to generate a high profile prob- take it as its own responsibility. But the ques- lem. What is important is to note that an event tion is “What is NMP Reform and how does it such as housing or education, etc. provokes operate?” To achieve this, the Indonesian gov- a problematic situation when it:stimulates ernment as a whole, needs to set up a Public media attention,involves some arm of the Service Commission (PSC). The Commission government,demands governmental deci- is a Human Resource Manager that “plans sion, is not written-off by the public as a and carries out policies related to phases of per- freak, andrelates to personal interests of a sonnel activities”. Its role is Recruiting, Inter- significant number of the citizens. viewing, Selecting, and Appointing [RISAP] By these criteria, education is a vital pub- employees to fill vacant positions on merit. lic issue that needs immediate attention bas- Thereafter, it plans and conducts a ‘new em- ing in mind its inter-twinned relations with ployee orientation’ to foster a positive atti- all aspects of human existence today. This tude towards organisational goals. can be achieved when the sponsoring agent Secondly, housing consolidation or im- and higher institutions of education become provement by people themselves as an ethic legitimate and authoritative sources of infor- identifies the logic of domination perpetuat- mation as regards the impact of any policy ing the domination of the urban poor. Thus, that government intends to enact. Without this ethic of self-care should form the basis of this, it will be difficult because the national policies on low-income housing for inherent law has been overpowered by incompetent within this ethic is the resident participatory authorities but with economic power i.e. the aspects advocated. In this housing consolida- law has been pocketed. tion process, is bound not only the Care Ethic In this context, the question then is but also philosophical concepts such as di- ‘What should be done?’ As far as this study is versity and unity central to the attainment of concerned, there are a number of answers to environmental sustainability. this question amongst others:Firstly, the In- Thirdly, in relation to the Self-Care Ethic donesian Ministry of Urban Development Philosophy, Indonesia is losing her Self-Iden- Planning, Human Settlement and Housing tity. From this perspective, Indonesia’s phi- judged with the responsibility of governing losophy has lost ground because of material- and strategic planning seems to be lacking ism. This can be proved by the fact that social a disciplined effort to produce fundamental relationships and the feeling of goodwill are decisions and actions that shape and guide being defined by materialistic thoughts. Au- what an organisation is, what it does, and why thorities have no feeling of empathy towards it does it. This is because it ought to be noted the community; whereas the community

37 | VOL 4, NO. 1, DESEMBER 2014; 22-38

have equated their kinship ties with money. De Soto (1989)The Concept of Expectative Such a national character is dangerous for it Property Right and Housing in Peru – will eventually end in disintegration. This Global Report on Human Settlements. has become so because as far as the National London: Oxford University Press. Philosophy of Pancasila is concerned, the gov- Direktoral Jend. Cipta Karya (1979)Pedoman ernment has abandoned the backbone of this Perencanaan Lingkungan Permu philosophy that is Social Reformation and kiman. Bandung: Yayasan Lembaga Leadership. As a result, the nation is losing Penyelidikan Masalah Bangunan. her identity because of the nature of the system of administration applied and the struc- Gene BR(1988)Site Planning: Environment, ture of administration that is not clear. Process and Development. New Jersey: Fourthly, an effort should be made to Prentice-Hall developing financial institutions for the Guiness (1986) Slum – Squatter development poor. Subsidised formal financial housing and Latin American Cities: Research has failed. But the question: “Is there scope for Paper for Discussion. Sao Paulo, expanding informal finance, the most common Brazil. source of finance for the poor?” or in another Matinguny AA(2004)Pilot Study Results on the form, “How can the poor man’s major source of Case Study Areas.Unpublished credit enter into the National Urban Housing De- velopment Policy?” remains something calling Michael B (1978). The Urban Models in for research. the Planning Process, Progress in Research and Applications, Vol.1. REFERENCES Editors DT.Herbert and RJ. Johnston. John Wiley and Sons, Toronto. Bertalaffyf (1948)General Systems Model. Oxford Univ. Press. Setiawan B and Garr JD (1992) Urban Growth, Land and Housing Problems.Waterloo Cedric P (1996)The Changing Roles in Self- UniversitySmith DM (1977)Human help Housing in Urban Policies, Geography: A Welfare Approach. 1950-1996:Experiencein Developing London:Erdward Arnold. Countries. London: Twp Turner FJ (1976)Urban Housing Strategies. London: Pitman Publishing co.