The Origin of Soviet Education for Librarianship: the Role of Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya Lyubov' Borisovna Khavkina-Hamburger, and Genrietta K

Association for Library and Information Science Education (ALISE)

The Origin of Soviet Education for Librarianship: The Role of Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya Lyubov' Borisovna Khavkina-Hamburger, and Genrietta K. Abele-Derman Author(s): John V. Richardson Jr. Source: Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, Vol. 41, No. 2 (Spring, 2000), pp. 106-128 Published by: Association for Library and Information Science Education (ALISE) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40324059 . Accessed: 20/06/2011 17:01

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http://www.jstor.org A The Originof Soviet Education forLibrarianship The Role of Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya Lyubov'Borisovna Khavkina- Hamburger,and Genrietta K.Abele-Derman JohnV RichardsonJr.

In tracingthe origins of early Soviet education for librarianship to theearly part ofthe twentieth century, this article presents brief biographical information about three influentialleaders in the field- the Bolshevik N. K. Krupskaya (1869-1939),the pre-Revolutionary figure L. B. Khavkina(1871-1949), and coun- terrevolutionaryG. K. Derman(1882-1954). Furthermore, the ideological issues revolvingaround the state of public education, literacy and reading,the role of librariansand libraries,and thepro to ty pic programsof librarianship in Russia arecontrasted with American views.

"Withouta book, and Derman,drawing from significant withouta library, primary,as well as secondary,Russian withoutthe skill- sourcematerial. ful use of books there can be no culturalrevolution Justification forthe reader." The noted informationscientist, A. Y. - N. K. Krupskaya Chernyak,while writing in 1989about the ManyWestern scholars of educationfor fiftiethanniversary of her death, declared libraryand informationscience recognize that"A fullevaluation of Krupskaya's sig- the name of Nadezhda Konstantinovna nificanceshould be undertakenby library Krupskayaas thefirst person to formalize historianswithout delay."2I wish to libraryand bibliographicaltraining in argue,however, that Krupskaya'swork Russiaduring the early part of the twen- cannot be fully understood without tieth century.Unfortunately, there is addressingthe work of two other Russian relatively little information about women- Dermanand Khavkina.Further- Krupskaya'scontribution in English,and more, despite women's dominance in Westernscholars have been unable to Russianas well as in Americanlibrarian- drawextensively upon therich literature ship,in numericterms at least,the major- thatis availablein Russian.1In orderto ity of LIS scholarshave ignoredthese fillthis knowledge void, this article pro- Russiancontributions, in part due to lan- poses a prosopographicalstudy of three guage and access restrictions.Indeed, Russianwomen - Knipskaya,Khavkina, many Russian scholars have viewed

106 Volume41, Number2 The Originof Soviet Education forLibrarianship 107

About the Author

JohnV. Richardson,Jr. is Professor,Department of InformationStudies, Universityof California, Los Angeles.

Krupskaya"only as Lenin's spouse and educationalprograms for librarianship? not as a revolutionaryand politicaloffi- And finally,how much influencedid cial in herown right."3 Fortunately, recent the earliergeneration of librarian-bibli- feministscholarship in librarianship, ographers(including A. I. Kalishevskiy; whichreflects a largershift in American A. A. Petrovskiy;and B. S. Bodnarskiy) historiography,is beginningto make have on theirprofessional perspective? amendsfor this deficiency;this work is also an exampleof such an effort.4Finally, thisarticle explores the idea thatwe are Three Biographical Sketches part of an internationalprofession involvedwith the promotionof certain In contrastto the "Marxistdisdain for ideals by makingcross-cultural compar- exaggeratingthe role of personalityin isonsbetween the Russian and American history,"I believe thatpeople are often- approachesto educationand theirunder- timesmore importantthan institutions lyingphilosophical assumptions. in shaping the directionof historical events, at least in the short term.5 Therefore,the following three biograph- Goals, Objectives, and Questions ical sketchespresent the essentialhis- torical facts of Krupskaya,Khavkina, The overallgoal ofthis article is to pro- and Derman's lives. vide an understandingof earlyRussian and Socialist formaleduca- subsequent Nadezhda K. Krupskaya (1869-1939) tionfor librarianship. Specific objectives are (1) to identifythe characteristics and contributionsof Krupskaya,Khavkina, A varietyof English language biographical and Derman;(2) to pinpointthe ideolog- sourcesprovide the essentialvital statis- ical ideas and assumptionsunderlying tics regardingKrupskaya's life.6 To date, theirefforts; and (3) to arguethat the his- themost comprehensive English language toryof early Soviet education for librari- studyavailable is BorisRaymond's 1979 anship was influenced by those book.7Based on all ofthese sources, it is individualsand theirideologies. These known that she was born Nadezhda multilevelobjectives ensure an analytic (which means Hope) Konstantinovna approachto the topicrather than a sim- Krupskayaon February14, 1869, to ple chronologyof events. Three key Konstantin Krupsky, an avant-garde researchquestions include: What per- artillery officer,in St. Petersburg.8 sonal characteristicsas well as organiza- Krupskayalived in the southeasternpart tional and leadership skills did ofSt. Petersburg on Staro-NeyskyStreet in Krupskaya,Khavkina, and Dermanbring the1890s. Krupskaya's father never recov- to the formativeperiod of Russian edu- ered fromtwenty-two false charges(for cation for librarianship?What were example,speaking Polish, dancing the these women's ideological ideas and Mazurka,and not goingto church)and assumptions,which resulted in their the subsequentdemotion he sufferedin pioneeringwork of organizingformal Poland, so one gathersthat Krupskaya

Spring 2000 108 Journalof Education forLibrary and InformationScience grew up in a distressed home.9 Krupskaya'sactivities closely paralleled Nonetheless,she dreamedabout becom- his. Theylived in Munich(1901-1905), inga schoolteacher and receiveda decent returned brieflybut illegally to St. obrazovaniye(education): Petersburgfrom November 1905 to the end of 1907, then moved to Kuokkala, Firstat the uninspiringgovernment and later to Russia. laterat a more Finland, Repino, highschool, [and then] lived in Geneva headed Thereafter, they stimulatingprivate school, by in south PeterStruve's father-in-law. Her initial (1907-1910); Longjumeau,just ofParis Krakow(1912-13); ambitionwas tobecome a but (1910-1911); teacher, and in London After sincethere were no she (1912-?).14 reading jobsavailable, aboutthe streetbattles in the enrolled for two months in the Petrograd Zurich and thena few Bestuzhevcourses forwomen newspapers, days [classes laterabout Czar NicholasIPs abdication, of because she nobility],leaving on 3, 1917, returnedto themtoo removedfrom real April they thought via the FinlandStation, along life(1889).™ Petrograd with more than thirty individuals Krupskayadiscovered "real life"in (including nineteen Bolsheviks, six a small Marxistcircle of studentsfrom JewishBund members,and threeinter- the St. Petersburg Technological nationalMensheviks). During the civil Institute.From 1891 to 1896, she taught war that followed, they lived in Marxistthought to workersin herclass- Petrogradand in the villageof Razliv,a es at the Smolenskaya Evening and retreatoutside of the city.15 Sunday School.11Many of her students Increasinglyinterested in popular came fromthe heavily industrial district education as she had seen it abroad, of the city called "Beyond the Nevsky Krupskayaalso studiedAmerican edu- Gate" (NevskayaZastava). cation and published her work Having made the acquaintance of Narodnoyeobrazovaniye i demokratiya VladimirI. Ulyanov in January1894, (People's Educationand Democracy)in Krupsskayahelped him organizethe St. 1917 (the second and third editions PetersburgUnion of Strugglefor the appearedin 1919 and 1921, respective- Emancipationof the Working Class (also ly) and was electedto the Collegiumof knownas the Union forthe Strugglefor the Commissariatof Education of the the Liberationof the WorkingClass) in Russian Federation(RSFSR) in 1917. 1895.12 Arrestedin August 1896, she While living in Switzerland,she was was finallysentenced in 1898 to a three- influencedby Pestalozzi's ideas on intel- year exile in Ufa Province,Bashkiriya. lectual-moral-physicaleducation.16 In The government,however, permitted 1915-16, she joined the Pedagogical her to spend her termwith Ulyanov, Society. As deputy to Anatoliy V. who was in exile in Shushenskoye Lunacharskiy,the Russian Ministerof (Eniseysk Province), 2,300 kilometers Education,Krupksaya was positionedto furthersoutheast in western Siberia. influence educational reform.During There,they marriedon July10, 1898, the period1917 to 1920, she workedon and theyworked together reading, trans- Lenin's decree "On Organizing lating,and discussingvarious ideas. In Librarianship"in the RSFSR, which otherwords, they were truly revolution- called forthe introductionof the Swiss- ary partners.13He did not adopt the American system.17After a series of pseudonymLenin until 1901 and did so strokes,Lenin died in 1924; Krupskaya to hide his postexileclandestine activi- died suddenlyon herbirthday in 1939. ties. And, between 1898 and 1924, Accordingto unconfirmedrumors, the

Volume4L Number2 The Originof Soviet Education forLibrarianship 109

Kremlinpoisoned her because she intend- and atthe Middle Asia StateUniversity in ed to use herbirthday as an occasionfor Tashkentduring the springof 1926. In making an anti-Staliniststatement.18 1920, Khavkina headed the Scientific Krupskaya's work on librarianship ResearchOffice of Librarianship(OB) in between1918 and 1938 is discussedat Moscow.23In 1924, Glavnauka(i.e., the lengthin a latersection. stateestablishment for scientific institutions)appointed a committeeto investi- the OB's activities in order to Borisovno Khavkina- gate Lyubov' determinewhether it shouldbecome an Hamburger (1871-1949) institute(a more prestigiousarrange- Khavkinawas bornon April12, 1871,in ment).In Februaryof that year, Khavkina thetown of Khar'kov (now in the north- was firedand replacedwith a trustworthy easternpart of Ukraine) to thefamily of a Communistnamed I. P.Pavlovich, a mem- prominentphysician.19 From 1890 to ber of the committee.In March 1924, 1912, she servedas the librarianof her however,she was allowedto returnto her hometownlibrary and was a memberof post.Based on Glavnauka'srecommenda- its board startingin 1902.20In 1903, tion,the OB was renamedthe Institute of Khavkina founded the firstScientific Librarianship(IB) laterthat year.24 Departmentof Librarianshipwithin the As directorof the newly renamed library.Responding to a recognizedneed, Instituteof Librarianshipat the Lenin in 1904 she authoreda fundamentaltext- Library,Khavkina taught five courses: booktitled Biblioteki: ikh organizatsiyai (1) librarianshipin Russia,its republics, tekhnika(Libraries: Their Organization and abroad; (2) classification;(3) meth- and Techniques).She continuedto be a ods of work with readers (notably prolific author of descriptiveworks, exhibits);(4) systematicand subjectcat- which went into multipleeditions, and aloging; and (5) synthesizingapplied she flourishedin the1910s.21 In 1913,she librarianship.She also published the initiatedlibrary courses at Shanyavskiy firstpolyglot dictionary of libraryterms People's Universityin Moscow and in Russian, English, German, and servedas an instructoras well as secre- French (published in Moscow, 1928). taryof the coursework,which involved During her lifetime,Khavkina made keepingtrack of students. threetrips abroad to WesternEurope (in Krupskayapaid much attentionto 1925), the United States in which she Khavkina'sideas, especiallythose in her visitedfour library schools (1926), and 1918work entitled Kniga i biblioteka[The Canada (1929).25Her death on June2, Book and the Library). Although 1949, in Moscow, was ignoredby the Krupskayathought it had value, she Americanlibrary press. expressedconcern about its Cadet tenden- cies.22In Khavkina for particular, argued Genrietta K. Abele-Derman access to the shelves and open library (1882-1954) simpler,easy-to-use libraries. The most troublingpoint for good socialists,how- The paucityof English language material ever,is thatKhavkina believed that mate- on Dermanis compensatedby secondary rialistic and idealistic theories could Russian sources,the best of which is a co-exist (see ideological discussions Festschrifton the 110thanniversary of below). Duringthe 1920s she traveled her birth.26This work containsseveral widely,lecturing at theInstitute of Public articles,and a chronologyand bibliogra- Educationin Tver'from 1921 to 1922,and phyof her works. The nextbest source is holdingseminars in bothOdessa in 1925 an articleby E. V. Seglin.27

Spring 2000 110 Journalof Education forLibrary and InformationScience

The second daughterof Karl Abele, librariesin Moscow: the Libraryof the a riverraft driver, Genrietta was bornon SocialistAcademy, the leading ideologi- August8, 1882,in Riga,the third largest cal institutionin thecountry (from 1923 cityof Russia (after1918, partof inde- to 1934), and the RumyantsevLibrary, pendentLatvia and knownas the Paris renamedthe V. I. LeninLibrary /Institute ofthe Baltic). In Riga,she studiedat the (from1923 to 1931).29In 1924, Derman Lomonosov Women's Gymnasiumand organizedthe firstAll-Russian Library graduatedwith a red (Honors)diploma. Congress,giving a talkon thecentraliza- Passing the examination for home tion of cataloging.In August1930, she teacher(or tutor)in 1903, she movedto became the foundingdirector of the - Moscow to avoid being arrested;there, Moscow LibraryInstitute (MBI) the she enrolled in higherwomen's peda- firstindependent establishment devoted gogicalcourses. Graduating in the sum- to thehigher education of librarians. mer of 1905, she returnedto Riga. On From 1930 to 1937, Derman pub- October 5, 1905, she marriedanother lishednumerous articles about the orga- public teacher and critic named Vilis nizationalstructure and activitiesof the Derman- her comrade in partywork. MBI. Followingher proposal,the MBI Arrestedfor revolutionary activity, they offeredevening courses for librarians in were released due to lack of evidence. September1931. In the fallof 1933, the FromSt. Petersburg,they immigrated to MBI also establisheda departmentto Germanyby way of Finland in 1914. trainlibrarians for children's work. On Expelled fromGermany that same year, December 13, 1933, the head of the Dermansimmigrated to the United Narkompros(i.e., The People's Commi- Statesby way ofSweden and Denmark. ssariatof Enlightenment) added "head of In late autumn1914, they arrived in the departmentof librarianship"to Boston, Massachusetts. Genrietta Derman's list of responsibilities.On Dermanworked as a tutorand enrolled April26, 1934,the MBI and theIB (a part in SimmonsCollege as a "special condi- of the V. I. Lenin Library) merged; tion" admitin 1916, thengraduated in Dermanbecame head ofthis new unified the summerof 1917.28From 1918 to LibraryInstitute that took the MBI name. 1921, she worked at Harvard Afterthe merger, Derman requested that University'sLibrary and then at the the IB's responsibilitiesfor preparing Libraryof Congresswith their Slavic post-graduatestudies instructorsin and Yudin Collections. librarianshipbe continuedin theMBI. In late 1921, Derman returnedto Despite the harshpolitical climate, Latvia,stopping in Moscowto givea talk Dermanwas active internationally;she at its LibraryInstitute on "Librarianship attendedthe FirstInternational Library in America." Her speech emphasized and BibliographicCongress in Rome- how the Libraryof Congress subject cat- Venice in 1929.30In mid- to late May aloging system could play a role in 1935, Dermantook part in the Second Russian libraries.Back home in Latvia, InternationalLibrary and Bibliographic she was arrested.As partof an exchange Congress in Barcelona and Madrid. of politicalprisoners (of which she was There,she talkedabout "Informational- one) betweenLatvia and Soviet Russia, BibliographicWork of Soviet Libraries" she found herselfback in Moscow in and "Professional Training for 1922. From1922 to 1928,she focusedon Librarians."On the fifthanniversary of librarianshipand joined the cataloging theMBI's founding, Derman was appoint- committeeof the institute.By 1923, ed to theNarkompros' Committee on the Derman headed the two foremost Determinationof ProfessionalStatus of

Volume4L Number2 The Origin of Soviet Education forLibrorianship 1 1 1

Librariansand MBI Instructors.In 1936, education, developing socialist litera- theprogram moved into the Khimki cam- ture,supporting and popularizingsci- pus on the west side of the Moscow ence, re-educating the bourgeoisie River,in the northernpart of the city. intelligentsia,strengthening an atheistic Derman asked for,and received from worldview, and reconstructingmores.34 Narkompros,a special trainplatform so that studentswould be able to attend The State of Public Education school conveniently.During most of 1937, she workedon designinga new To appreciate the primitivestate of buildingfor the MBI thatincluded a dor- affairsin Russia, readersshould know mitoryfor students and thirty-twoflats that the 1897 census found that 73 forinstructors in a separatebuilding. In pecent of the Russian populationnine earlyDecember 1937, her husbandwas years or older were illiterate.35With arrestedon the basis of forgedevidence somewhat more hopeful statistics, for counterrevolutionaryactivities; on Rashinestimated 25 percentof the pop- January5, 1938, she too was arrested. ulationwere literatein ruralareas and Imprisonedin May 1939, her husband perhaps three-fourthsin urban areas.36 died in a labor camp at Vorkutaon the By 1914, the human and bibliothecal northwestern slopes of the Ural populationshad grownto about160 mil- Mountains (Pechorskiy Basseyn) on lion people and 76,000libraries (prima- January18, 1955.31Shortly thereafter, rilyseminar school librariesholding 46 Derman was "rehabilitated,"meaning million books and journals). By the thather good reputation(including her OctoberRevolution of 1917, "14 of the heir'srights and privileges)was restored. 17 millionilliterates in thecountry were women. Illiteracy was essentially a woman's problem."37Not surprisingly, Ideological Assumptions somethingneeded to be done aboutthis situation. Consider the socialist struggle. For Thus,the Communist Party Program example,before the turn of the twentieth of 1919 proposed:(1) a preparatorysys- century"The emperorof all the Russias tem of residentialhomes and kinder- is an autocraticand unlimitedmonarch. gartensas well as children'scolonies for God himself commands that his childrenunder the age offour in orderto supremepower be obeyed,out of con- emancipatewomen for productive work scienceas well as fear."32With the capit- and self-culture;followed by (2) a free, ulation of Tsar Nicholas II in February equal, compulsory,unified, and single- 1918, the thoughtfulRussian's task of gradatededucation from seven to seven- educatingthe masses in the late 1910s teen;and (3) developmentof specialized and early1920s was notenviable. vocational trainingin technicumsfor Writingin 1923, Lenin coined the young adults after age seventeen.38 phrase "cultural revolution," which Furthermore,the programproposed to meantthe process of spiritualtransfor- open theexisting universities (and other mationof an old-fashioned,backward, institutesof highereducation, such as semiliteratesociety that he inherited polytechnicsand laboratoryschools) to fromthe formerregime.33 For example, the workingclass and provideinstruc- this cultural revolutionimplied such tion (thatis, mass adult education)for goals as movingthe working class out of others.39 "spiritualslavery and darkness"toward Previously,the Russian (i.e., tsarist a socialistsystem by establishingpublic and Kerensky)educational system had

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Fundamentally,Krupskaya was thinkingabout the issue of time- timefor women to shop as well as questionsof whereto shop if goods were in short supply. For many Russians,living a lifeof mild pover- ty was not only difficultbut also time-consuming.Under the rubric SovetskoyeVospitaniye (which meansSoviet upbringing) Krupskaya believedthat "training in skillswith- out ideological upbringingis a means withoutan end, while ideological upbringingwithout modern trainingin skillsis an end devoidof the means for its fulfillment."43 YoungSoviet girl looking for way out of Lenin's While outlawingreligious instruc- SpiritualSlavery and Darkness tion, Krupskayaand Lenin had to (Photographcourtesy of T.Yu. Valinovskaya) deal with the factthat the Russian people were highly superstitious compared to Westernstandards.44 been open only to the wealthy.Such a However, there were relatively few systemprepared the next generation's "good" schools, so Krupskayathought technical-managerialclass ofcontrollers the educationalrole dependedupon the (thatis, the captains of industry)who library,which in turnmeant that literacy esteemed wealth, renown, personal was a fundamentalconcern.45 comfortand who, most importantly, could be countedupon to maintainthe and statusquo. Judgingfrom table 1, one can Literacy Reading see that the tsaristsystem depended As part of the first five-yearplan, upon "popularignorance to be themain Krupskaya proposed to reduce the propof the autocracy."40 amountof illiteracyamong eighteen- to Anyproposed system of education, thirty-five-year-oldsby 1927, the tenth however,would confrontthe "Woman's anniversaryof the revolution. Of course, Question."41For Krupskaya,the answer theyneeded somethingto read- some- had to includeequality with men as well thingpublished and disseminated- for as a conceptionof woman as motherand librariesto have a significantrole in the worker.42By institutingdetskiye sady educationof an emancipatedperson or and yasli (a voluntarycreche system for new society.46There was a dramatic babies two monthsold and upward,fol- growthof interestin reading;in 1919, lowed by preschool for childrenages based on his firsthandobservations, threeto seven),parents were taught that Reed argued that "all of Russia was childrendid not belongto thembut to learningto read, and reading- politics, - society that home schooling was no economics,history - because the people longera necessityor superiorto public wantedto know"about what was going education. In school, children were on around them.47What Krupskaya taughtrespect for authorityand self- wanted was for these new readers to reliance.And, perhapsmost important- begin readingabout the partyand the ly,mothers were emancipated. Soviets.

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Table 1 Comparisonof State ExpenditureOn PopularEducation, TsaristRussia and the SovietRepublic, 1891-1919

Year Rubles Percentage Increase

1891 22,810,260 N/A 1911 27,883,000 22.2% 1916 195,624,000 601.6% 1917 339,831,687 73.7% 1918 2,914,082,124 757.5% 1919 (half-year) 3,888,000.000 33.4%

Source: Bukharin.The ABC of Communism,1922; reprint ed. 1961.

In Odessa,based on his 1926 survey Krupskayadid notappreciate the so- of 500 women(workers and nonworkers called "value free"or bourgeoislibrary alike),Kogan found, however, that work- sciencepopularized in theUnited States, ing women read less because theyhad which advocatedselecting books of all less time than nonworkers.48Further- politicalperspectives and makingthem more,these women were not interested equally available to readers.In her sys- in readingscientific literature (as encour- tem,only the bestbooks should be rec- aged by theLeninist party line) or about ommendedand circulated;transferring, war and revolution;what theywanted removing,and evendestroying bourgeois was somethingthey did nothave - some- bookswas nota dilemmaor ethicalcon- thing cheerful- and they complained siderationbecause, in her view, they thatlibrarians did not give them such wereeither reactionary, too constrictive, works. Fiction was the most popular or so obsolete as to be useless.50 genre,followed by some history, political Illustrativeof her ideological orientation, and economictopics, as well as hygiene, Krupskayaargued: "give every village geography,and art.They preferred trans- importantbooks. ... We need booksthat lated Americanliterature (such as Jack armus, giveus power."51The philosoph- Londonand SinclairLewis), followed by ical issue is again dialectic- one of Britishauthors, then French, and finally choice (i.e.,a subjectiveapproach where theirown indigenousRussian literature. one reads what one wantsfor pleasure, Though Kogan primlyconcluded that happiness,or satisfaction)versus control people should read propaganda (for (i.e., a "recommendatory"approach example,real workerstories), his survey where one reads what someone else clearlydemonstrates that Russians did thinks one needs). The well-trained not do so. This philosophicalissue is a socialistlibrarian would argueby analo- dialecticalone - highculture (where one gythat the physician does notnecessari- reads qualityliterature) versus low cul- ly give the patientpills thattaste good ture(such as fairytales or trash fiction).49 but ratherones thathelp the patient.52 One mightargue that high culture takes a The extremeAmerican view would be positionof moral superiority while ignor- quantity(that is, we will buryyou in ingthe emanicipatory nature of reading - books)over quality (a handfulof the best what some mightcall "read the word, titles).Admittedly, however, early twen- readthe world." tieth-centuryAmerican librarianship

Spring2000 114 Journalof Education forLibrary and InformationScience was still emphasizinghigh culture over 1925, Zvezdin reportedactually having populartaste, and the issue of whatfic- found fewerlibraries in villages (i.e., tion was appropriatewas also hotly 235 down to 180) afterthe October debated.Perhaps this situationcan best Revolution, although the number be summarizedas the tensionbetween increasedin townsfrom sixteen to fifty- one's attitudetoward human progress - a seven.55In 1914, 76,000libraries, main- liberal, permissivesociety of extreme ly within seminar schools, held 46 individualism versus a centralized, million books and journals. Most of restrictivesocialist one (see table 2 theseworks, however, would notbe con- below).53As the primarymoral princi- sidered appropriatetitles for workers, ple, Westerncivilization places "respect soldiers,or peasants.56So, duringthe forpersons" above a collectivism,where revolution, many such books were thegreatest good forthe greatest number appropriatedfrom the bourgeois. In fact, ofindividuals exists. a goal of establishinga networkor web of 10,000libraries was institutedby the that could Role of Librariansand Libraries party.57They hoped villages get the peasants to assist in this effort A March 2, 1909, circularsent to all voluntarily,especially if the people libraries by the Societé de la would only realize how much they Bibliotheconomieyields some insight needed a library.58 into the contemporaryRussian situa- It seems clear that as much as tion.54Returns from 368 librariansindi- Krupskayaand even Lenin may have cate thatthe smallestlibrary (such as an admired American libraries for their izba-chital'nya,the cottage or village technical achievements,they certainly readinghall) held 50 to 200 volumes believed that socialist librariesshould while the largestreported 5,000 vol- be part of the political process.59The umes; the typicallibrary offered 200 to books placed on the shelves of the 400 volumes.Interestingly, the larger the library should make the ideological library,the less thebooks were used on powerof the past clear;specifically, the average.As forgovernment assistance, libraryshould fightreligion and preju- 140 libraries (65 percent) reported dices,idealism, and anysentimentalism. receivingsome assistance,ranging from In fact,"the only questionis how, not 10 to 100 rublesa year.Regrettably, how- why,but that depends upon selecting ever,most librarians had added no new theproper books and literature."60There books since 1907, while some even said could be no such concept of objective they had not done so since 1902. book selection because no thoughtful Workinga wide rangeof two to thirty- librarianwould recommenda bookwith fivehours a week withan averageof six monarchistideas to readers since the to twelve hours per day, 38 percentof librarianwould knowthose ideas would the librariansalso indicated that they be harmful.61 workedfor free, although the maximum Thus, forKrupskaya, the role ofthe salary reportedwas 180 rubles a year. children'slibrarian - who mustbe well Furthermore,librarians ruled or lined informedin the party'sobjectives - is theirown paper.Given such conditions, crucial in the moral and political it is not surprisingthat most librarians upbringingof Russian children, because held a stronginterest in betterlibrary educationtakes ten years; whereas read- organization. ing books could accomplishthe same In a comparative survey of one thingin a shorteramount of time.62In regionbetween 1916 to 1917 and 1924 to fact,Krupskaya confessed that they had

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Table 2 preference,the socialist librarywould Ideological Issuesin HumanProgress makeit easier to read only approved titles by placingthem on a special shelfalong with annotated cards in the Liberal Conservative catalog. Thus,the reader's path of least resistance Independent Dependent was to use therecommended works. The Freedom Control librarianscompiled these lists of recom- Permissive Restrictive mendedbooks because "a Sovietlibrari- Self-determining Externallyregulated an must be educated scientificallyand Centralized Unorganized politicallyand be a responsiblepartici- Hyperindividualism Communal pantin constructingsocialism.65 Democraticpluralism Socialist

Source: JohnV RichardsonJr. Higher Education forLibrarians

Proto-Educationfor Librarianship in underestimatedthe importanceof the Pre-RevolutionaryRussia book in theCultural Revolution. As partof the party'sgoal of popu- Similar to the American experience, larizingscience, Krupskayaenvisioned Russia organizedprofessional societies, an elementaryphysical and chemistry edited learned journals,and offereda laboratoryattached to every library seriesof informalcourses prior to estab- because it was essentialto understand- lishinga formalsystem of highereduca- ingthe materialistic nature of the world. tionfor librarians. For instance, on March Even with the literacy campaign of 18, 1908, the Russian Bibliological 1928-29,however, only 1 to 5 percentof Society's library section became the theRussian population might be consid- Society of Librarianshipsupported by ered libraryusers, much less laboratory thirty paragraphs of organizational laborers.63 rules.66In 1910,the firstRussian library In Krupskaya'sview, the role of journal,Bibliotekar, appeared with P. M. massovyye(mass or public) libraries Bogdanovas its secretary,and it con- could not be overlooked.The bourgeois taineda currentawareness bibliography would always have theirown personal ofbooks and journalarticles of interest to libraries,but the worker could notafford its audience.67The followingyear, the to own books.Thus, the right books had FirstAll-Russian Library Congress was to be on the libraries'shelves, for she held in Moscow,and forseveral years, believedthat "librarians must desireto well-heeledRussian librarians traveled to makeevery library an ideologicalcenter Londonand Oxfordduring Eastertide to which would help build socialism."64 meet with a host of other Western Afterall, librarieswere meant to be ideo- European librariansand to talk about logical institutionsthat brought knowl- theirinstitutions and theirsituations.68 edgeto themasses and helpedform their Remarkably,the earliest Russian attempts consciousness and points of view. to organizeformal programs of education Librariesshould serve the vital role to forlibrarianship date only to the begin- bringup a new people, for"without a ningof the twentieth century. book,without a library,without the skill- fuluse ofbooks there can be no cultural 1. St. Petersburg/Petrograd/Leningrad revolutionfor the reader." While readers Most notably,however, in the fall of mightwish to read books of theirown 1912, the St. PetersburgPedagogical

Spring2000 116 Journalof Education forLibrary and InformationScience

Institutestarted offering optional book Table 3 and libraryscience courses (called theo- Eearly Topics of Instructionand reticallibrarianship) under the direction Instructorsat the Universityof of its librarian,A. M. Belov, who later Shanyavskiy (Moscow) became librarianof the StateDuma and wrote his own Rules for Alphabetical Course Title Instructor (1915).69 SystematicCataloging Historyof Books ProfessorBrandt

2. Moscow Historyof Libraries Unknown Also in 1912, N. A. Shakhovgave 2,000 Literatureof the 19th rubles to the Shanyavskiy People's and 20thCentury Unknown Universityto offershort-term librarian- Children'sLiterature A. M. Kalmykova courses threeweeks to ship (about long) Methodsof Work in about 200 to 400 studentsa year.Under Children'sLibraries the direction of Khavkina as head inAmerica Unknown instructor,the other facultymembers Introductionto included A. M. Kalmykova,Professor Librarianship Khavkinaor Brandt, A. E. Gruzinskiy, A. I. Kalishevskiy Kalishevskiy,B. S. Bodnarskiy,S. O. Whata Librarian Seropol'ko,A. A. Didrikhson,and A. U. ShouldKnow and Do Unknown Zelenko(see table3).70 LibraryLocation The faculty'sgoal was forstudents Equipment Unknown to understandthe four different of types to libraries(that is, academic, Introduction public, spe- Bibliography Kalishevskiy cial, and children's).Certainly, the program attractedmore applicants than PracticalBibliography Unknown positions available, and so students How to Organizea Library were selectedon the basis of theirhav- (Book Selection) Unknown ing a secondaryeducation and a strong Publishingand Bookselling need fornew informationor knowledge. Companies in Russia Unknown In such courseswere fact, quite popular ShelfReading Unknown because of the low cost of instruction and the brief students Introductionto Systems duration;many of Classification Unknown came from rural areas where they worked the land and could not leave MetricSystem Unknown theirfamilies for long periods.71During Cataloging Kalishevskiy; WorldWar I, theninety-six hours of total assistedby A. K. instruction,which included ten hours of Pokrovskaya Russian literature,were offeredfrom Book Disinfectation April 13 to May 9, 1915.72During this and Preservation Unknown earlyperiod, typical instruction consist- Organizing,Processing ed of one four-hourlecture per day (for and the Use of Books; twenty-four days), followed by Administrationof Halls Unknown practicumvisits to libraries.Instructors Reading talked about model libraries, which LibraryStatistics Unknown were mostoften foreign libraries in the developed (WesternEuropean) coun- SOURCE: "KursyPo BibliotechnomuDelu," Bibliotekar' tries.One criticismof theseclasses was 3 (Fall 1912): 257-58. thatinstructors tried to squeeze so much

Volume41, Number2 The Origin of Soviet Education forLibrarianship 1 17

informationinto such a shortperiod of do so by studyingmore library-related time that some studentsthought the subjects beyond the second year. The classes weretoo compressed;almost all, concreteobjective of the librarysemi- however, agreed that the instructors nary-trainingprogram was forstudents wereinspiring.73 to analyze books by theirappropriate- ness to readersand to predictwhat type of knowledgereaders would need to Formal Education possess in orderto benefitfrom a particular title.According to Krupskaya,the 1. An Ideal Educational System overarchinggoal of thisinstruction was While Lenin was writingabout central- to understandthe political and econom- izing the practice of librarianship, ic worldand whatis goingon in nature Krupskayaworked out her idea for a and in social life. While Krupskaya's two-yearprogram of individual directed plan was neverput in operationas laid studyfor would-be librarians at a library out above, Khavkinaand Dermanboth seminary.74In the firstyear of her ideal benefitedfrom its conceptualization. program,students would read twentyto thirtyrecommended books at home 2. Leningrad Instituteof Culture while also attendingone of threelevel- By Lenin'spersonal decree, the Institute appropriate evening courses at the of Extra-Scholastic Education in ProletariatUniversity. Ideally, students Petrogradwas foundedon November28, would have a largelibrary nearby to find 1918, under the Russian Ministryof these recommended titles. Students Education.75Organizationally, it con- would attendoccasional lectures, while tained a Book and LibraryDepartment, instructorswould be workingpractition- and on December20th of that year,it ers.At theend ofthe first year, a written opened its doors at 35 Ulitsa examinationwould cover theoretical Nadezhdinskaya.Initially intending to questions.In the second year,students recruitstudents primarily from working- would work with librarianswho were class backgrounds,the early student willing to show students how their bodyactually included many petit-bour- libraryworked and the general tech- geoisie intelligentsiabecause laborers niques of librarywork. Krupskaya fur- and peasantscould notafford the neces- ther envisioned that only library sary time to study.76Nonetheless, seminarystudents would workin those accordingto the institute'sregulations, libraries that contributedinstructors. its threefoldgoals were (1) to train Krupskayawanted these students to instructorsand specialistsin extracur- develop theirskills in writtenand oral ricular(that is, after-schoolor leisure- communicationas well. At the end of timeactivities such as clubs,amateur art the second year,she proposedthat they groups,and recreationparks) education; makean oral reporton theirpracticum; (2) to solve problemsscientifically and thelibrarian whom they replaced would answerquestions related to extracurric- be presentat the exam.Logically speak- ular education;and (3) informworkers ing, however,if the librariandid not aboutextracurricular education and self- want to be replaced,this "in-and-out" education.77The "Book-Library"depart- replacementsystem would not work. ment,one offour divisions, was directed Nonetheless,successful students could by V. A. Zelenkoas its head.78 thenapply fora certificateof eligibility The institute'searliest faculty mem- to workas a librarian;those interested in bers included: M. N. Kufayev(1888- becomingpractitioner-instructors could 1948),an instructorin book scienceand

Spring 2000 11 8 Journalof Education forLibrary and InformationScience bibliography;N. P. Likhachev (1862- Russianscall the "humanitarian"or nat- 1936), an academicianof the Academy ural sciences as well, because she was of Sciences of the USSR; A. I. Malein sure that such course work would (1869-1938), an incunabalist at the enlargethe students'sphere of knowl- Academy of Sciences Library,who edge and help themwhen working with taught"Foreign Bibliography"; and P. K. readersor when recommendingbooks. Simoni (1859-1939), a graduateof St. In fact,Sokov's analysis of the Leningrad Petersburg University, who taught Communist Political Enlightenment "Historyof Publishing."79Incidentally, (Educational)Institute's course offerings Simoniwas consideredone of the three reveals that theirstudents did indeed mostprolific researchers in thebook sci- include more subjects connectedwith ences. Startingin 1919, A. G. Fomin,a social-politicaltraining rather than spe- leadingdeveloper of bibliographic meth- cialtycourses in librarianship. ods, startedto give lecturesas a professor of bibliography;from 1920 to 1923, 3. Moscow he served as prorectorof the institute. Afterthe OctoberRevolution of 1917, One ofhis colleaguescalled him"a born therewere threetypes of library-related instructorwho loves and knowshis sub- course offerings at Shanyavskiy ject, who is interestedand makes it University:(1) short-termcourses lasting interestingfor students."80 threeto fourweeks; (2) one-yearcourses By 1924,the Leningrad Institute had for public librarians;and (3) one-year reorganizedand changed its divisional courses for scientific librarians.83 name to the LibraryDepartment with Specific topics included cataloging, Fomin as its new head. The institute introductionto bibliography,summary underwentfurther name changeswhen of literatureon librarianship,and for- on August28, 1924, it becamethe N. K. eignbibliography as well as trainingfor Krupskaya Pedagogical Institute of teachingusers how to use the library.84 Politico-EducationalWork, and in 1925, Prior to 1920, these course offerings, theN. K. KrupskayaCommunist Political along withthe museumand the library, EducationInstitute.81 Along with these became a sectionlater called the Office changes,the studentbody increasingly of Librarianship(OB) withinthe Public recruitedpeasants and workers,so that EducationDepartment at theuniversity. in 1926-27, fully70 percentof the stu- Afterthe university'sclosure in dentscame fromthese backgrounds and 1920, the OB reportedto Glavnauka,a 52 percentwere Communists.One of stateestablishment for scientific institu- theirnotable graduatesfrom this early tions.In 1922, the OB mergedwith the era was O. E. Vol'tsenburg,who later RumyantsevLibrary, but due to lack of becamehead ofthe Hermitage Library. space, coursework was temporarilysus- Krupskaya specifically wrote to pended. Instructorsdid, however,offer these institutestudents, telling them to one seminar in statisticsto eighteen eradicate illiteracy,work togetheras auditors in a small reading room. In groups, and self-administertests to 1923, they received enough space to improvethemselves.82 Another striking offerseminars in three differentsub- parallel with developments in the jects. Up until then, the courses had UnitedStates was Krupskaya'sinsistence been free of charge, but startingin upon thesocial sciences(rather than the 1923-24,students had to pay a smallfee humanities)as the methodologicalbasis forthese noncredit seminars. fortraining highly qualified librarians. In November 1924, Glavnauka She wanted studentsexposed to what restructuredthe OB, naming it the

Volume4L Number2 The Originof Soviet Education forLibrarianship 1 19

Instituteof Librarianship (IB), which then researchinstitute, and a librarymuse- beganto offertwo-year courses for scien- um. Enrollmentin the Lenin Library tific librariansonly. Administratively, Instituteprior to the 1930s was limited Khavkinaheaded the pedagogicalcom- to membersof the Communist Party.85 In mitteethat consistedof all instructors theearly 1930s, however, the MBI facul- and studentrepresentatives as well as ty included B. S. Bodnarskiy,K. R. threesubject committees (social science Simon (1887-1986),Yu. V. Grigor'ev,A. headedby V. I. Nevskiy;bibliography and D. Eykhengol'ts,L. A. Levin, L. N. book science headed by A. D. Tropovskiy,Z. N. Ambartsumyan,and Eykhengol'ts;and librarianshipheaded O. S. Chubar'yan,some of whom were by G. I. Ivanov).They received two more non-Communists.86 classrooms,and enrolled101 new students, who were clusteredinto three Criticismsof Higher Education groupsdue to a lack of space to accom- modatethem as one class. Studentsstud- In 1919,Krupskaya wrote about existing ied social scienceand wereintroduced to highereducation for librarians, saying: basicgrammar and libraryterminology in "its workis not organizedin the way it Englishand German,which would allow should be. What kind of instructoror themto read foreignprofessional litera- librariandoes our countryneed? He ture.Starting in 1926, theyhad thirteen mustnot onlyknow his specialties,but full-timeinstructors, all ofwhom had to also be a propagandist.So, he mustnot be graduatesof the IB in orderto teach.In only know the American system of the 1927-28 academic year, the IB librarianship,but also be able to analyze became a scientificresearch and educa- lifethat surrounds him. He has to be a tional establishmentat the V. I. Lenin politically conscious Marxist,a good Library(formerly known as Rumyantsev revolutionary.Then, he will be of bene- Library),which enrolled substantially fit to our country."87Apparently, her more studentswho hoped to train as criticisms persisted long afterward, instructors(see table4 forlist of courses). probablydue to many instructorswho Afterthe 1918 establishmentof for- were apatheticor wished to stayout of mal educationin thelibrary department politics. at the St. Petersburg Pedagogical By 1931,the first published effort to Institute,Derman thought it was unlike- criticizesuch course workappeared in ly she could create an independent theKrasnyy Bibliotekar' (Red Librarian). establishmentof highereducation for Accordingto an anonymousauthor, of librariansin Moscow. However,on July the450 to 510 totalhours of course work 12, 1930, the Committeeof the People's coveredduring nine months,there were Commissars (Sovnarkom) decided to too many courses on bibliographyand approve the establishmentof an inde- thepsychological aspects of readers or of pendent libraryinstitute at the V. I. people generally.Furthermore, many of LeninLibrary where Derman became the the textbookswere inadequatebecause foundingdirector of the Moscow Library theywere not arrangedconveniently. In Institute(MBI). Openingon October1, an effortto place the blame elsewhere, 1930,the MBI had two staffmembers to one researcher,(possibly, L. R.?) Kogan, develop a formaleducational program was singledout forspending too much for librarians.Its organizationalstruc- timeresearching peasant and bourgeois turewas morereminiscent of Derman's readers.Finally, the anonymousauthor Americanexperience, combining mid- acknowledgedthat a great amount of dle and highereducation, a scientific workhad been put intoorganizing these

Spring 2000 120 Journalof Education forLibrary and InformationScience

Table 4 First-YearCourses at the Moscow Instituteof Bibliography Duringthe 1927/28Academic Year

Course Titles Hours Instructor

Social Science A. State and Social Systemsof the USSR 40 VA. Stein B. HistoricalMaterialism 50 Z.G. Grinberg

General Librarianship A. Librarianshipin Russia,USSR, and Abroad 30 L.B. Khavkina B. ScientificLibraries 12 VA. Stein

Applied Librarianship A. Stacks,Placing, and Preservationof Books 32 Yu.V Grigor'ev B. Classification 30 L.B. Khavkinaand A. D. Treskina C. Cataloging (Alphabetical) 100 G. I. Ivanovand L VTrofimov D. Workin a Reading Room and Circulation 16 VA. Steinand Yu.V Grigor'ev E. Methodsof Work with Readers (Exhibits) 10 L.B. Khavkina F. Book Propaganda & Politico- EducationalWork 20 A.A. Pokrovskiy

BookScience and Bibliography A. BibliographicalMethods & RussianBibliography 40 A. D. Eykhengol'ts B. Historyof West European & RussianBooks 30 N. RGarelin and G. P Georgiyevskiy C. Historyof Publishing 25 M. I.Shchelkunov

Languages A. English 50 N.G. Grinevskaya B. German 50 S. D. Konshina

Excursions(5 trips,3 hourseach)

Total Number of Hours 510

Source: LB. Khavkina Uchebnyy Plan na 1927-1928 god (Program of Lectures forthe 1927/28Academic Year), 1928. courses,but that the resultswere not Institutein 1932, meetingwith its stu- worthsuch effort.88Krupskaya herself dents. On February4, 1939, just three echoed some of these same criticisms, weeks beforeshe died, she met with a sayingthat there were still too many sub- group of formerinstitute students in jectstaught, but almostno reallyperfect Moscow. A. F. Shishkin,who became a textbooks,and no educationalor visual professorat the institute,reflected upon supplies to supportthe kind of instruc- his experience as a student during tion she envisioned.Despite these criti- 1922-1924, when he commentedthat cisms,Krupskaya visited the Leningrad "The Institute'sstudy plan was multi-

Volume41, Number2 The Originof SovietEducation forLibrorianship 12 1 disciplinary.However, many of the disci- cially the children'slibrarian, as a piv- plines were not essential for training otal part of the political process. futurelibrarians or were taughtso that Krupskayacertainly advanced the num- theylost all theirvalue."89 Other criti- ber of urbanlibraries, but to the detri- cisms suggestedthat the lectureswere mentof rural ones. over the heads of most students,that Withouta doubt,subject categories therewas littleinteraction with instruc- arethe basic concepts, serving as thefocal tors,and thatsome instructorshad little pointsfor cognition of the world. The risk practicalknowledge of public libraries. of creatingideological orientationsas binaryrelationships, of course, means thatfundamental unity may be missed. Conclusions Whileone can talkabout the relative mer- itsof fiction versus nonfiction, the under- Together,Krupskaya, Khavkina, and lyingdiscussion is aboutreading and its Dermanall seem to have had extraordi- fundamental importance. Khavkina naryvision and influenceon thegrowth arguedfor open access to libraries,while of Russian librarianship.Part of their Dermanpossessed a stronginclination to visioncame fromtraveling abroad, espe- organizeand advocatefor subject cata- ciallyexperiencing other systems. More loging.Her knowledge of "foreign" librar- particularly, Krupskaya envisioned ianshiptheories and practices,however, equalitybetween women and men and createdtrouble for her during the Stalinist an innovative high-level study-work regime.Her difficultyseemed to stem trainingprogram for librarians called a fromStalin's distrust of thosewho were libraryseminary, which Derman and educated before the Revolution. One Khavkina,indeed, tried to realize in could furtherargue that the subject their own institutes.Throughout this approachto catalogingin Soviet librari- earlyperiod (i.e., the late 1920s),litera- anshipwas delayedbecause no one else cy increasedrapidly, especially among wantedto touchit, especially after it was women,even ifthe "best" literature was labeled "formalistic and harmful." notbeing read. Derman,however, stubbornly persisted. The parallelsbetween Russian and Together,Krupskaya's, Khavkina's, and Americanlibrarianship strike one in the Derman'sefforts in librarianshipmade way Russians developed their higher the"Cultural Revolution" possible for the educationfor librarians and especially reader. theirawareness of other systems, partic- ularlythe Americancataloging system. Although the firstRussian faculties Acknowledgements appearrather more bibliographically ori- ented than American programs,their This paperhas itsorigin in a spring1996 common concerns about quality of trip to the Russian Federationas an instruction,textbooks, a social science ALISE Teaching Fellow (see my methodologicalorientation, and what "Educationfor Library and Information constitutesworthwhile research res- Science in Russia: A Case Studyof the onate with the American experience. St. Petersburg State Academy of Russiansopened higher education to the Culture," Journal of Education for workingclasses - somethingAmericans Library and InformationScience 39 are still strugglingto do. Unlike the (Winter1998): 14-27); hence, my pri- Americansystem perhaps, the Russians marydebt is tothis association and to the viewed the public librarian,and espe- generoussupport of IREX and the H. W.

Spring2000 122 Journalof Education forLibrary and InformationScience

Wilson Foundation.Since then,I have tinovna,"in WhoWas Whoin theUSSR, twice returnedto Russia with support eds. HeinrichE. Schulz,Paul K. Urban, fromUCLA's Council on Research(1997 and AndrewI. Lebed, (Metuchen,N.J.: and and an ALISE ResearchGrant Scarecrow Pr., 1972), 319-20; N., N. 1998) Konstantinovna interests "Krupskaya,Nadezhda (1998) to pursue my research in The Soviet Union:A relatedto educationfor librarians. (1869-1939)," higher Biographical Dictionary,ed. Archie I particularlywish to thanka num- Brown (London: Weidenfeld and ber of individualsand institutions:Dr. Nicolson,1990), 190-92. An odd first-per- Irina Klim, Librarianof the American son,fictional work unflattering to Lenin, CulturalCenter, St. PetersburgU.S.I.S., accompanied by semipornographic forcoordinating my three invitations; the scenesof Krupskaya,has also been pub- St. Petersburg State Academy of lished as /, Krupskaya;My Life With Culture's of and Lenin: a Novel, coveringevents from Faculty Library 1894 to 1922. Barnes InformationStudies, its Dean, December May Jane especially /, WithLenin: a Dr. Yelena Sudarivoka (1996), and Casey, Krupskaya;My Life Novel(Boston: Mifflin,1974). Nadezhda I. the archivistfor Houghton Sergeeva, 2. Chernyak, "N. K. Krupskaya and Museum of the of the the History Popularization of Scientific and Academy(1997 and 1998), who is writ- TechnicalKnowledge," 7. ing a historyof the entire institute, 3. Brown,Biographical Dictionary, 190-92. includingits scientificand educational 4. RichardStites, The Women'sLiberation work; Tatyana Kuzmina, Executive Movement in Russia: Feminism, Directorof the St. PetersburgAssociation Nihilism,and Bolshevism,1860-1930 forInternational (1997);and (Princeton,N.J.: PrincetonUniv. Pr., Cooperation RobertB. Si. the National of Russia, St. 1978); McKean, Petersburg Library Revolutions:Workers and Ariadna Betweenthe Petersburg, notably Revolutionaries, In I have June 1907-February Vladimirovna(1998). Moscow, 1917 (New Haven,Conn.: Yale Univ.Pr., benefitedfrom interviews with Petr S. 1990); Linda Edmondson,ed., Women Sokov as well as fromresearch in the and Societyin Russia and the Soviet libraryof the Moscow State Instituteof Union(New York:Cambridge Univ. Pr., Culture,Faculty of Librarianship(Dr. 1992). YuriyStolyarov, Dean). 5. Brown,Biographical Dictionary, 190-92. None ofthis work would have been 6. See Schulz,Urban, and Lebed,Who Was Whoin the GreatSoviet possible without the superb research USSR, 319-20; assistanceof Elena a Encyclopedia,s.v. "Krupskaia, Nadezhda Valinovskaya, June Konstantinova 1998 ofthe St. State (N.D. Ul'anova[sic]);" graduate Petersburg Fonotov, Nadezhda of who in Georgij "Krupskaya, Academy Culture, specializes (1869-1939),"ALA WorldEncyclopedia, - to reference translation.Thanks finally 2d ed. (Chicago:ALA, 1986), 429-30; thetwo anonymousreferees and Sally J. Jeanne Vronskaya and Vladimir Diessner for suggesting additional Chuguev,A BiographicalDictionary of improvementsto thistext. theSoviet Union, 1917-1988 (London: K. G. Saur, 1989), 210; Interestingly,this sourcestates that "(m)arried References and Notes Krupskaya Lenin there (i.e., Siberia) (her second 1. A. Y. Chernyak,"N. K. Krupskayai husband;the first,a memberof the SR PopulyarizatsiyaNauchnykh i Tekhni- (Social Revolutionary)Party, emigrated cheskichZnaniy" (N. K. Krupskayaand afterthe October Revolution and died in Popularizationof Scientific and Technical Argentinia)." Brown, Biographical Knowledge),Nauchnyye I Tekhnicheskiye Dictionary,190-92. BibliotekiSSSR 4 (1989): 7; "Krupskaya 7. Boris Raymond,Krupskaia and Soviet (Ul'Yanova[sic]), Nadezhda Konstan- Russia Librarianship, 1917-1939

Volume4L Number2 The Originof SovietEducation forLibrarianship 123

(Metuchen,N.J.: Scarecrow Pr., 1979). her childrento growup, continuingto Nevertheless,the book contains some perpetuatesuperstitions of the past - the wrongdates and incompletenames, and urban woman workeris no betteroff ignoresrelevant primary and secondary because herwages are low and inequit- material;but mostfundamentally it suf- able, makingprostitution a continual fers froma lack of primaryRussian temptation. Together with Lenin, sources,as well as beingdated. Krupskayaalso translatedSidney and 8. Sokov used the State Archive,which BeatriceWebb's IndustrialDemocracy contained a special collection on intoRussian. Krupskaya'spolitical agenda, as well as 14. Around1916, she was diagnosedwith the CentralParty Archive in Moscow Basedow's Disease, a typeof hyperthy- that contains a special file on roidismmarked by eye signs.Later pho- Krupskaya.The archival material on tographs of her demonstrate this Krupskayaat the St. PetersburgCity condition.Inessa Armand,Lenin's mis- Archive(Fund 9414, File 1) has been tress,lived on Rue Rose Marie in Paris moved, according to T. Yu. next door to them and Krupskaya's Valinovskaya, Restaurateur at the mother; Armand is buried in the Leningrad State Archive of Art and Kremlin.Some scholarsdoubt the exis- Literature.Krupskaya lived in thesouth- tence of such a relationship.See, for easternpart of St. Petersburgon Staro- example,Stites, The Women'sLiberation NeyskyStreet in the1890s; According to Movementin Russia; Hamilton-Dunn, B. O. Unbegaun, Russian Surnames Vladimirand Nadya. (Oxford:Claredon Pr., 1972), "name giv- 15. A good studyof the Red Armyand its ing in Russia was exclusivelyin the librarysituation can be foundin Steven hands of the Churchuntil 1905, when J.Main, "The Creationand Development theregulations were somewhat eased." of the LibrarySystem in the Red Army 9. Lev Goncharov and Ludmila During the Russian Civil War (1918- Kunetskaya,"Nadezhda K. Krupskaya, 1920): A Historical Introduction," Founder of Soviet Public Education," LibraryQuarterly 65 (July1995): 319-22. School and Society 99 (Apr. 1971): 16. KateSilber, Pestalozzi: The Man and His 235-37. Work,4th ed. (London: Routledgeand 10. Stites, The Women's Liberation KeganPaul, 1976). Movement,240. 17. Vladimir I. Lenin, "O Postanovke 11. The schoolwas foundedin 1764 forthe Bibliotechnogo Dela" (On the higher education of Russian girls of Organizingof Library Work), in Polnoye nobility. Sobraniye Sochineniy (The Complete 12. St. Petersburg,then the intellectualand Collected Works)(Moskva: Izdatel'stvo politicalcapital of Russia, with its heavy PoliticheskoyLiteratury, 1918), 422. industrialbase especiallyin metalwork- 18. V. A. Kumanev and I. S. Kulikova, ing (whichconstituted 40 percentof the Protivostoyaniye:Krupskaya-Stalin [The working-classpopulation), faced with Antagonismbetween Krupskaya and rapidgrowth (500,000 in 1853to 1.5 mil- Stalin)(Moskva: Nauka, 1994). lion in 1900 to 2.5 millionin 1917),was 19. Probablythe best English language article ripe forsociopolitical movements. See about Khavkina to date is Edward McKean, St. PetersburgBetween the Kasinec's"L. B. Khavikina(1871-1949): Revolutions. AmericanLibrary Ideas in Russiaand the 13. Bycontrast, exile to theLena goldmines Developmentof Soviet Librarianship," in EasternSiberia was a trulyhorrible Libri37 (1987): 59-71. There are some thing. While in exile, she wrote good Russiansecondary sources of infor- Zhenshchica-rabotnitsa{The Woman mationabout her lifein Russia,such as Worker) (N.p.: Iskra, 1901), which Knigovedeniye. Entsiklopedicheskiy describes the sad state of the rural Slovar'[Book Science: An Encyclopedia), Russian peasant woman- undernour- ed. N. M. Sikorskiy(Moskva: Sovietskaya ished,overworked, and unable to assist Entsiklopediya,1982).

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20. S. B. Sholomova, "L. B. Khavkina i 29. Yu. N. Stolyarov,"G. K. Derman- Khar'kovskayaObshchestvennaya Biblio- Uchonyyi Rukovoditel'"(G.K. Derman - teka" (L. B. Khavkinaand the Khar'kov Scientist and Head), in GenriettaK. Public Library),Kniga: Issledovaniyai Derman- PervyyDirektor Moskovskogo Materialy,no. 51 (1985): 156-58. Bibliotechnogo Instituto: Materialy 21. Khavkinapublished on such topics as NauchnoyKonferentsii k 110-letiyuSo librarycatalogs, their history, theory and Dnia Rozhdeniya. Stat'i i Vospomi- practice;a guidebookto small and mid- naniya{Genrietta K. Derman- The First dle-sized libraries;as well as public Directorof theMoscow Library Institute, librariesin New York,Paris, and Berlin. Proceedingsof a ConferenceDedicated 22. The ConstitutionalDemocratic Party, to the 110thAnniversary of Her Birth), also knownas The Cadets,or by its for- ed. A.I. Lyuter(Moskva: MGIK, 1994), mal name,the People's FreedomParty, 8-16. was a liberalgroup initially supportive 30. Stolyarov,"G. K. Derman- Scientistand ofa democraticrepublic and thena mil- Head." 8-16. itary dictatorship,but memberswere 31. From1948 to 1950,Derman headed the declared enemies of the people after technicallibrary of a chemicallaborato- their April 1917 coalition with the rynearby. RussianSocial RevolutionaryParty and 32. "ArticleOne," in FundamentalLaws of Mensheviks,the "minor"branch of the theEmpire (1892). Russian Social Democratic Workers 33. V. I. Lenin, "O Kooperatsii" (On Party,which called forthe dissolution of Cooperation), in Polnoye Sobraniye theBolsheviks. Sochineniy [The Complete Collected 23. Sikorskiy, Book Science: An Works of Lenin) (Moskva: Foreign Encyclopedia,576. LanguagesPubi. House, 1923). 24. A.V. Ruychkov,"K Istorii Dokladnoy 34. Technically,a 1961 CommunistParty of Zapiski L. B. KhavkinoyOb Institute theSoviet Union phrase. Bibiottekovedeniya"(Adding to the 35. GreatSoviet Encyclopedia, s.v. "Cultural Historyof L. B. Khavkina'sMemorandum Revolution(socialist)," 1982. on the Institute of Librarianship), 36. Adolf GrigorevichRashin, Naselenie SovetskoyeBibliotekovedeniye, no. 5/6 Rossii za 100 Let, 1811-1913 gg. (1992):88-96. StatisticheskieOcherki (Moskva: Gos. 25. At each school,she made presentations statisticheskoeizd-vo, 1900). on twotopics: "On Librariesin theUSSR" 37. Stites, The Women's Liberation and "Methodsof Soviet Librarianship." Movementin Russia. 26. A.I. Lyuter,ed., GenriettaK. Derman- 38. Nikolai I. Bukharin and E. PervyyDirecktor Moskovskogo Biblio- Preobrazhensky, The ABC of technogoInstituía: Materialy Nauchnoy Communism;a Popular Explanationof Konferentsiik 110-letiyu So Dnia theProgram of the CommunistParty of Rozhdeniya. Stat'i i Vospominaniya Russia,trans. Eden Paul and CedarPaul, [GenriettaK. Derman-TheFirst Director reprinted. (Ann Arbor,Mich.: Univ.of of the Moscow Library Institute, MichiganPr., 1922). Proceedingsof a ConferenceDedicated to 39. It would be interestingto pursuetheir the 110thAnniversary of Her Birth), educationalnotion of "boitsya- znachit (Moskva:MGIK, 1994). Besides this, there uvazhayet"- "ifhe fearsme, he respects is noteven a singledocument about her, me." including her personnel file in the 40. Bukharinand Preobrazhensky,The ABC Moscow State University'sscientific ofCommunism. library,according to Stolyarov. 41. Stites, The Women'sLiberation Move- 27. E. V. Seglin,"G. K. Derman,"Sovetskoe mentin Russia. Bibliotekovedenie,no. 5 (1982): 99-104. 42. As the only Marxiststatement about 28. Henriette[Matilda] DERMAN: Simmons women'srights, Krupskaya's 1901 book Degreeand DateReceived, 1917, Simmons on the woman workercirculated for CollegeLibrary School Archives, Boston. yearsthroughout Russia under the pseu-

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donymof N. Sablin(a);it went into a sec- KrasnyyBibliotekar' no. 1 (Sept./Oct. ond editionin 1905. 1923): 22-26. 43. Encyclopediaof SovietLife, s.v. "Sovet- 53. For example,see AynRand, a Russian- skoyevospitaniye" (Soviet upbringing), bornAmerican writer who articulateda ed. Il'ya Zemtsov(New Brunswick,N.J.: philosophyof objectivism"that all real TransactionPubi., 1991), 342-43. achievementis theproduct of individual 44. Examples of Russian superstition abilityand effort,that laissez-faire capi- includeblack cats crossingin frontof a talismis mostcongenial to the exercise person,giving an odd numberof flowers, oftalent" (according to theEncyclopedia believingin the validityof horoscopes, Britannica). spillingsalt but making sure not to pick 54. P. M. Bogdanov,"Obzor Deyatel'nosti it up withyour left hand, and my per- SektsiiBibliotekovedeniya pri Russkom sonal favorite:partitioning the numbers Bibliologikal Obshchestve za 1903- on a tramticket and summingthe two 1907" (A Review of the Activityof the parts- if the numbersadd up, thenone Library Section of the Russian shouldeat the paper ticket for good luck. BibliologicalSociety), Bibliotekar' no. 1 45. Both the landed gentryand bourgeois (1910): 39-47. "can makeuse ofthe school for the man- 55. V. Zvezdin, "Bibliotechnaya Set' ufactureof faithfuland blind slaves of Prezhde i Teper'" (The State of the capital."Bukharin and Preobrazhensky, Library Network, 1916-1917 and The ABC ofCommunism. 1924-1925),Krasnyy Bibliotekar' no. 2 46. As the capital of Russia from1732 to (Feb. 1925): 95-97. 1918,St. Petersburgencouraged publish- 56. Note that this tripartiteclassification ing: the firstprinting house opened in scheme commonlyused by Lenin and 1711;in theearly nineteenth century the othersdoes nothave room for the intelli- firms of Placilshchikov, Slenin, gentsia,clerics, bourgeois, or kulaks(lit- Glazunov,and Pliushkarwere founded; erally, fist), the most prosperous and in thetwentieth century, the Literary peasants.One reasonfor this inexhaus- and PublishingSection of the People's tiveclassification scheme lies in Russia's Commissariatfor Education and the past; while it was fightinga rearguard Publishing House of the Petrograd action in Asia, keeping the Kipchak Soviet,known as Lenizdat,opened. Khanate from overrunningwestern 47. JohnReed, Ten Days that Shook the Europeduring the thirteenth to fifteenth World(New York:Boni and Liveright, centuries, it missed out on the 1919). Enlightenmentand ProtestantReform- 48. L. Kogan,"Chto Chitayut Zhenshchiny?" ation. Hence, the work ethic of, say a (What do Women Read?), Krasnyy JohnWesley, who said, "workas hardas Bibliotekar'no. 5 (June1926): 18-29. you can, save as muchas you can, and 49. Fora representativesampling, see Words give as much as you can," is missing. of Wisdom:Russian Folk Tales from Weberadvances this theoryof a work Alexander Afanasiev's Collection ethic (including frugality,self-help, (Moscow:Raduga Pubi., 1998). thrift,and efficiency)in 1904-05,and it 50. For moreon theideological view, see V. is furtherelaborated upon by RichardH. Polyakov,"Rabocheye Yadro' Biblioteki" Tawney,in "Religionand the Rise of (The Heart of the Library),Krasnyy Capitalism:A HistoricalStudy," Holland Bibliotekar9no. 4-5 (Mar./Apr.1924): FoundationMemorial Lectures, March 105-08. and April 1922 (New York: Harcourt, 51. K. I. Abramov,Naslediye Krupskoyv Brace,1924). Thus, it maybe two more OblastiBibliotekovedeniya [Krupskaya's generationsbefore Russia resembles Heritagein the Field of Librarianship) what the French intellectualsof the (Moskva:Tsentr Informatsii Po Kul'turei 1950s called a "firstworld" country. ProblemamIskusstva, 1979). 57. Krupskayathought to constructa web or 52. M. A. Smushkova,"Biblioteka i Uchash- chain of librariesflowing through the chiyesya" (Library and Students), cityand countrysidelike a humanbeing

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is associatedwith veins of an organism. to the revolution;Petr S. Sokov,"N. K. Nadezhda K. Krupskaya, "Nashi Krupskayai Stanovleniye Bibliotechnogo Zadachi" (Our Goal), KrasnyyBiblio- Obrazovaniya v SSSR" (A Detailed tekar'no. 1 (Sept. 1923): 7-9. Author'sSummary titled N. K. Krupskaya 58. Smushkova,"Ocherednaya (The Next and the Formationof LibraryStudies in Goal)", KrasnyyBibliotekar' no. 1 (Nov. the USSR), Ph. D. dissertation,MGIK, 1923): 25-27. 1973,paragraph 6. 59. As earlyas 1913,Lenin wrote admiring- 66. Foran interestingdescription of the ideal ly about the New YorkPublic Library's librarian,read A. Ginken's "Ideal'nyi activities. Vladimir I. Lenin, "Chto Bibliotekar'- Nikolay Fedorovich Fedorov" Mozhet Byt' Sdelano D'ya Narodnogo (NikolayFedorovich Fedorov: The Ideal Obrazovaniva?" (What Can Be Done for Librarian) Bibliotekar'no. 2 (Spring Public Education?),Rabochaya Pravda 1911): 12-26. NikolayFedorov (1824- no. 5 (July1913); Ofcourse, for libraries 1903) was a foundingmember of the to have any kind of meaningfulrole, RussianBibliological Society as well as a there must be something to read. teacher of historyand geography.He Fortunatelyin St. Petersburg,there was rushedthrough the halls to geta request- a publishinginfrastructure dating from ed book,brought several other books just theearly 1750s. in case, and would give the readerthe 60. V. Polyakov,"Rabocheye Yadro, Biblio- name of anotherlibrary if theydid not teki"(The Heartof the Library), Krasnyy own therequested title. Fedorov viewed Bibliotekar'no. 4-5 (Mar./Apr.1924): the libraryas a living organismand 105-08. reveredthe book as a memoryof those 61. A. N. Vaneyev,Razvitiye Bibliotekoved- who precededhim. cheskoy Mysli v SSSR (1917-1959) 67. Fora thoughtfulanalysis of the journal's (Historyof Russian Librarianshipfrom contentfrom 1924 to 1940, see Natalie 1917 to 1959) (Leningrad:LGIK, 1976). Delougaz, "Some Problems of Soviet 62. Nadezhda K. Krupskaya,"Rol' Detskoy Librarianshipas Reflectedin Russian Biblioteki i Bibliotekaryav Sovrem- Periodicals,"Library Quarterly 15 (July ennykh Usloviyakh" (The Role of 1945): 213-23. Startingwith the Fall Children'sLibraries and Librariansin 1929 issue, KrasnyyBibliotekar' and Modern Conditions), KrasnyyBiblio- Kniga i profsyuzy(Book and Trade tekar'no. 6 (Dec. 1928): 11-19. Unions)merged, with the latterceasing 63. N. I. Karpova, "N. K. Krupskaya- publication;while it containsless infor- OrganizatorBibliotechnogo Pokhoda" mationon librarianship,it does increase (N. K. Krupskayaas the Organizerof a itscoverage of social issuessuch as alco- LibraryCampaign), Sovetskoye Biblio- holism,juvenile convicts,and agricul- tekovedeniye3 (1978): 82-90. turalwork. 64. K. I. Abramov, Naslediye Krupskoyv 68. H. Schoenberg, "Mezhdunarodnyye OblastiBibliotekovedeniya (Krupskaya's BibliotechnyyeKursy" (International Heritagein the Field of Librarianship) Library Courses), Bibliotekar' no. 4 (Moskva:Tsentr Informatsii Po Kul'turei (Summer1914): 219. ProblemamIskusstva, 1979). 69. "Kursy Po Bibliotechnomu Delu" 65. Alternatively,see V Pomosh'Biblioteke: (LibraryCourses), Bibliotekar' no. 3 (Fall prí komplektovaniii pabot c chitatelem 1912): 257-58. (Moscow: MoskovskiyRabochiy, 1930), 70. For a good biographical study of whichcontains two extensivebook lists Kalishevskiy'scontributions, see V.N. (citingauthors such as LouisaMay Alcott, Stefanovich, A. I. Kalishevskiy.Ocherk HarriettBeecher Stowe, Maxim Gorky, H. Zhiznii DeyateVnosti(A. I. Kalishevskiy: Chukovskiy,and K. Chukovskiy,as well His Life and Activities) (Moskva: as titles,mostly fairy tales) to be removed Tsentral'nyyInstituí Bibliografii, 1962). fromthe library; the first list is bookspub- 71. Instructioncost three rubles while lishedbetween 1926 and 1929,while the the dorm room cost only one; otheris children'sbooks published prior E. Evdokimovaand Elena K ., "Na

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BibliotechnykhKursakh. Vpechatleniya An Encyclopedia;Z. P. Oleneva, "Tak Slushateley" (Library Courses. SozdavalsyaInstitut" (How theInstitute Recollections),Bibliotekar' no. 3 (Fall Was Formed), Za Kadry Sovetskoy 1913): 210-19. Kul'turyno. 36 (433) (Dec. 17, 1965): 2. 72. "Kursy Po Bibliotechnomu Delu" 80. P. N. Berkov,A.G. Fomin (1887-1939). (LibraryCourses), Bibliotekar'no. 1 OcherkZhizni i NauchnoyDeyatel'nosti (Spring1915): 87-88. (A. G. Fomin, 1887-1939:A Beview of 73. E. Evdokimovaand ElenaK ., "Library His Life and Scientific Activities) Courses.Recollections," 210-19. (Moskva: Izdatel'stvo Vsesoyuznoy 74. N. K. Krupskaya,"Bibliotechnaya Sem- KnizhnoyPalaty, 1949). inariya" (A LibrarySeminary), in O 81. At first,Krupskaya did not want it BibliotechnomDele (On LibraryWork) namedafter her, but studentsasked her ÍMnskva:Kniea. 19181.40-43. and she acquiesced (N. I. Sergeevato 75. Soyuz Kommun Severnoy Oblasti, author,Sept. 3, 1997). "DekretN13" (Decree N13), Petrograd: 82. A typicalletter dated March 29, 1938,to KomissariatNarodnogo Prosvechsheniya: institutestudents fromKrupskaya is Otdel Po Vneshkol'nomuObrasovaniyu, reproducedon page 21 ofZ. P. Oleneva's 1918,p. 1; N. K. Skrypnev,Leningradskiy "The Development and Current GosudarstvennyBibliotechny Instituí Conditionsof Higher Education" and also Imeni N. K Krupskoy (1918-1958) can be foundin theinstitute's museum. (LeningradState Library Institute Named 83. "Institut Bibliotekovedeniya i Ego for N K. Krupskaya)(Leningrad: LGBI, Deyatel'nost'" (The Institute of 1958). Librarianshipand its Activities), in 76. In 1921-22, 11 percentof the students Materialy,ed. L. B. Khavkina(Moskva: were laborersand 34 percentpeasants; Izdaniye InstitutaBibliotekovedeniya, twoyears later, 1923-24, the percentages 1928),5-32. were14 percentlaborers and 26 percent 84. V. N. Stefanovich,A. I. Kalishevskiy:His peasants. Lifeand Activities. - 77. N. K. Skrypnev,Leningrad State Library 85. K. I. Abramov,"G. K. Derman Pervyy InstituteNamed for N.K. Krupskaya;Z. DirectorMBI Po Neopublikovannyndoc- P. Oleneva,"Razvitiye i Sovremennoye umentam"(G. K. Derman:MBI's First Sostoyaniye VysshegoBibliotechnogo Director,Unpublished Documents), in - Obrazovaniya v SSSR" (The GenriettaK. Derman PervyyDirektor Developmentand CurrentCondition of MoskovskogoBibliotechnogo Instituta: Higher Education in the Field of Materialy Nauchnoy Konferenstsiik Librarianshipin the USSR). Ph.D. dis- 110-letiyuSo Dina Rozhdeniya.Stat'i i sertation,MGIK, 1963, 11. Vospominaniya{Genrietta K. Derman- 78. N. I. Sergeyeva,"[Organizational Chart TheFirst Director of the Moscow Library of the Petrograd-LeningradState Institute,Proceedings of a Conference Institute:General Administration, 1918- Dedicated to the 110thAnniversary of 1920 and Faculty Structure,1921- Her Birth),ed. A.I. Lyuter(Moskva: 1925]" (Leningrad:LGIK, 1978). MGIK,1994), 17-29. 79. A. V. Suvorovaand E. N. Burinskaya,"Iz 86. Simon also taughtcourses in Leningrad Istorii BibliograficheskoyPodgotovki and servedas a co-editorof a lateredi- Kadrov"(History of Trainingfor Biblio- tion of Khavkina'sdictionary (Moskva, graphers),Istoriya i PerspektivyBiblio- 1952); see "K. R. Simon(1887-1966)" in technogoObrazovaniya no. 118 (1988): Knigovedeniye. Entsiklopedicheskiy 42-59; "AleksandrIustinovich Malein Slovar' (Book Science: An Encyclo- (1869-1938)," in Knigovedeniye. pedia), ed. N. M. Sikorskiy(Moskva: Entsiklopedicheskiy Slovar' [Book SovetskayaEntsiklopediya, 1982), 258, Science: An EncyclopedicDictionary), 483-84. Yu. N. Stolyarov, "G. K. ed. N. M. Sikorskiy(Moskva: Sovetskaya Derman-Uchonyyi Rukovoditel" (G. K. - Entsiklopediya, 1982), 331; "P. K. Derman Scientist and Head), in Simoni (1859-1939),"in Book Science: GenriettaK. Derman- PervyyDirektor

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MoskovskogoBibliotechnogo Instituto: BibliotechnykhKursov TsIZPO" (Organ- MaterialyNauchnoy Konferentsii k 110- izational-Methodological Work of letiyu So Dnia Rozhdeniya. Stat'i i Library Correspondence Courses), Vospominaniya(Genrietta K. Derman- KrasnyyBibliotekar' no. 4 (Apr. 1931): The FirstDirector of the Moscow Library 38-45. Institute,Proceedings of a Conference 89. N. K. Skrypnev,Leningradskiy Gosudar- Dedicated to the 110thAnniversary of stuennyBibliotechny Instituí Imeni N. K. Her Birth),ed. A. I. Lyuter(Moskva: Krupskoy(1918-1958) [LeningradState MGIK,1994), 8-16. Library Institute Named for N.K. 87. N.K. Krupskaya,O BibliotechnomDele. Krupskaya)(Leningrad: LGBI, 1958). (Moskva:Kniga, 1924). 88. V. Denis'yev, "Organizatsionnometo- dicheskoye PostroyeniyeZaochnykh

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