How Indigenous Was the Baptist Movement in the Russian Empire?
Albert W. WARDIN, Nashville, USA © A.W. Wardin, Jr., 2009
n reviewing a religious movement, the question often arises: IHow indigenous is it? Such a question often produces intense debate. Some researchers stress the contribution of the foreign missionary as against others who stress the role of native person nel, divorcing a movement from all Western or imperialistic as sociations. In a recent issue of the International Bulletin of Mis sionary Research, Jeffrey Cox, who has written on British mis sionary history, has come to the conclusion: «Yet Third World Christian churches are neither independent of Western influenc es nor purely indigenous; in historical terms, they are hybrid, the results of a dialectical relationship between missionaries and non Western Christians.»[1] What about Baptists in Russia? From the start, Baptists have Albert W. Wardin is professor emeritus of been attacked for being a foreign import, incompatible with the history at Belmont culture of the country and a threat to society. N. I. Petrov, in his University in Nashville, article, «Novyya svedeniya o shtundisme,» wrote: Tennessee, where he taught 26 years, and a former …in the beginning of the 70s missionaries of Baptism were president of the Southern deliberately sent out from Hamburg to the German Kherson Baptist Historical Society. colonies; they find there fortuitously Ukrainian workers—people He is author or editor of for a long time already isolated from the family and society with various historical works, the church [—] without difficulty they master them and turn them including Baptists around into an instrument of spreading their heresy among the people, the World: A Comprehensive never having had knowledge of the heresy.[2] Handbook (1995). Dr. Wardin is a life long One of the chief proponents of rejecting the indigenous char Baptist. His grandparents acter of the evangelical movement or Stundism in Russia is Al came from Baptist families exii Dorodnitsyn, a Russian Orthodox anti sectarian missionary, who migrated to the United States from East Prussia in Germany and the [1] Jeffrey Cox, “What I Have Learned About Missions from Writing The British Ukraine. Missionary Enterprise Since 1700,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research, XXXII/2, (April, 2008): 86 87. [2] Trudy Kievskoi Dukhovnoi Akademii, No. 3 (1887): 383.
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later a bishop and rector of Kazan Reli became the state church of Byzantium or gious Academy, a collector of official doc the Eastern Roman Empire and later entered uments, and writer of a number of works Russia. Russian Orthodoxy itself is a on Stundism and Baptists. His 1903 foreign implantation, along with other work, Yuzhno Russkii Neobaptism», izvest Christian groups that have entered the nyi pod» imenem» shtundy (South Russian Russian state. Neobaptism, known by the name Stun Second, the Baptist movement itself da), first of all identifies the Baptist move has had a varied history. One might start ment with continental Anabaptism, in four hundred years ago with John Smyth, cluding its revolutionary manifestation in an Englishman living in The Nether Munster, Germany—an old falsehood. He lands, but his movement of General Bap rejects the thesis that Ukrainian tists soon transported itself to England. Stundism arose from the German colonies Another segment of the Baptist denomi in Russia but insists it is a product of Ger nation, Particular Baptists, began in En man Baptist missionaries from abroad. He gland but soon spread to Wales and Ire wrote at a time of intense Germanopho land. Both movements reached America. bia, a fear of Germans and Germany that Finally, in the early nineteenth century was also directed against the German col Baptists arrived on the European conti onists in Russia. In such a climate, Ortho nent. Although Johann Oncken, the fa dox writers, upholding Russian autocra ther of the continental European Baptist cy and Orthodoxy as the only legitimate movement, was German born, in his religion for native Russians/Ukrainians, younger years he lived in the British Isles stressed the German ties with Stundism or where he learned English. In Hamburg, the Baptists, thereby discrediting both in Germany, he joined an English Reformed the eyes of the populace. But can such a Church. In his missionary work, the word position be sustained? soon circulated about a «new English faith»[3] 1. Dispersion of Religious Bodies Mikhail Timoshenko, a Russian Bap tist leader, in his 1911 article, «Baptisty i Before one considers these contentions, one ikh» protivniki» (Baptists and their ad should first of all consider some other versaries), declared, «The Baptist move factors. First, from its beginning among ment is not foreign but clearly interna Aramaic speaking Jews in Jerusalem, tional. For as all people on the earth need Christianity has remarkably flowed from bread, water and air, so also all need spir one foreign culture to another. It spread to itual nourishment.»[4] Baptists are not a Hellenistic Jews and then to Greek speaking cult with their own special revelation. It Gentiles. In the West it reached Latin is a movement that tries to approximate speaking peoples and later Germanic, Celtic, the faith and life of the apostolic church and English peoples. In the East it spread and to proclaim to all in any nation the to Armenians and Copts in Egypt and gospel of Jesus Christ. But all religious movements come in a cultural garb. And [3] Hans Luckey, Johann Gerhard Oncken und die so the question still remains—how indig Anfange des deutschen Baptismus, (Kassel: J. G. Oncken, 1934), 70 71. enous to Russia was the Baptist move [4] Baptist, No. 9 (1911): 69. ment?
168 Áîãîñëîâñêèå ðàçìûøëåíèÿ #10, 2009 How Indigenous was the Baptist Movementin the Russian Empire?
2. Stundism meters northeast of Odessa, became an Years before Baptists appeared in the other important Stundist center. Ivan G. Russian Empire, other Protestants such as Ryaboshapka (1831–1900), who lived Lutherans and Reformed had already ar nearby, also from German Stundist influ rived some centuries before, settling not ence and reading the Scripture, became a [5] only in towns but especially as German believer and a Stundist leader. colonists in southern Russia. Stundism, a Besides the influence of German pietistic movement stressing personal re Stundism, indigenous elements within ligious experience and holy living, took Ukrainian society also pushed the first root among the German colonists. Ukrainian believers towards Stundism. Stundism came from the German word, Of first importance was the circulation of «Stunde,» meaning «hour.» Stundists, led the Scripture. For some years the British by the laity, gathered for an hour or more and Foreign Bible Society, although un for prayer, Bible reading, and singing. der restriction, circulated various transla German Stundism was primarily a move tions of the Bible, including Russian. In ment within the established Lutheran 1861 the Holy Synod of the Orthodox and Reformed churches. Their adherents, Church produced its own Russian version by and large, were not separatists but re of the four Gospels and in the following mained in their own parish churches, at year the complete New Testament. The [6] tending services and observing the sacra Old Testament would come later. ments, including infant baptism. Another factor was the emancipation German Stundism influenced neigh of the serfs in 1861. Even though emanci boring Ukrainian villages. The Reformed pation did not meet the full expectations parish of Rohrbach, northeast of Odessa, of the peasant masses, it nevertheless was with its pastor, Karl Bonekemper, was an a significant turning point in Russian so important Stundist center, even attract ciety. Peasants were no longer tied to the ing neighboring Orthodox peasants to land and were free to move. With econom their meetings. One such peasant was ic emancipation came also an emancipa Mikhail T. Ratushnyi (ca. 1830–1915), tion of the mind; new ideas were possible who, from Stundist influence and reading and literacy became a more attainable the Scripture for himself, became an evan goal. gelical believer at the beginning of the A third factor was the vulnerable po 1860s. As a Stundist leader, he led his fol sition of the Orthodox Church, the estab lowers to break with the Orthodox lished church for the native Slavic peoples Church and in time accept Baptist prin of the nation. On the one hand, the ciples. church was powerful, protected by laws Because of the influence of Ephraim that forbade heresy and the proselytism of Pritzkau and his son Johann, the German its adherents. On the other hand, it was colony of Alt Danzig, a number of kilo failing to meet many of the religious needs of the population. Although able to ad minister the rites of the church, priests [5] Quarterly Review (July 1874): 5 6. were often poorly trained, possessing lit [6] William Canton, A History of the British and Foreign Bible Society (London: John Murray, 1904 tle biblical knowledge, and frequently 1910), III, 340 64. lived on no higher a moral level than their
Theological Reflections #10, 2009 169 Albert Wardin
own parishioners with their addiction to helped to create among the Orthodox a drink and other vices. Priests conducted critical attitude toward the Orthodox the liturgy in Old Church Slavonic, a lan faith but that few Ukrainians became guage the masses did not understand, and pure Lutherans or pure Reformed. On the their lack of preaching left the people with other hand, he stated that Russian little or no biblical understanding of the Stundism borrowed more from various Christian faith. Piety was centered on the Protestant sects, including the Baptists. rites of the church that included the sac He felt that Russian Stundism took the raments, worship before icons, relics, and greater part of its Protestant teaching in special fasts and holy days. fragments, not taking Protestantism in its German Stundism was an important pure original form. Russian Stundism ul element in the rise of Ukrainian timately developed its own form, adopt Stundism, but the latter followed its own ing more from Protestantism on its nega path of development. Ukrainian Stundists tive side than on its positive side.[7] did not produce any purely Reformed or Lutheran congregations, not accepting 3. Baptist Influence among their confessions of faith, church govern Germans ment, or sacraments. From the beginning Although the Orthodox author Troitskii Ukrainian Stundism was congregational may have overstated the case for Ukrai and anti sacramental, rejecting both the nian Stundism developing on its own even sacramentalism of Orthodoxy and the though it borrowed from a number of sacramentalism of the established Protes sources, he nevertheless was on the right tant churches. Unlike most German track in recognizing sectarian influence. Stundists, it was also a separatist move This brings one to the question of the role ment. It rejected the counsel of Karl of the German Baptists. German Baptists, Bonekemper not to leave the Orthodox if the opportunity presented itself, would Church. Instead, it became a dissenting have been more than happy to evangelize movement. in the Russian Empire. Oncken in Ham In January 1905, Missionerskoe burg corresponded with Mennonite and obozrenie, the Orthodox anti sectarian German Baptist leaders in Russia and periodical, published a perceptive article even visited the country twice. by Sergei Troitskii entitled, «V kakom But German Baptists were largely pre otnoshenii uchenie russkago shtundizma vented from evangelizing the native pop nakhoditsya k nemetskomu protestant ulation because of the language barrier izmu» (What is the relationship of the and also the strict penalties for proselytiz teaching of Russian Stundism to German ing among the Orthodox. German Bap Protestantism). Because of its rapid tists had a difficult time sending mis spread among the indigenous population, sionaries even among the German set the author argued that it could not have tlers. As Arsenii Rozhdestvenskii, the been simply a foreign import; if it were Orthodox writer on Russian Stundism, only that, it would fade and disappear. He pointed out, German Baptist missionar pointed out that German Stundism ies could not stay for any length of time. He pointedly wrote, «…they were sent [7] Missionerskoe obozrenie (January 1905): 55 57.
170 Áîãîñëîâñêèå ðàçìûøëåíèÿ #10, 2009 How Indigenous was the Baptist Movementin the Russian Empire? packing (vyprovazhivali) abroad, that is, knowing Baptists, but influenced by a sent out without ceremony.»[8] He was Baptist tract, Mennonite Brethren began right. In my research I have found only to immerse believers in 1860. Oncken cor one German subject who stayed for any responded with Abraham Unger, a future extended time—August Liebig. In his ca Mennonite Brethren leader, possibly as reer in Russia his work was almost entire early as 1859 and sent August Liebig in ly among Germans, and even he was ex 1866 to visit Unger and other Menno iled twice from the country. nites. Both Johann Pritzkau of Alt Dan Aside from Liebig, Germans who were zig, who was immersed as early as 1864 by born in the Russian Empire did most of Mennonite Brethren, and Johann Wiel the Baptist mission work among the Ger er, a Mennonite Brethren, both met with man population in the country. The ear Oncken in Hamburg at the end of the liest of these men was Gottfried Alf (1831 1860s. In 1869 Oncken himself traveled 1898), my great great grand uncle, the to Russia and visited Mennonite Breth first ordained Baptist minister in the Rus ren, constituted the German Baptist sian Empire.[9] Alf was born in Russian church in Alt Danzig, and even consult Poland and preached in both German ed with Ukrainian believers. and Polish. While a teacher and still a Baptist work in the Caucasus began Lutheran, he had a religious experience with the migration in 1861 of Martin K. that led him to preach the gospel. Oppo Kalweit (1833–1918) with his wife and sition from the Lutheran authorities two sisters to the area of Tiflis, today forced him out of his church. Although Tbilisi in the country of Georgia. Kalweit not knowing the Baptists, he soon heard was a German of Lithuanian extraction of them and decided to become a Baptist but born a Russian subject and lived in since they appeared to be in accord with Kovno Province near the Russian Ger Scripture. His immersion as a believer in man border. After his migration, Kalweit 1858 began the Baptist movement in Po at first felt isolated and almost aban land, a movement that also spread into doned, even fearing the Russian people. Volhynia in Ukraine. Although Alf went He nevertheless began to hold worship to Hamburg and received support from services, using both German and Russian. abroad, the Alf movement was indige On August 20, 1867 (o.s.), Kalweit bap nous, developing its own workers and tized Nikita I. Voronin (1840–1905), the churches. Such German Russians as Karl first Russian Baptist convert, a Molokan Ondra, A. R. Schiewe, and Johann Pritz who was searching the Scripture and kau also led the German Baptist work in sought baptism. Molokans were a native Russia. Russian sect that rejected all sacraments, German Baptists developed special including those of the Orthodox Church. ties with Mennonite Brethren, a pietistic Voronin preached among his fellow revival movement that broke from other Molokans, gathering a group that num Mennonites in the Ukraine. Without bered ten by 1871. About this time Kal
[8] Arsenii Rozhdestvenskii, Yuzhnorusskii shtundizm Wardin, Jr., Gottfried F. Alf: Pioneer of the Baptist (St. Petersburg, 1889), 101. Movement in Poland (Brentwood, Tennessee: [9] For the career of Gottfried Alf, see Albert W. Baptist History and Heritage Society, 2003).
Theological Reflections #10, 2009 171 Albert Wardin
weit’s group broke up and joined the other Stundists who were looking for help. Voronin body. This work produced out With his relations with both Mennonite standing leaders, including Vasilii Pavlov Brethren and German Baptists and his and Vasilii V. Ivanov, as well as Ivan (Jo competency in both the German and hann) V. Kargel, a Turkish subject who Russian languages, he was in a strategic later became naturalized. Although Pav position to lead them. He counseled lov, Ivanov, and Kargel went to Hamburg them to withdraw entirely from the Or and met with Oncken, yet the work in the thodox Church and form their own con Caucasus in its origins and leadership was gregations. In 1870 he drew up Pravila indigenous.[10] veroispovedaniya novoobrashchennago German Baptists did not relate to the Russago Bratsva (Regulations of the con Orthodox population in the Ukraine fession of the newly converted Russian until after the Stundist movement had Brotherhood). It was a confessional state started. If anything, Ukrainian Stundists ment of ten articles in conformity with the reached out to Baptists rather than confession of the German Baptist Union Baptists reaching out to them. Baptist but shortened and not an exact transla influence among Ukrainian Stundists did tion of it.[12] Even though the Russian au not take root until 1869 1870. Until then thorities were greatly adverse to the accep Ukrainian Stundists knew little, if tance by Stundists of Baptist principles, anything, about Baptists. The year 1869, in the face of persecution Ratushnyi and however, would be a banner year for Ryaboshapka carried forth as Stundo Baptist penetration. That June a large Baptist leaders. As Wieler wrote in 1874, baptism was held in Alt Danzig, which «Notwithstanding all persecutions, the included the baptism of Efim Tsimbal, a awakening is spreading through the fee Ukrainian believer, who surreptitiously ble instrumentality of simple breth but illegally was immersed by Abraham ren….»[13] The movement continued under Unger, who was invited to officiate. Before indigenous leadership. the end of 1869 Tsimbal will immerse Ryaboshapka, and Ryaboshapka in 1871 4. Mladostundism will immerse Ratushnyi.[11] In 1869 Johann Wieler accompanied Although Ratushnyi and Ryaboshapka Oncken to Odessa where he would re were now leaders of a Stundo Baptist move main, beginning a German speaking ment, it did not mean all Stundists would church. But more important, he developed follow them. A break occurred between a close relationship with Ratushnyi and Stundo Baptists and other Stundists,
[10] For information on the Kalweit and Voronin 1908), document 58. For Pritzkau’s reports, see groups, see Missionsblatt (October, 1868): 160 and Quarterly Reporter (October 1869): 394 95 and (September 1869): 129 32; Baptist Missionary (July, 1870): 837. Magazine (January, 1870): 19 21; Baptist No. 5 [12] Lawrence Klippenstein, ed. and tr., “Johann (1927): 13 14, and Bratskii vestnik No. 3 (1957): Wieler (1839 1889) among Evangelicals: A New 28. Source of Mennonites and Evangelicalism in [11] For the Russian report on Tsimbal’s baptism, Imperial Russia,” Journal of Mennonite Studies, V see Aleksii Dorodnitsyn, Materialy dlya istorii (1987): 49 50. For a copy of the Pravila, see religozno ratsionalisticheskogo dvizheniya na yuge Dorodnitsyn, document 301. Rossii vo vtoroi polovine XIX go stoletiya (Kazan, [13] Quarterly Review (July 1874): 6.
172 Áîãîñëîâñêèå ðàçìûøëåíèÿ #10, 2009 How Indigenous was the Baptist Movementin the Russian Empire? called Mladostundists (Young Stundists) ical churches and believer’s baptism by or Novostundists (New Stundists), which immersion. They took advantage of a re shows that the Stundist movement was ligious situation that was turning in their not monolithic, included indigenous ele favor. This was true for the Alf movement ments, and continued to negotiate its own in Russian Poland and also for the Men way. The Mladostundists not only op nonites, German Stundists, Ukrainian posed the priesthood and the sacraments Stundists, and Molokans. They were at of the Orthodox Church but also reject the right place at the right time. ed any new hierarchy or new rites. They wished to continue the original Stundist 5. Indigenous Elements Today pattern of devotional gatherings with all believers equal. They opposed the admin Russian Evangelical Christians Baptists istrative role of the «elder brother,» one exhibit their indigenous character today. who might also appeal for money for mis This is seen particularly in their worship, sion trips and propaganda.[14] whose tenor and pulse significantly differ Mladostundists also spiritualized the from that of the West. The intensity of ordinances of baptism and communion worship, paralleling the reverence in the and opposed their observance. One of Orthodox Church, is serious and person their leaders, Gerasim Balaban declared, al. Services last at least two hours, which «Rites—this is theater.» They argued that include, besides the singing of hymns, ser baptism was only an external sign that mons from three or four preachers and a had no power; one must receive the living number of choir anthems if not also spe water and be baptized in the Spirit. cial musical numbers. Stundists and Bap Christ’s baptism was for Himself alone. tists adopted hymns from Western evan Nor does one receive Christ in the Lord’s gelical sources, but they also composed Supper, but from Christ Himself and His hymns of their own. The services are also Word. In time Baptists would modify punctuated with periods of prayer. Wor somewhat Mladostundist practice, but shippers kneel or stand to pray. Men or nevertheless the division persisted for women lead out in extemporaneous prayer some time. In the end, however, the with all joining in with a whispered un Stundist movement would become Stun dertone. Some worshippers observe the do Baptist in its entirety. kiss of peace, confined to members of their At this point, it should be recognized own sex. Scriptures adorn the walls of the that German Baptists took advantage of church, frequently including the phrase, the evangelical movement already devel «God is Love.» As in the Orthodox tradi oping in the Russian Empire. They were tion, Easter is the most important Chris not initiators of the movement but facili tian holy day. tators in moving it to what they consid Baptists in Russia were never known ered were more consistent biblical prinic for the strict Calvinism of many Regular ples such as separation from non evangel Baptists in the West. Unlike their Southern Baptist brethren, many Russian Baptists tend to accept the prospect of [14] See Rozhdestvenskii, 105 106, 174 75, 266 67, falling from grace rather than belief in the for the differences between the Mladostundists and Stundo Baptists. security of the believer.
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How indigenous are Russian Bap influenced them. As other religious move tists? There is no easy answer. In origin ments, they too may be a hybrid. How or development they are simply not an much they incorporate foreign elements implantation from another nation or cul and how much they incorporate indige ture. On the other hand, Protestant as nous elements may simply be in the eye well as Baptist impulses from abroad have of the beholder.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Canton, William. A History of the British and Kassel: J. G. Oncken, 1934. Foreign Bible Society. London: John Petrov, N. I. «Novyya svedeniya o Murray, 1904 1910, III. shtundisme.» Trudy Kievskoi Dukhovnoi Cox, Jeffrey. «What I Have Learned about Akademii, No. 3 (1887). Missions from Writing The British Rozhdestvenskii, Arsenii. Yuzhnorusskii Missionary Enterprise since 1700.» shtundizm». St. Petersburg,1889. International Bulletin of Missionary Timoshenko, Mikhail. «Baptisty i ikh» Research, XXXII/2, (April, 2008): 86 87. protivniki.» Baptist, No. 9 (1911). Dorodnitsyn, Aleksii. Materialy dlya istorii Troitskii, Sergei. «V kakom otnoshenii uchenie religiozno ratsionalisticheskogo dvizheniya russkago shtundizma nakhoditsya k na yuge Rossii vo vtoroi polovine XIX go nemetskomu protestantizmu.» stoletiya. Documents 58, 301. Kazan, 1908. Missionerskoe obozrenie (January 1905): 55 Klippenstein, Lawrence, editor and 57. translator. «Johann Wieler (1839 1889) Val’kevich, Viktor L’vovich. Zapiska o among Evangelicals: A New Source of propagande protestantskikh sekt v Rossii i, v Mennonites and Evangelicalism in osobennosti, na Kavkaze. Tiflis, 1900. Imperial Russia.» Journal of Mennonite Studies, V (1987): 49 50. Wardin Albert W., Jr. Gottfried F. Alf: Pioneer of the Baptist Movement in Poland. Luckey, Hans. Johann Gerhard Oncken und die Brentwood, Tennessee, USA, 2003. Anfange des deutschen Baptismus.
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