Rhetorical Modes

Any writing you do, and in particular academic writing, employs certain strategies to organize and structure your thoughts for your audience. We call these various strategies "rhetorical modes." A "mode" is a way of doing something. "Rhetoric," in its classical sense, is the study of argument. Thus a rhetorical mode is simply a "way" of arguing; or to generalize further, it's really a way of thinking about a subject. Most complex pieces of writing will employ multiple rhetorical modes for presenting thoughts, but even in the most complex argument, you'll still find a predominant mode the author employs. Below are some of the most frequently used ones:

1. Narration/chronological 2. causal analysis 3. classification/division 4. comparison/contrast 5. problem/solution 6. process analysis

Using narration/chronology

Narration is usually the easiest mode to write in, as it's story-telling. We tell stories all day long, to ourselves, to our friends and family. Unconsciously, as we're telling our stories (as in, "how was your day today?") we're selecting significant details and events, not only to share the experience, but also to make meaning out of it. Good narration employs sensory detail--sight, touch, taste, hearing and smell--to make the story vivid.

In a research paper, narrative writing appears either as an attention-grabber at the beginning, or is used in a more formal way in a historical paper. Here the writer uses chronology as an underlying structure for the paper. However, a good historian knows how to emphasize those details important to his/her thesis, so no matter how formal or informal the writing, the narrative details are shaped by the writer. A historical paper might combine chronology with a causal analysis, for example.

Using causal analysis

The causal analysis describes the cause and/or effect of an event. Depending on the complexity of the topic, either one or both may be chosen. However, care should be exercised that the paper delves into specific explanations and makes connections rather than generally discussing the topic. The thesis for this paper needs to state your interpretation of the cause or effect of this event in a clear and arguable sentence.

Perhaps the hardest part of the causal analysis is making logical connections between the cause and/or the effect of this event. The number one cause for student failure in writing causal analysis is not making clear, logical connections. Logically, we cannot assume that because one event precedes another event that the first caused the second. And the reverse is true as well; a second event is not necessarily an effect of the first one. Writers must carefully draw logical connections between the event and its cause or effect, so that the audience will be convinced of the connections and thus agree with the author's thesis. The writer must be careful to avoid being simplistic as well. An event rarely has one cause or one effect. The thoughtful writer avoids this fallacy in his/her thinking.

The organization of this paper may create challenges. Unlike the process analysis, organizing the causes of a particular event or the effects of a particular event is less strict. A writer should consider choosing an organizational pattern which list causes/effect in the order of their importance to the event (from least to most), or if there is a time sequence, he/she may want to start with the earliest and work up to the most recent. In short, successful writers choose some sort of organizational pattern for their papers.

Using classification/division

Classification is a form of exposition, related to analysis, in which the writer takes a subject and divides it into categories with clearly definable characteristics. Next the writer groups certain elements in each of those categories according to their relationships to one another. The skills with which we classify/divide lies at the basis of all analytical papers. In short to divide an event, a text, or some other object or group of objects into their composite parts is division, while classification is a naming process for each group or part. Often classification will play a minor role in a research paper, or be combined with another mode.

Using comparison/contrast

A comparison points out similarities; a contrast points out differences. But to write a good paper, these similarities and differences need to be a matter of interpretation or extrapolation rather than a matter of obvious fact. For example, to point out the obvious differences between an apple and an orange will make a pretty boring paper, if the writer sticks to the obvious facts that anyone can see. The writer needs to ask: How might this paper be made interesting? One way to make a comparison/contrast paper more interesting is two choose two similar objects and discuss which is better or to show their true differences. Another way is to write an analogy (extended metaphor) which makes a point by comparing a complex or unfamiliar idea to a simple or more familiar one.

Comparisons and contrasts can be organized in either of two ways (or a combination of them), the choice depends on the writer's purpose. Some writers use both ways as a way of introducing variety into a paper. But the complexity of your topic, your purpose, and your audience should be the determining factors in which organization format you choose. The two formats are called: the point-by-point method and the block method.

The point-by-point method shifts back and forth between the two subjects being compared/contrasted, treating each similarity or difference before going on to the next. Here is how a hypothetical outline for the point-by-point method might look:

I. Point of Similarity or Difference

A. Source A B. Source B

II. Next Point of Similarity or Difference

A. Source A

B. Source B

• and so on through all the similarities/differences you have found in comparing and/or contrasting the two subjects. Well-developed papers in the 3-5 page range will usually cover 2-4 points, using specific examples to illustrate and support those points. Covering more would cause a superficial analysis of the similarities/differences, rather than the in- depth study expected in college level writing.

As you might guess, the point-by-point method works well for complex topics and for audiences whose familiarity with the topic might not be as advanced. Likewise, this method demands the use of good transitions. The point-by-point method, while more difficult to write, provides greater clarity for the reader regarding the overall comparison/contrast you're trying to convey.

The block method (also called the dividing method) organizes its material according to sources as in the outline that follows:

I. Source A: book, movie, study, etc.

A. Point 1

B. Point 2

C. Point 3 etc.

II. Source B

A. Point 1

B. Point 2

C. Point 3 etc.

As you can see this method presents all the information for each subject at one time. This method makes understanding complex topics easier in some ways, but makes the actual comparison/contrast more difficult as the reader must retain more information in his/her head from one longer paragraph to the next. This format does not require the use of transitions as much, but the transition between the two subjects is often more difficult to write. In addition, many beginning writers assume that they can write as much information as they choose in a single long paragraph for each subject. If each paragraph exceeds normal ranges (10-13 sentences), the reader may get lost. Therefore, deciding how to divide paragraphs on each subject may present some challenges for beginning writers.

This doesn't mean you should disregard the block method. If you have minimal points to cover, and instead want to discuss only one or two significant differences/similarities, then use the block method. In an in-class essay test, for example, where your time is limited, covering one point in depth is often much more impressive then covering multiple points superficially. In this case try the block method.

Using problem/solution

This mode is used frequently in research papers, when a societal problem is identified and then solved. Since academic papers are based on empirical research, most often the focus will be on establishing the problem in terms of its causes (thus the causal analysis can also be embedded in this mode) and its significance. Then the solution section serves as a lengthy conclusion. The solutions should always show connection to the causes established earlier.

It’s also possible to write a paper focused more on the solutions. For instance, a paper advocating for stronger gun control laws might examine laws already passed in other countries, and those laws’ effects on crime rates. Thus when empirical evidence is available for the solutions, a research paper can quickly cover the problem to establish it as significance, and spend much more time on solutions.

Using process analysis

This form of analysis breaks a process down into step-by-step pieces, like the directions for baking cookies, or describing how something works, like the engine in your car. However, in academic compositions, these processes are usually more complicated. Writing a process analysis in college is not in the form of a list but in an essay format. Like the classification/division and chronological modes, this approach might be used for a portion of a paper, or embedded within a more dominant mode.

If the process is complicated, the first thinking task is to break the process down into generalized stages before dividing it smaller, individual steps. Next, consider how the steps fit together. What order or pattern do they form? Is their order important? Could the process be completed as efficiently, or perhaps more efficiently, if the steps were re-ordered? Could two or more steps be combined? Would that help or hinder the result of this process? These questions are just samples of the sort of thought that lies behind the analysis of a process.

To write a process analysis, you must first complete the critical thinking work of analyzing the process. Then you need to write your thesis statement. After analyzing the process, you should have a better idea of what you wish to say about the process (often the thesis will express a judgment about the process or make some other arguable statement about it). To say that the process happened is not arguable, so it does not fulfill the criteria for a good thesis. Third, after you have come up with a working thesis, organize the process into manageable steps and stages. You may want to focus on one stage per paragraph, but that depends on how complicated the process is and how many details are needed to thoroughly explain it. Next start writing the paper. Organization is a breeze in this paper: from beginning to end the paragraph/paper should proceed from the first step to the last. If you are writing your whole paper about a process, don't forget to add an introduction and conclusion to your description of the process.