DOCSLIB.ORG

MENA's Frozen Conflicts

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
MENA's Frozen Conflicts POMEPS STUDIES 42 MENA’s Frozen Conflicts November 2020 Contents MENA’s Frozen Conflicts . 3 Marc Lynch, Project on Middle East Political Science, George Washington University Syria, Crisis Ecologies, and Enduring Insecurities in the MENA . .. 6 Samer Abboud, Villanova University Hybrid Security, Frozen Conflicts, and Peace in MENA . 10 Ariel I. Ahram, Virginia Tech Yemen’s Mental Health Crisis and Its Implications for Security . .15 Raiman al-Hamdani; Yemen Policy Center, ARK Group, The European Council for Foreign Relations Patterns of Mobilization and Repression in Iraq’s Tishreen Uprising . .. 21 Chantal Berman, Georgetown University; Killian Clarke, Harvard University; and Rima Majed, American University of Beirut From R2P to Reticence: U .S . Policy and the Libyan Conflict . 29 Mieczysław P. Boduszyński, Pomona College Wars, Capital and the MENA region . 35 Matteo Capasso, European University Institute, Italy The consolidation of a (post-jihadi) technocratic state-let in Idlib . 42 Jerome Drevon, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies; and Patrick Haenni, European University Institute Heartbreak, Still Time, and Pressing Forward: On Lebanon and the Future . .. 48 Sami Hermez, Northwestern University in Qatar Failure to Launch: The Inability of Catalysts to Alter Political Arrangements in Lebanon and Syria . 52 Sara Kayyali, Human Rights Watch The Great Thaw: The Resumption of Political Development in the Middle East . 59 David Siddhartha Patel, Brandeis University This Critical Juncture: Elite Competition in a Receding Civil War . 62 Ammar Shamaileh, Doha Institute for Graduate Studies Citizenship Constellations in Syria . 68 Marika Sosnowski, German Institute for Global and Area Studies Prospects for Ending External Intervention in Yemen’s War . 74 Alexandra Stark, New America Pursuing Peace by Engaging Justice in Yemen . 81 Stacey Philbrick Yadav, Hobart and William Smith Colleges The Project on Middle East Political Science The Project on Middle East Political Science (POMEPS) is a collaborative network that aims to increase the impact of political scientists specializing in the study of the Middle East in the public sphere and in the academic community . POMEPS, directed by Marc Lynch, is based at the Institute for Middle East Studies at the George Washington University and is supported by Carnegie Corporation of New York and the Henry Luce Foundation . For more information, see http://www .pomeps .org . 2 Introduction MENA’s Frozen Conflicts Marc Lynch, Project on Middle East Political Science, George Washington University Over the last year, the MENA region’s simmering conflicts Hermez similarly views them as “continual war, but not have seemed frozen in place . The internationally-fueled a frozen conflict . The war continues to flow in time, civil wars in Syria, Yemen and Libya have long since settled undergoing transformations and mutations ”. This calls for into an equilibrium in which no side can either truly win or careful attention to those mutations and metastasizing truly lose . Those conflicts have been held in place in part conflict ecologies, beyond the binaries of war and peace or by local ecologies and war economies and in part by the the false reassurance of viewing conflicts as frozen . competitive interventions by regional and international powers on behalf of their proxies and clients . But are What keeps these conflicts frozen is not simply military these conflicts truly frozen? What does viewing them quagmire . Long running conflicts create new institutional through such a lens gain, and what are the theoretical and realities which create new elites, new economies, and analytical costs? To explore these questions, POMEPS new incentives . Frozen conflicts, then, are generative of convened a virtual research workshop on September 29, new realities on the ground, warscapes characterized by 2020, with scholars from diverse empirical and theoretical fragmented authority, mixed governance, and deep social backgrounds . We are delighted to now publish their transformation . Their longevity allows time for these new papers in this issue of POMEPS STUDIES . social, political and economic realities to take deep root . As Samer Abboud describes it, “These overlapping and Those conflicts, frozen or otherwise, come at great cost . entangled insecurities constitute what I think of as crises The humanitarian consequences of the wars continue to ecologies, assembling at the intersections of civil conflict, mount . The devastation in Syria, Iraq and Yemen is too mass human displacement, proxy wars, environmental easily reduced to nigh-incomprehensible numbers: the and epidemiological crisis, state militarization, external hundreds of thousands of dead, the millions of refugees intervention, and economic collapse ”. Such conflict and internally displaced, the hundreds of billions of dollars ecologies, supported by regional circuits of power and of value destroyed, the disease and famine unleashed . exchange, are far more robust than international efforts Beyond those numbers, as Raiman al-Hamdani reminds us at conflict mediation assume . Once locked into place, in his essay for this collection, lies a devastating landscape they generate a wide range of actors and institutions of psychological trauma and collective memory, intangible incentivized to sustain them no matter the human costs . human costs which will endure for generations . People living through these frozen conflicts find themselves always The contributors to this collection document and theorize caught in between, observes Sami Hermez, waiting on the these evolving institutional realities of governance and next eruption of conflict even if it never arrives . conflict across a range of cases and domains . Across the regional warscapes, Ariel Ahram argues, new forms of The contributors to this volume agree on viewing these hybrid governance have become entrenched: “militias conflicts as deeply entrenched, stalemated and unlikely to and warlords are steadily embedding in governance and produce victory in any significant sense . But they disagree security provisions across wide swaths of territory . States about whether it makes sense to conceptualize them are receding to mostly symbolic placeholders, with limited as “frozen ”. Samer Abboud argues that these conflicts practical role in governing ”. The urge to recentralize rather continue to metastasize, as what he calls “conflict authority in a post-conflict future is a quixitic one . ecologies” constantly evolve in ways which drive deep Instead, he argues, external actors and should accept that change beneath the seemingly frozen surface . Sami “hybrid security governance yields a pockmarked political 3 landscape, with stark variations in who bears arms in mass protests, economic crisis, and the COVID-19 different locations and under whose authority ”. pandemic, citizens demanding change have been unable to achieve a transition to a new political arrangement ”. This involves significant institutional evolution both Post-occupation Iraq, too, has proven highly resistant within and outside the state . Marika Sosnowski traces to change despite massive failures of governance and the mutations of hybrid governance through the issuing security, the bloody war against the Islamic State and a of personal documents: “In the Syrian civil war, where large scale protest movement . Chantal Berman, Killian different territorial areas have, at different times, been Clarke and Rima Majed argue that “since the end of the outside of the control of the state, registering life-cycle post-invasion civil war, Iraq has experienced multiple events, such as births, deaths and marriages, has become waves of mobilization – in 2011, in 2015, and in 2018 – a necessary service other actors have had to fulfil . In all of which aired a similar constellation of demands . In times of armed conflict, life does not pause – children this sense, the Tishreen uprising was the culmination of a continue to be born, people die, marry and divorce – and decade of mobilization in which Iraqis denounced, with these life events need to be documented . The gap left by increasing forcefulness, the dysfunctional political system the state in providing life-cycle event registration during that was set up following the 2003 invasion ”. While security the civil war has been filled by a range of other actors and governance has become ever more hybrid with the in different territorial areas ”. Jerome Drevon and Peter integration and penetration of Shi’a Popular Mobilization Haenni show governance has evolved under the control Units, the political system remains impervious to change . of the jihadist Harakat Tahrir al-Sham in Idlib, where In Algeria, the inscrutable system of military control has “local governance consisted of a combination of local resisted meaningful change despite the demands of the councils, independent organisations, and armed groups’ unprecedented Hirak movement which took to the streets infrastructures (including courts and prison facilities) ”. in 2019 against the re-election of a long-incapacitated These mutations also occur inside the remaining state . president . In the West Bank, the Palestinian Authority Ammar Shamaileh shows how the long war has reshaped continues to govern despite having lost its raison d’etre . the power and influence of Syrian economic elites . “As the intensity of the war in Syria has decreased, the intensity The contributors to this collection disagree about whether of conflict
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Chapter 3.9 Risk Assessment: Civil Disturbance
    CHAPTER 3.9 RISK ASSESSMENT: CIVIL DISTURBANCE 3.9 Risk Assessment: Civil Disturbance Description Civil disturbance, also referred to as “civil disorder” or civil unrest, is defined as any public disturbance involving acts of violence by assemblages of three or more persons, which causes an immediate danger of or results in damage or injury to the property or person of any other individual, as defined in 18 U.S. Code 232. In this context, civil unrest is distinct from peaceful public celebrations, lawful protests and acts of civil disobedience (such as peaceful but un-permitted protests, sit-ins and comparable protest actions). Civil disturbance can include riots, demonstrations, threatening individuals or assemblies that have become disruptive and may cause harm to others. Civil disturbance is typically a symptom of, and a form of protest against, perceived major socio-political problems. Typically, the severity of the action coincides with the level of public outrage. In addition to a form of protest against perceived major socio- political problems, civil disturbances can also arise out of union protest, institutional population uprising, or from large celebrations that become disorderly. Civil unrest results in urban conflicts that arise from highly emotional, social, and economic issues. Tensions can build quickly in a community over a variety of issues, and spans a variety of actions including labor unrest, strikes, civil disobedience, demonstrations, riots, and rebellion. Civil disturbances may arise from acts of civil disobedience caused by political grievances and urban economic conflicts or a decrease in the supply of essential goods and services. Tension in these areas creates a potential for violence.
    [Show full text]
  • Struggle for Power: the Ongoing Persecution of Black Movement the by U.S
    STRUGGLE FOR POWER T H E ONGOING PERSECUTION O F B L A C K M O V E M E N T BY THE U.S. GOVERNMENT In the fight for Black self-determination, power, and freedom in the United States, one institution’s relentless determination to destroy Black movement is unrivaled— the United States federal government. Black resistance and power-building threaten the economic interests and white supremacist agenda that uphold the existing social order. Throughout history, when Black social movements attract the nation’s or world’s attention, or we fight our way onto the nation’s political agenda as we have today, we experience violent repression. We’re disparaged and persecuted; cast as villains in the story of American prosperity; and forced to defend ourselves and our communities against police, anti-Black policymakers, and U.S. armed forces. Last summer, on the heels of the murders of Breonna Taylor and George Floyd, millions of people mobilized to form the largest mass movement against police violence and racial injustice in U.S. history. Collective outrage spurred decentral- ized uprisings in defense of Black lives in all 50 states, with a demand to defund police and invest in Black communities. This brought global attention to aboli- tionist arguments that the only way to prevent deaths such as Mr. Floyd’s and Ms. Taylor’s is to take power and funding away from police. At the same time, the U.S federal government, in a flagrant abuse of power and at the express direction of disgraced former President Donald Trump and disgraced former Attorney General William Barr, deliberately targeted supporters of the movement to defend Black lives in order to disrupt and discourage the movement.
    [Show full text]
  • Policing Protests
    HARRY FRANK GUGGENHEIM FOUNDATION Policing Protests Lessons from the Occupy Movement, Ferguson & Beyond: A Guide for Police Edward R. Maguire & Megan Oakley January 2020 42 West 54th Street New York, NY 10019 T 646.428.0971 www.hfg.org F 646.428.0981 Contents Acknowledgments 7 Executive Summary 9 Background and purpose Protest policing in the United States Basic concepts and principles Lessons learned 1. Background and Purpose 15 The Occupy movement The political and social context for protest policing Description of our research The stakes of protest policing Overview of this volume 2. Protest Policing in the United States 25 A brief history of protest policing in the United States Newer approaches in the era of globalization and terrorism Policing the Occupy movement Policing public order events after the Occupy movement Conclusion 3. Basic Concepts and Principles 39 Constitutional issues Understanding compliance and defiance Crowd psychology Conclusion 4. Lessons Learned 57 Education Facilitation Communication Differentiation Conclusion Authors 83 Acknowledgments This guide and the research that preceded it benefited from the help and support of many people and agencies. We are grateful to the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) of the U.S. Department of Justice for funding this project, which allowed us the opportunity to explore how American police agencies responded to the Occupy movement as well as other social movements and public order events. We thank Robert E. Chapman, Deputy Director of the COPS Office, for his many forms of support and assistance along the way. We are also grateful to The Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation for its willingness to publish this guide.
    [Show full text]
  • Investigation Into NYPD Response to the George Floyd Protests
    New York City Department of Investigation Investigation into NYPD Response to the George Floyd Protests Margaret Garnett Commissioner December 2020 Investigation into NYPD Response to George Floyd Protests Acknowledgements Commissioner Margaret Garnett thanks the Review Team responsible for this Report, including for Part I: Inspector General & Counsel to the Commissioner Andrew Brunsden, Deputy Inspector General Arturo Sanchez, Assistant Inspector General Michael Garcia, Assistant General Counsel Christopher Tellet, Senior Policy Analyst Justyn Richardson, and Confidential Investigator Mariah Jno-Charles; and for Part II: First Deputy Inspector General Jeanene Barrett and Special Examining Attorney Eric del Pozo (the Commissioner extends additional thanks to Manhattan District Attorney Cyrus Vance, Jr., for the loan of then-ADA del Pozo to this project). Commissioner Garnett also thanks the other members of DOI's staff who assisted in certain aspects of the project: Data Analyst Ari Lewenstein, Special Investigator Adrain Gonzales, Confidential Investigator Gabriel Lipker, Special Investigator Zachary Toner, Confidential Investigator Harlyn Griffenberg, Confidential Investigator Alex Davie, Assistant Inspector General Brad Howard, Special Investigator Shakina Griffith, Special Investigator Alex Lai, Assistant Inspector General Matin Modarressi, Confidential Investigator Rushelle Sharpe, Special Investigator Julian Watts, and Confidential Investigator Katherine O’Toole. Finally, the project benefitted considerably from the wise counsel
    [Show full text]
  • Human Rights Violations and Abuses in the Context of Demonstrations in Iraq October 2019 to April 2020
    Human Rights Violations and Abuses in the Context of Demonstrations in Iraq October 2019 to April 2020 United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights August 2020 Baghdad, Iraq An Iraqi protester stands with his country’s national flag as security forces fire teargas during clashes following anti-government demonstrations in Al Khaylani Square off central Baghdad’s Senak bridge which links the Iraqi capital’s Green Zone with the rest of the city, on January 28, 2020. Photo: Ahmad Al-Rubaye, AFP Page 2 of 63 “Of great concern is the continued targeting and killing of activists and human rights defenders. This is not random violence but a deliberate silencing of peaceful voices, coupled with the total impunity enjoyed by perpetrators. Without accountability, the crimes committed will remain mere statistics, numbers on a page. This report sheds light on the suffering, and provides concrete recommendations to help rebuild public trust.” - Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General for Iraq Jeanine Hennis-Plasschaert, 27 August 2020 “People were killed, injured, tortured and mistreated, kidnapped, disappeared, arbitrarily detained, for exercising their rights to peaceful assembly and freedom of expression. This is unacceptable. Everyone has the right to peacefully demonstrate and to publicly express their frustration at not being able to provide for themselves and their families.” - United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet, 27 August 2020. Page 3 of 63 N Baghdad IRAQ Shuhadaa Bridge Ahrar Bridge Wathba Sq. Rasheed St. International Zone Senak Bridge Khaylani Sq. Turkish restaurant Jumhuriya Bridge Al Umma park Abu Nowas St.
    [Show full text]
  • An Independent Examination of the Los Angeles Police Department 2020 Protest Response
    An Independent Examination Of The Los Angeles Police Department 2020 Protest Response Report by Independent Counsel, Gerald Chaleff AN INDEPENDENT EXAMINATION OF THE LOS ANGELES POLICE DEPARTMENT 2020 PROTEST RESPONSE 1 AN INDEPENDENT EXAMINATION OF THE LOS ANGELES POLICE DEPARTMENT 2020 PROTEST RESPONSE Table of Contents I. Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... 4 II. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 14 Section 2.01 Background and Methodology ........................................................................ 14 Section 2.02 Civil Unrest in Los Angeles ............................................................................... 15 Section 2.03 Consent Decree ............................................................................................... 16 Section 2.04 Settlements in Los Angeles .............................................................................. 16 Section 2.05 Department Organization ................................................................................ 18 Section 2.06 Incident Command System Concept ............................................................... 19 III. Timeline Summary of Major Events ........................................................................................ 21 IV. Observations and Findings .....................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • THE CRIMINAL PROCESS DURING CIVIL Disorderst
    Duktab3 3founa VOLUME 1975 AUGUST NUMBER 3 THE CRIMINAL PROCESS DURING CIVIL DISORDERSt A. KENNETH PYE* AND CYm H. LOWELL** In a government framed for durable liberty, no less regard must be paid to giving the magistrate a proper degree of authority to make and execute the laws with rigor than to guarding against encroachments t This is Part I of a two-part essay. Part l1 will appear in issue No. 5 of the 1975 DUKE LAw JoURNAL. * B.A., 1951, University of Buffalo; J1)., 1953, LL.M., 1955 Georgetown Uni- versity. Dean and Professor of Law, Duke University. ** B.S., 1969, Indiana University; J.D., 1972, Duke University. Assistant Profes- sor of Law, University of Georgia. THE FOLLOWING CITATIONS WILL BE USED IN THIS ARTICLE: C. CLODE, THE MILITARY FoRcEs OF THE CROWN (2 vol. 1869) [hereinafter cited as CLODE]; E. CoRwiN, THE PRESmENT, OFFICE AND PowEns 1787-1957 (4th ed. 1957) [here- inafter cited as CoRwiN]; C. DOWELL, MnxTARY Am To THE CIV PowEn (Kavass & Sprudzs eds. 1972) [hereinafter cited as MILITARY AID]; C. FAumAN, THE LAW OF MARTIAL RULE (2d ed. 1943) 1hereinafter cited as FAIRMAN] (the second edition is used because of the general unavailability of the 1939 edition); M. FARRAND, THE REcoRDs OF THE FEDER&L CONVENTION OF 1787 (1911) [herein- after cited as FARRA D]; R. IGHAM, ED., BAYONETS IN TIE STREETS, THE UsE OF TRooPs IN CIVIL Dis- TurANcEs (1969) [hereinafter cited as BAYONETS]; R. RANN, WHEN ClviI. LAw FAILS (1939) [hereinafter cited as RANmN]; L. RADzNOWiCZ, A HISTORY OF ENGLISH CRIMNAL Law (4 vol.
    [Show full text]
  • EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: a Response to the George Floyd Protest Saturday, May 30 – Sunday, June 7, 2020
    EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: A Response to the George Floyd Protest Saturday, May 30 – Sunday, June 7, 2020 Cassandra Deck-Brown Chief of Police Raleigh Police Department Executive Summary: Introduction: The year 2020 has been nothing less than unprecedented in many ways. The events in policing have been unmatched as we continue to work through a rapidly evolving policing environment. From council meetings to protests; to riotous activity, destruction of property and hopefully, healing; the city of Raleigh was and continues to be impacted by the perpetual changes that will undoubtedly reshape the very facets of how we live, work, play and learn. This executive summary will present a high-level overview of the after-action report regarding the protest- related events unfolding between Saturday, May 30 through Sunday, June 7, 2020 following the death of Mr. George Floyd who was killed by a Minneapolis Police officer. Like many other cities throughout the United States, Raleigh experienced many events that reflected outrage, emotional distrust in policing, civil unrest, destruction of property, personal injury, a community response to repair and greater healing. The Timeline of Events: This document offers a summarized timeline that highlights activities for the duration of the protests. What will be most evident is the fluidity of events over what seems to be a rather compressed period of time: • On Saturday, May 30, 2020, a protest event called “A National Day of Action – Justice for George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, Ahmaud Arbery, and lives cut short by Raleigh and Durham Police Departments,” was organized to begin at the courthouse steps. • By 6:00 p.m., a crowd had grown to about 1,000 people.
    [Show full text]
  • Mental Health During and After Protests, Riots and Revolutions: a Systematic Review
    Cite as "Ni MY, Kim Y, McDowell I, Wong S, Qiu H, Wong IO, Galea S, Leung GM. Mental health during and after protests, riots and revolutions: A systematic review. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2020;54(3):232–243. Available from: doi.org/10.1177/0004867419899165." Mental Health During and After Protests, Riots and Revolutions: A Systematic Review Michael Y Ni†1, MD, MPH; Yoona Kim†2, MPH; Ian McDowell3, PhD; Suki Wong1, MPH; Qiu Hong1, PhD; Irene OL Wong1, PhD; Sandro Galea4, MD, DrPH; Gabriel M Leung1, MD, MPH 1. School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China. 2. Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America. 3. School of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada 4. School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America. †Co-corresponding authors: Michael Y. Ni, School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China. Tel: +852 3917 6776; email: [email protected]. Yoona Kim, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America. Tel: +1 443 635 9411; email: [email protected] Keywords: Protest; riot; revolution; collective action; mental health; mental disorders; depression; post-traumatic stress disorder; anxiety; psychological; civil disorder; demonstration; campaign; social movement; political movement 1 Cite as "Ni MY, Kim Y, McDowell I, Wong S, Qiu H, Wong IO, Galea S, Leung GM.
    [Show full text]
  • FM 3-19.15, Civil Disturbance Operations
    FM 3-19.15 CIVIL DISTURBANCE OPERATIONS Headquarters, Department of the Army April 2005 DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. This publication is available at Army Knowledge Online (www.us.army.mil) and General Dennis J. Reimer Training and Doctrine Digital Library at (http://www.train.army.mil) *FM 3-19.15 (FM 19-15) Field Manual Headquarters No. 3-19.15 Department of the Army Washington, DC, 18 April 2005 Civil Disturbance Operations Contents Page PREFACE .................................................................................................................. iv Chapter 1 OPERATIONAL THREATS OF THE CIVIL DISTURBANCE ENVIRONMENT...... 1-1 General Causes for Civil Unrest............................................................................... 1-1 Crowd Development................................................................................................. 1-2 Gatherings................................................................................................................ 1-2 Crowd Building ......................................................................................................... 1-4 Dispersal Process of a Gathering ............................................................................ 1-4 Crowd Dynamics ..................................................................................................... 1-5 Crowd Types ............................................................................................................ 1-6 Crowd Tactics
    [Show full text]
  • Social Unrest
    Seattle Office of Emergency Management Seattle Hazard Identification and Vulnerability Analysis Social Unrest Key Points Social unrest includes civil disorders, acts of mass civil disobedience and strikes differ in their legality, morality and tactics (especially the use or avoidance of violence), but all are acts by groups of people that are intended to disrupt a community or organization. Civil disorder is a public disturbance by a group or groups of people involving acts of violence that cause immediate danger, damage or injury to others or their property. They are often but not always politically motivated. They are both illegal and violent. Civil disorders can be divided into two rough categories: those in which the perpetrators deliberately set out to harm others (e.g., a lynch mob) and those in which the perpetrators are focused more on crimes against property. Most of Seattle’s disorders have been the later type. Civil disobedience is the nonviolent refusal to obey certain laws as an act of political protest. Civil disobedience has been associated with some of America’s most admired figures, such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Even so, it is an effort to put pressure on a governmental body and often does so by disrupting the functioning of society. Civil disobedience is illegal but non-violent. Strikes are collective work stoppages by employees designed to force an employer to meet employee demands. Most strikes are legal and peaceful, but they can be both illegal and violent. The lines between civil disorder, civil disobedience and strikes are fuzzy. The World Trade Organization (WTO) protests began with acts of civil disobedience then spiraled into civil disorder.
    [Show full text]
  • Counterintelligence in the Turbulent 1960S and 1970S
    CI in the Turbulent 1960s and 1970s CHAPTER 2 Counterintelligence in the Turbulent 1960s and 1970s Introduction The early 1960s was a golden period for American counterintelligence. The FBI and CIA recruited several valuable Soviet intelligence officers, and the CI community benefited from a small number of Soviet defectors. This utopia would not last long. Among the defectors were Anatoliy Golitsyn and Yuriy Nosenko, both of who would eventually be the cause of tremendous embarrassment to the CIA and adversely affect the CI community. Except for one espionage arrest between 1966 and 1975, counterintelligence falls from the American scene. The year 1966 also marked an almost total break in FBI-CIA relations that lasted until 1972. In the mid-to-late 1960s, Vietnam became the dominant intelligence issue and also the rallying call for dissent against the government by young Americans. Widespread violence and civil disorder arose in many cities and on many campuses across the country. President Lyndon Johnson and later President Richard Nixon acted on a number of fronts, including the counterintelligence elements within the intelligence community, to determine who was to blame for the turbulence. Both Presidents believed that foreign influences caused the domestic strife confronting the nation, and each directed the CI Community to determine if America’s enemies were behind the violence. In 1967, the Department of Justice instituted the first in a series of secret units designed to collate and evaluate information concerning the growing domestic disorder. After Nixon’s election, the Justice Department created new units but the President remained dissatisfied. The FBI’s response was to continue to conduct COINTELPRO (Counterintelligence Program) operations against the New Left, the Black Nationalists, and the Right Wing, which were established in the late 1950s and 1960s.
    [Show full text]