INSTITUTE OF AND DEPARTMENT OF

THEMES IN PALAEOANTHROPOLOGY AND PALAEOLITHIC ARCHAEOLOGY

Core Module for MSc in Palaeoanthropology and Palaeolithic Archaeology (30 credits): ARCL0123

MODULE HANDBOOK 2020-21

Olduvai Gorge, – I. de la Torre

Coordinator: Dr. Andrew Garrard

E-mail: [email protected] (Office IoA room 408. Telephone 020-7679-4764)

Office hours: please email to make online appointment.

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Potential changes in light of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic Please note that information regarding teaching, learning and assessment in this module handbook endeavours to be as accurate as possible. However, in light of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, the changeable nature of the situation and the possibility of updates in government guidance, there may need to be changes during the course of the year. UCL will keep current students updated of any changes to teaching, learning and assessment on the Students’ webpages. This also includes Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) which may help you with any queries that you may have.

Please refer to the Institute of Archaeology Student Handbook https://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/current-students/ioa-student-handbook and the Institute of Archaeology Study Skills Guide: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/current-students/ioa-study-skills-guide for instructions on coursework submission, IoA referencing guidelines, marking criteria, as well as UCL policies on penalties for late submission, etc

MODULE OVERVIEW

This is the handbook for the core module of the MSc in Palaeoanthropology and Palaeolithic Archaeology which is taught through Terms 1 and 2. It is a compulsory component of the degree programme.

AIMS This module will provide essential background on a range of topics necessary for graduate study in the fields of Palaeoanthropology and Palaeolithic Archaeology. It will be taught by UCL’s leading specialists in the fields concerned. The topics will include: 1) the interpretive history of palaeoanthropology and palaeolithic archaeology. 2) aspects of behaviour, adaptation and evolution. 3) recent hunter-gatherer lifeways and the use of ethnoarchaeology and experimental archaeology. 4) environmental history, faunal communities and palaeoecology. 5) taphonomy and site formation processes. 6) the fossil record and the evolution of human life history. 7) the role of genetic evidence in studying . 8) lithic technology, subsistence strategies and cognitive evolution. 9) case studies drawn from various time periods.

OBJECTIVES On successful completion of this module, students will: 1) have a very strong foundation for graduate study in the fields of palaeoanthropology and Palaeolithic archaeology. 2) be knowledgable about the methodological and analytical tools, and the theoretical models which have been used in reconstructing the human evolutionary past. 3) be able to review and critically appraise a wide range of primary and secondary sources and data relating to these fields.

LEARNING OUTCOMES 1) a detailed knowledge of human biological and cultural evolution. 2) expansion of written and oral skills in communicating complex ideas and data-sets derived from these academic disciplines. 3) ability to critically evaluate evidence and arguments regarding issues in human evolution.

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GENERAL INFORMATION

TEACHING METHODS This 30 credit module will be taught weekly through the autumn and spring terms in 20 two hour sessions. Unless otherwise indicated, these will be held on Mondays at 11.00-13.00. Each session will be taught live online in Moodle using Blackboard Collaborate. Lecturers may vary in their presentation format, but each session is likely to involve a lecture interspersed with discussion. We also hope to hold two sessions in Term 2 at the and Natural History Museum in London (depending on pandemic). This handbook lists highly recommended readings which should be undertaken before the class each week, so you can follow and actively contribute to the discussion. A copy of the powerpoints and other relevant resources will be made available each week on the Moodle site for the course.

ATTENDANCE A 70% minimum attendance at all scheduled sessions is required (excluding absences due to illness or other adverse circumstances, provided that these are supported by medical certificates or other documentation, as appropriate). If you are unable to attend a class, please notify the coordinator by email. Departments are required to report each student’s attendance to UCL Registry at intervals through each term.

METHODS OF ASSESSMENT This module is assessed by means of two essays of 4,000 words each: one in the field of Palaeoanthropology and the other relating to Palaeolithic Archaeology. Detailed information concerning topics and deadlines is given at the end of this handbook.

LIBRARIES AND OTHER RESOURCES The essential reading for this course is available online through UCL’s e-library. However, further reading not available online will be found in the library of the Institute of Archaeology and UCL’s Science Library (particularly the Anthropology Section). Libraries outside of UCL which have relevant holdings include those at the University of London at Senate House and the British Library.

WORKLOAD There will be 40 hours of lecture/discussion sessions in this module. Over the two terms, students will be expected to undertake around 160 hours of reading for the module, plus 100 hours preparing for and producing the assessed work. This adds up to a total workload of some 300 hours for the module.

COMMUNICATION - If any changes need to be made to the module arrangements, these will normally be communicated by email. It is therefore essential that you consult your UCL e-mail account regularly. - For any questions or to make online appointments to discuss aspects of course please email the module coordinator. - The seminars will be held in Blackboard Collaborate in the Moodle site for the course.. - The Moodle site will also contain the handbook for the course and copies of powerpoints and other material presented in the weekly seminars. It can also be used as a forum for additional discussion..

FEEDBACK In trying to make this module as effective as possible, we welcome feedback from students. You will be asked to give your views on the module in an anonymous questionnaire which will be circulated at the end of the course. If students are concerned about any aspect of this module we hope they will feel able to talk to the Module Coordinator, but if they feel this is not appropriate, they should contact the Academic Administrator (Judy Medrington), or the Chair of Teaching Committee (Dr.Louise Martin).

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COURSE SYLLABUS AND TIMETABLE: (Mondays 11.00-13.00 on MS Teams)

LECTURERS:

Aida Andres (Genetics) Louise Martin (Archaeology) Nick Ashton (British Museum) Annemieke Milks (Archaeology) Silvia Bello (Natural History Museum) Matt Pope (Archaeology) Dorian Fuller (Archaeology) Hazel Reade (Archaeology) Andrew Garrard (Archaeology) Ceri Shipton (Archaeology) Aida Gomez-Robles (Anthropology) Christophe Soligo (Anthropology) Garrett Hellenthal (Genetics) Rhiannon Stevens (Archaeology) Philip Hopley (Birkbeck College) Mark Thomas (Genetics) Sandra Martelli (Biosciences) Suzy White (Anthropology)

SCHEDULE OF SEMINARS:

TERM 1

1. (05 Oct) History of Palaeoanthropology & Palaeolithic Archaeology – A Garrard & S. White 2. (12 Oct) Primate Evolution and Behaviour – C.Soligo 3. (19 Oct) Adaptation, Phylogeny and Reconstruction of Behaviour – C.Soligo 4. (26 Oct) Human Fossil Record I: Stem hominins, australopiths and early – A Gomez-Robles 5. (02 Nov) Human Fossil Record II: Later Members of Genus Homo – S. White

Reading Week 09 Nov - 13 Nov.

6. (16 Nov) Plio- Environments – P Hopley 7. (23 Nov) Europe: Chronology, Environments, People – H Reade 8. (30 Nov) Stone tool technology and analysis I – C.Shipton 9. (07 Dec) Stone tool technology and analysis II – C.Shipton 10. (14 Dec) Anatomy & Evolution of Modern Human Speech – S Martelli

Christmas Holiday 19 Dec – 10 Jan.

TERM 2

11. (11 Jan) Experimental archaeology in Stone Age Research – A Milks 12 (18 Jan) Site formation studies in Palaeolithic Archaeology – M Pope 13 (25 Jan) Exploitation of faunal resources: Late Glacial Hunters of the Jordanian Steppe – L Martin 14 (01 Feb) Archaeobotany of hunter-gatherer and hominin diets – D Fuller 15 (08 Feb) Application of Isotope Studies to the Palaeolithic – R Stevens

Reading Week 15 Feb – 19 Feb.

16 (Wed 24 Feb: 2-4) Genetics & Human Evolution I: Introduction – M Thomas 17 (Wed 03 Mar: 2-4) Genetics & Human Evolution II: Demographic History – G. Hellenthal 18 (Wed 10 Mar: 2-4) Genetics & Human Evolution III: Signatures of Selection – A. Andres 19 (15 Mar) From Natural History Museum – Human Behaviour under the Microscope - S. Bello 20 (22 Mar) From British Museum (Franks House) – Current Research on Lower & Middle Palaeolithic of UK - N. Ashton

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SEMINAR DETAILS AND REFERENCE LIST

The following pages give details of the seminars/lectures for the module and identifies high priority (•) and optional readings relevant to each session. Many of the texts are available online through UCL Library Services Explore, but information is provided as to where to find hard copies in UCL library if not online.

The highly recommended readings are considered important for keeping up with the topics covered in the module sessions, and it is expected that students will have checked these prior to the session under which they are listed.

(•) = highly recommended readings Arch. = item in Archaeology library Anthrop., Biology, Geology, History of Science etc are held in the Watson Science Library.

TERM 1

1. History of Palaeoanthropology and Palaeolithic Archaeology (05 Oct) – Andrew Garrard & Suzy White

This introductory session will examine the fascinating history of evolutionary thought concerning the origins of from the first provocative critiques of the biblical narrative in the mid 19th century through until the present day. We will divide this seminar into two: firstly looking at the discovery and changing interpretation of ancestral hominin fossils based on their morphology and more recently ancient DNA; and secondly the interpretation of developments in human behaviour from the material record left by their activites as well as their physical remains. In general, explanations that integrate many aspects of human anatomy and behaviour into single transformations have broken down, so that human evolution is now interpreted as a mosaic pattern.

Bowler P.J. 1986. Theories of Human Evolution: A Century of Debate, 1844-1944. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press. (Anthrop: B 30 BOW; History of Science: RG 5 BOW) De Groote I. et al. 2016. New genetic and morphological evidence suggests a single hoaxer created Piltdown Man. Royal Society Open Science 3: 160328. (Online) Delisle R. 2006. Debating Humankind's Place in Nature: The Nature of : 1860- 2000. New York, Prentice Hall. (Arch: BB 1 DEL; Issue Desk DEL 4) Dennell R.W. 2001. From Sangiran to Olduvai, 1937-1960: The quest for 'centres' of hominid origins in Asia and Africa. In R. Corbey & W. Roebroeks (ed.): Studying human origins: Disciplinary history and epistemology. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 45-66. (Arch: BB1 Qto COR) Grayson D.K. 1983. The Estabishment of Human Antiquity. New York, Academic Press. (Arch: AG GRA; or order from Library Stores) • Henke W. 2007. Historical Overview of Paleoanthropological Research. In W. Henke & I. Tattersall, (eds.) Handbook of Paleoanthropology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1-56. (Online book – see library catalogue) Lewin R. 1987. Bones of Contention. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. (Arch: BB 1 LEW) Reader J. 1981. Missing Links: The hunt for the earliest Man. London, Penguin. (Arch: BB 1 REA) Sackett J.R. 2000. Human antiquity and the Old Stone Age: the nineteenth century background to palaeoanthropology. Evolutionary Anthropology 9: 37-49. (Online) • Schroeder L. 2020. Revolutionary fossils, ancient biomolecules, and reflections in ethics and decolonization: Paleoanthropology in 2019. American Anthropologist 122(2): 306-320. (Online) Schwartz J.H. (ed). (2018). Rethinking Human Evolution. London, The MIT Press. (On order for library) Tattersall I. 2000. Paleoanthropology: the last half century. Evolutionary Anthropology 9: 2-36. (Online) Trinkaus E. & Shipman P. 1993. The Neandertals. Changing the Image of Mankind. London, Jonathan Cape. (Arch: Issue Desk TRI; Anthrop: B 34 TRI) Walker A. & Shipman P. 1996. The Wisdom of Bones. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London. (Arch: BB 1 WAL).

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2. Primate Evolution and Behaviour (12 Oct) – Christophe Soligo

Research on non-human forms an integral part of palaeoanthropological research due to the comparative insights non-human primates provide into human evolution. Tool use, hunting and the recent discovery and descriptions of local cultural traditions in a range of non-human primate species are some of the most obvious behaviours exhibited by extant primates with a direct relevance to human evolution. Similarly, the fossil record of non-human primates is of foremost importance in that it provides insights into the physical and temporal framework within which the earliest phases of human evolution took place. This session will give students an overview of the latest developments in the fields of palaeoprimatology and comparative primate behaviour. This session will give students an overview of the fields of palaeoprimatology and of primate comparative anatomy and behavior.

Campbell et al. (2011). Primates in Perspective. 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press. (Anthrop: B 24 CAM) Cartmill M. 1990. Human uniqueness and theoretical content in paleoanthropology. International Journal of Primatology 11:173-192 (Online) • Fleagle J.G. 2013. Primate Adaptation and Evolution. 3rd ed. Academic Press, San Diego. (Online – Chapters available from library as separate downloads) Hartwig C. (ed.) 2002. The Primate Fossil Record. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. (Anthrop: B 40 HAR) Martin R.D. 1990. Primate Origins and Evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton. (Anthrop: B 34 MAR) Reed K.E. & Bidner L.R. 2004. Primate communities: past, present, and possible future. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 41: 2-39. (Online) Soligo C. (ed.) 2007. Primate Evolution and Environments. Folia Primatologica 78: 273-448. (Online) Soligo C & Smaers JB. 2016. Contextualising primate origins – an ecomorphological framework. Journal of Anatomy 228: 608–629. (Online) Strier K. 2017. Primate Behavioral Ecology (5t* edn). Routledge, New York. (Anthrop: B 24 STR) Whiten A. 2005. The second inheritance system of chimpanzees and humans. Nature 437: 52-55. (Online)

3. Adaptation, Phylogeny and Reconstruction of Behaviour (19 Oct) – Christophe Soligo

The process of natural selection is central to understanding how the environment has shaped human evolution. It also provides the theoretical framework for using skeletal evidence to reconstruct behaviour of humans and other in the past. In this session we go through concepts of adaptation, how to test hypotheses of adaptation, and the challenges of then using evidence of adaptation to reconstruct behaviour.

Cartmill M. 1990. Human uniqueness and theoretical content in paleoanthropology. International Journal of Primatology 11:173-192 (Online) Felsenstein J. 2003. Inferring Phylogenies. Sunderland (Mass.): Sinauer Assocs. (Biology J 9 FEL) Goswami A, Smaers JB, Soligo C, Polly PD. 2014. The macroevolutionary consequences of phenotypic integration: From development to deep time. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B: Biological Sciences 369 (1649): 20130254. (Online) Hall B.K. 2007. Homoplasy or homology: dichotomy or continuum? Journal Human Evolution 52: 473- 479. (Online) Nunn C.L. 2011. The Comparative Approach in Evolutionary Anthropology and Biology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. (Anthrop: B 30 NUN) Plavcan J.M., Kay R.F., Jungers W.L. & Van Schaik C.P. (eds) 2001. Reconstructing Behavior in the Primate Fossil Record. New York, Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers: 1-41. (Arch: BB 3 PLA; Anthrop; B 44 PLA) Rose M.R. & Lauder G.V. (eds.) 1996. Adaptation. San Diego, Academic Press. (Biology J 7 ROS) • Smith R.J. 2016. Explanations for adaptations, just‐so stories, and limitations on evidence in evolutionary biology. Evolutionary Anthropology 25: 276-287. (Online) Soligo C & Smaers J.B.. 2016. Contextualising primate origins – an ecomorphological framework. Journal of Anatomy 228: 608–629. (Online)

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4. Human Fossil Record I: Stem hominins, australopiths and early Homo (26 Oct) – Aida Gomez-Robles

In this lecture we will explore the origins of and its related anatomical adaptations. We will also look at some of the species that have been put forward as the first hominins and the controversies regarding their possible hominin classification. We will review the first undisputed hominins, , and we will also introduce , a lineage of very robust hominins that went extinct despite highly specialized dietary adaptations. We will cover the origin of the genus Homo and the earliest species within our own genus.

• Harcourt-Smith, W. 2010. The first hominins and the origins of bipedalism. Evolution and Education Outreach 3, 333-340. (Online) Strait D.S. 2010. The evolutionary history of the Australopiths. Evolution and Education Outreach 3, 341-352. (Online) • Wood, B., Harrison, T. 2011. The evolutionary context of the first hominins. Nature 470, 347-352. (Online) Haile-Selassie, Y. et al. 2016. The Pliocene hominin diversity conundrum: Do more fossils mean less clarity? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 113, 6364–6371. (Online) • Kimbel, W.H., Villmoare, B. 2016. From Australopithecus to Homo: the transition that wasn’t. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 371, 20150248. (Online) Wood, B., Collard, M. 1999. The human genus. Science 284, 65–71.(Online) Spoor, F. et al. 2015. Reconstructed type OH 7 suggests deep-rooted species diversity in early Homo. Nature 519, 83–86. (Online) Wood, B., Boyle, E.K. 2016. Hominin taxic diversity: Fact or fantasy? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 159, 37-78. (Online)

5. The Human Fossil Record II: Later Members of Genus Homo (02 Nov) – Suzy White

This lecture will introduce the later members of Homo, from up to Homo sapiens. We will review the reasons that are such a problematic taxon, before examining the differences, both anatomical and behavioural, between our own species and our contemporaries, Homo neanderthalensis. We will go over the various models that have been used to explain the origin and dispersal of Homo sapiens, and get briefly review the ongoing research into interbreeding in late Homo. Finally, we will explore the more distant relatives with whom we once coexisted, , Homo luzonensis and , and the enigmatic .

• Aiello L.C. 2010. Five years of Homo floresiensis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142:167-179. (Online) Bermudez de Castro J.M. & Martinon-Torres M. 2013. A new model for the evolution of the human Pleistocene populations of Europe. International 295: 102-112. (Online) Dennell D.W., Martinon-Torres M., de Castro J.M.B. 2011. Hominin variability, climatic instability and population demography in Middle Pleistocene Europe. Quaternary Science Review 30: 1511- 24. (Online) Green R.E. et al. 2010. A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome. Science 328: 710-722. (Online) • Harvati, K. 2007. 100 years of Homo heidelbergensis - Life and times of a controversial taxon. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte, 16:85-94. (Online) Hublin J.J. 2009. The origin of . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106: 16022-16077. (Online) Lordkipanidze D. et al. 2007. Postcranial evidence from early Homo from Dmanisi, . Nature 449: 305-310. (Online) • Stringer, C. B. (2016). The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 371(1698): 20150237. (Online) Reich D. et al. 2010. Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova in Siberia. Nature 468: 1053-1060. (Online)

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6. Plio-Pleistocene environments (16 Nov) – Phil Hopley

The climatic and ecological context of human evolution is crucial to the understanding of hominin adaptations and the speciation and extinction of early hominins. This seminar will outline trends in global and African climate in the Plio-Pleistocene and will discuss the geological and palaeontological evidence used to reconstruct hominin environments. We will discuss different hypotheses relating to the micro- and macro-evolutionary responses of hominins and other species to Plio-Pleistocene climatic change. Hominin ecomorphology will be discussed within the context of changing environments.

• Behrensmeyer A.K. 2006. Climate Change and Human Evolution. Science 311 (5760): 476-478. (Online) Behrensmeyer A.K., Todd N.E., Potts R. & McBrinn G.E. 1997. Late Pliocene faunal turnover in the Turkana Basin, . Science 278: 1589-1594. (Online) • Kingston J. 2007. Shifting adaptive landscapes: Progress and challenges in reconstructing early hominid environments. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 134 (S45): 20-58. (Online) • Maxwell, S. J. et al. (2018). Sporadic sampling, not climatic forcing, drives observed early hominin diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115(19): 4891-4896. (Online) Potts R. 1996. Evolution and climate variability. Science 273: 922-923. (Online) Sponheimer M., Passey B., de Ruiter J., Guatelli-Steinberg D., Cerling T., & Lee-Thorp J. 2006. Isotopic Evidence for Dietary Variability in the Early Hominin . Science 314 (5801): 980-982. (Online) Zachos J., Pagani M., Sloan L., Thomas E., & Billups K. 2001. Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present. Science 292 (5517): 686-693 (Online)

7. Late Pleistocene Europe: Chronology, Environment and People (23 Nov) – Hazel Reade

Late Pleistocene Europe (c.115-11.7ka) is characterised by significant climatic and environmental variability, including the expansion and contraction of continental ice sheets and associated shifts in ecosystem dynamics. Against this backdrop we see significant changes in the archaeological record, most notably the extinction of Neanderthals, the range expansion of anatomically modern humans, and an increase in diversity of cultural and technological artefacts. Using Late Pleistocene Europe as a case study, this seminar will look how we can integrate chronological, environmental and archaeological data to further our understanding of the Palaeolithic.

Binney H., Edwards M., Macias-Fauria M. et al. 2017. Vegetation of Eurasia from the last glacial maximum to present: Key biogeographic patterns. Quaternary Science Reviews 157: 80-97. (Online) • Blockley S. P. E., Blockley S. M., Donahue R. E. et al. 2006. The chronology of abrupt climate change and Late Upper Palaeolithic human adaptation in Europe. Journal of Quaternary Science 21: 575–584. (Online) • Burke A., Kageyama M., Latombe G. et al., 2017. Risky business: The impact of climate and climate variability on human population dynamics in Western Europe during the Last Glacial Maximum. Quaternary Science Reviews 164: 217-229. (Online) *Elias S. and Mock C. (2013) Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science. London: Elsevier. (Online) Higham T.G.H., Douka K., Wood R. et al. 2014. The timing and spatiotemporal patterning of disappearance. Nature 512: 306-309. (Online) *Lowe J.J. and Walker M.J.C. (2015) Reconstructing Quaternary Environments. London: Routledge. (Online) *Rasmussen S.O., Bigler M., Blockley S.P. et al. 2014. A stratigraphic framework for abrupt climatic changes during the Last Glacial period based on three synchronized Greenland ice-core records: refining and extending the INTIMATE event stratigraphy. Quaternary Science Reviews 106: 14-28. (Online) • Staubwasser M., Dragusin V., Onac B.P. et al. 2018. Impact of climate change on the transition of Neanderthals to modern humans in Europe. Proceedings National Academy Sciences U.S.A. 115, 9116-9121. (Online)

*Good reference texts for information on specific dating methods/palaeoenvironmental proxies/global climate chronological divisions.

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8. Stone Tool Analysis (30 Nov) – Ceri Shipton

Stone artefacts provide the most ubiquitous, longest, and continuous record of hominin behaviour, stretching over millions of years. They are difficult to make and therefore allow for comparisons of complex behaviours of different hominin species. In this session we will explore the methodological and interpretative issues involved in the study of stone tool assemblages and how to extract behavioural information from them.

Clarkson, C. 2013. Measuring core reduction using 3D flake scar density: a test case of changing core reduction at Klasies River Mouth, . Journal of Archaeological Science 40: 4348-4357. (Online) Debenath A. & Dibble H. L. 1993. Handbook of Palaeolithic Typology. Vol 1: Lower & Middle Palaeolithic of Europe. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. (Arch: BC 120 HAN; Issue Desk HAN 1) • Dogandzic T., Braun D.R., McPherron S.P. 2015. Edge length and surface area of a blank: experimental assessment of measures, size predictions and utility. PLOS ONE 10: e0133984 (Online) Hiscock P. 2007. Looking the other way. A materialist/technological approach to classifying tools and implements, cores and retouched flakes. In Mcpherron, S. & Lindley, J. (eds.) Tools or Cores? The Identification and Study of Alternative Core Technology in Lithic Assemblages University of Pennsylvania Museum. (available Online from internet but not from library) Inizan M. L., Roche, H. & Tixier, J. 1992. Technology of knapped stone. Meudon, CREP. (available Online from internet but not from library) • Kuhn S.L. 1992. On planning and curated technologies in the Middle Palaeolithic. Journal of Anthropological Research 48: 185-214. (Online) • Newcomer M.H. 1971. Some quantitative experiments in handaxe manufacture. World Archaeology 3: 85-94. (Online) Režek Ž., Dibble H.L., McPherron S.P., Braun D.R., Lin S.C. 2018. Two million years of flaking stone and the evolutionary efficiency of stone tool technology. Nature Ecology & Evolution 2: 628- 633. (Online) Shea J.J. 2013. Stone tools in the and Neolithic of the Near East. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. (Online)

9. Stone Tool Technology (07 Dec) – Ceri Shipton

This session will explore the development of lithic technology through the Palaeolithic from the Lomekwian, purported to be 3.3 million years old, to the Upper Palaeolithic in the last 50,000 years. We will consider the major transitions in stone tool technology and what they might mean for hominin behaviour and cognition more generally.

• Beyene Y., Katoh S., WoldeGabriel G., Hart W.K., Uto K., Sudo M., Kondo M., Hyodo M., Renne P.R., Suwa G. and Asfaw B., 2013. The characteristics and chronology of the earliest Acheulean at Konso, Ethiopia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110: 1584- 1591. (Online) • Harmand S., Lewis J.E., Feibel C.S., Lepre C.J., Prat S., Lenoble A., Boës X., Quinn R.L., Brenet M., Arroyo A. and Taylor N., 2015. 3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya. Nature 521:310-315. (Online) Kadowaki S., Tamura T., Sano K., Kurozumi T., Maher L.A., Wakano J.Y., Omori T., Kida R., Hirose M., Massadeh S., Henry D.O. 2019. Lithic technology, chronology, and marine shells from Wadi Aghar, southern , and Initial Upper Paleolithic behaviors in the southern inland Levant. Journal of Human Evolution 135: 102646. (Online) Stout D., Apel J., Commander J. and Roberts, M., 2014. Late Acheulean technology and cognition at Boxgrove, UK. Journal of Archaeological Science 41: 576-590. (Online) Stout D., Semaw S., Rogers M.J. and Cauche, D., 2010. Technological variation in the earliest Oldowan from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia. Journal of Human Evolution 58: 474-491. (Online) • Tryon C.A., McBrearty S. and Texier P.J., 2005. Levallois lithic technology from the Kapthurin formation, Kenya: Acheulian origin and Middle Stone Age diversity. African Archaeological Review 22: 199-229. (Online)

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10. The Anatomy and Evolution of Modern Human Speech (14 Dec) – Sandra Martelli

One of the defining modern human characteristics is the extensive use of speech, using acoustic signalling and language to communicate with others (both humans and non-humans). Speech is also an important tool to internally organise thought processes. Speech is a highly complex system, including amongst other things speech production and speech recognition which both have substantial impact on morphology and configurations and organisation of the brain. The evolutionary origins of speech are not resolved, as there is no equivalent model observed in living animals. Furthermore, complex systems like speech are difficult to track in the fossil record, all of which invites much debate and speculation. This session will introduce students to the anatomical requirements for speech production and provide a rough sketch of neurolinguistic requirements for speech and speech acquisition. The session will also introduce students to the limitations of what the hominoid fossil record can reveal about the evolution of modern human speech

Ackermann, H. 2008. Cerebellar contributions to speech production and speech perception: psycholinguistic and neurobiological perspectives. Trends in Neurosciences, 31, 265-272. (Online) • Barney, A., Martelli, S., Serrurier, A. & Steele, J. 2012. Articulatory capacity of Neanderthals, a very recent and human-like fossil hominin. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B- Biological Sciences, 367, 88-102. (Online) Blasi, D. E. Moran, S., Moisik, S. R., Widmer, P., Dediu, D. & Bickel, B. 2019. Human sound systems are shaped by post-Neolithic changes in bite configuration. Science, 363, 1192-+ (Online) Bowling, D.L., Dunn, J.C., Smaers, J.B., Garcia, M., Sato, A., Hantke, G., Handschuh, S., Dengg, S., Kerney, M., Kitchener, A.C., Gumpenberger, M., Fitch, W.T. 2020. Rapid evolution of the primate larynx?. PLOS BIOLOGY, 18(8): e3000764. (Online). Brenowitz, E. A., Margoliash, D. & Nordeen, K. W. 1997. An introduction to birdsong and the avian song system. Journal of Neurobiology, 33, 495-500. (Online) Falk, D. 1975. Comparative anatomy of the larynx in man and the chimpanzee: implications for language in Neanderthal. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 43, 123-132. (Online) Fant, G. 1960. Acoustic Theory of Speech Production, The Hague, Mouton & Co. (UCL SSEES Library: R.XXIII.5 FAN) Fitch, W. T. 2000. The evolution of speech: a comparative review. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 258-267. (Online) • Fitch, W. T. 2012. Evolutionary Developmental Biology and Human Language Evolution: Constraints on Adaptation. Evolutionary Biology, 39, 613-637. (Online) Fitch, W. T., De Boer, B., Mathur, N. & Ghazanfar, A. A. 2016. Monkey vocal tracts are speech-ready. Science Advances, 2. (Online) • Guenther, F. H. & Vladusich, T. 2012. A neural theory of speech acquisition and production. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 25, 408-422. (Online) Han, Y., Jun, W., Fischman, D. A., Biller, H. F. & Sanders, I. 1999. Slow Tonic Muscle Fibers in the Thyroarytenoid Muscles of Human Vocal Folds; A Possible Specialization for Speech. The Anatomical Record, 256, 146-157. (Online) Heim, J. L., Boe, L. J. & Abry, C. 2002. Neandertal vocal tract adequate for speech. New investigations, new prospects. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 1, 129-134. (Online) Hiiemae, K. M. & Palmer, J. B. 2003. Tongue movements in feeding and speech. Critical Reviews in Oral Biology & Medicine, 14, 413-429. (Online) Holden, C. 2004. The . Science, 303, 1316-1319. (Online) Honey, C. J., Thompson, C. R., Lerner, Y. & Hasson, U. 2012. Not Lost in Translation: Neural Responses Shared Across Languages. Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 15277-15283. (Online) Houghton, P. 1993. Neandertal supralaryngeal vocal tract. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 90, 139-146. (Online) Ichim, I., Kieser, J. A. & Swain, M. 2007. Tongue contractions during speech may have led to the development of the bony geometry of the chin following the evolution of human language: a mechanobiological hypothesis for the development of the human chin. Medical Hypotheses, 69, 20-24. (Online) Joly, O., Pallier, C., Ramus, F., Pressnitzer, D., Vanduffel, W. & Orban, G. A. 2012. Processing of vocalizations in humans and monkeys: A comparative fMRI study. Neuroimage, 62, 1376-1389. (Online) Klatt, D. H., Lieberman, P. & Crelin, E. S. 1973. Speech production abilities of primates and human evolution. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 53, 309-10. (Online) 10

Kuhl, P. K. 2010. Brain Mechanisms in Early Language Acquisition. Neuron, 67, 713-727. (Online) Lieberman, P., Crelin, E. S. & Klatt, D. H. 1972. Phonetic ability and related anatomy of the newborn and adult human, Neanderthal man, and the chimpanzee. American Anthropologist, 74, 287- 307. (Online) Lieberman, P., Klatt, D. H. & Crelin, E. S. 1971. Anatomical constraints on speech in chimpanzee, newborn Homo sapiens and Neanderthal man. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 50, 139-+ (Online). Nishimura, T., Mikami, A., Suzuki, J. & Matsuzawa, T. 2006. Descent of the hyoid in chimpanzees: evolution of face flattening and speech. Journal of Human Evolution, 51, 244-254. (Online) Perkins, W. H. & Kent, R. D. 1986. Textbook of functional anatomy of speech, language, and hearing, London, Philadelphia, Taylor & Francis. (UCL Medical Science: Qto JH160 PER) Serrurier, A., Badin, P., Barney, A., Boe, L. J. & Savariaux, C. 2012. The tongue in speech and feeding: Comparative articulatory modelling. Journal of Phonetics, 40, 745-763. (Online) Steele, J., Clegg, M. & Martelli, S. 2013. Comparative Morphology of the Hominin and African Ape Hyoid Bone, a Possible Marker of the Evolution of Speech. Human Biology, 85, 639-672. (Online)

TERM 2

11. Experimental Archaeology in Palaeolithic/Stone Age Research (11 Jan) – Annemieke Milks

Experimental approaches form a cornerstone of Palaeolithic and Stone Age archaeological research, and have been used to understand the full array of human technologies and behaviours, site formation processes and taphonomy. This seminar will highlight some of the many areas where experimental archaeology has contributed to interpretations of sites and artefacts in human evolutionary studies. We will look at how setups range from actualistic experiments to controlled laboratories using robots. I will then provide a case study of an experimental programme undertaken for my PhD on early weaponry. The session concludes with a discussion about the future of experimental archaeology in human evolutionary studies.

Theoretical and methodological frameworks and stone tool production • Eren, M.I., Lycett, S., Patten, R.J., Buchanan, B., Pargeter, J. & O’Brien, M.J. (2016) Test, model and method validation: the role of experimental stone artifact replication in hypothesis-driven archaeology. Ethnoarchaeology 8(2): 103-136. (online) Stone tool production Pargeter, J., Khreisheh, N., Stout, D. 2019. Understanding stone tool-making skill acquisition: Experimental methods and evolutionary implications, Journal of Human Evolution, Volume 133, pp. 146-166. (online) Weaponry Lombard, M. & Pargeter, J. (2008) Hunting with Howeisons Poort segments: pilot experimental study and the functional interpretation of archaeological tools. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(9): 2523-2531. (online) • Milks, A., Parker, D. & Pope, M. (2019) External ballistics of Pleistocene hand-thrown spears: experimental performance data and implications for human evolution. Scientific Reports 9(1): 820. (online) Adhesives • Schmidt, P., Blessing, M., Rageot, M., Iovita, R., Pfleging, J., Nickel, K.G. et al. (2019) Birch tar production does not prove Neanderthal behavioral complexity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (36): 17707-17711. (onlne) Site Formation and Taphonomy Bertran, P., Beauval, C., Boulogne, S., Brenet, M., Costamagno, S., Feuillet, T. et al. (2015) Experimental archaeology in a mid-latitude periglacial context: insight into site formation and taphonomic processes. Journal of Archaeological Sciences 57: 283-301. (online) Bone modifications Selvaggio, M.M. (1994) Carnivore tooth marks and stone tool butchery marks on scavenged bones: archaeological implications Journal of Human Evolution 27 (1-3): 215-228. (online)

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Bello, S.M., Parfitt, S.A. & Stringer, C.B. (2009) Quantitative micromorphological analyses of cut marks produced by ancient and modern handaxes. Journal of Archaeological Science 36(9): 1869-1880. (online)

12. Site Formation Studies in Palaeolithic Archaeology (18 Jan) – Matt Pope

Paleolithic archaeology is preserved as part of the recent geological record and can be found in a variety of different sediment types. These include lake sediment, ancient soil horizons, river deposits, intertidal silts, cave sediments and slope deposits. Understanding the sedimentary context of a site is the first step in being able to reconstruct the processes that lie behind the formation of the record. In the lecture we look at examples from a variety of different contexts to explore how archaeologists work with Quaternary sediment specialists to understand the formation of the record. We’ll be looking at concepts such as: - Spatial Resolution: The degree to which a site preserves the traces of past human behavior in three dimensions. - Time Averaging: The degree to which an archaeological record relates to periods of time, from the moment to the palimpsest. - Post-Depositional Modification: How can you identify movement or sorting of material by sedimentary processes. - Preservational Bias: How, at different spatial scales, can we know what we are missing? - In Situ Archaeology: Does it exist? What is its value? - The Archaeological Site: What does it mean in the Palaeolithic?

• Been, E., Hovers, E., Ekshtain, R., Malinski-Buller, A., Agha, N., Barash, A., Mayer, D., Benazzi, S., Hublin, J.J., Levin, L. and Greenbaum, N., 2017. The first Neanderthal remains from an open- air Middle Palaeolithic site in the Levant. Scientific reports, 7(1), p.2958. (Online) • Benito-Calvo A. & Torre I. de la 2011. Analysis of orientation patterns in Olduvai Bed I assemblages using GIS techniques: Implications for site formation processes. Journal of Human Evolution 61, 50-60. (Online) Blumenschine R.J. & Masao F.T. 1991. Living sites at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania? Preliminary landscape archaeology results in the basal Bed II lake margin zone. Journal of Human Evolution 21, 451-462. (Online) Goldberg P. & Macphail R. 2006. Practical and theoretical geoarchaeology. (Chapter 6 on “Aeolian settings and geomorphological environments” and Chapter 8 on “ and Rockshelters”) Malden MA, Blackwell Science: 169-187. (Arch: BA 10 GOL; Issue Desk GOL2) • Hovers, E., Ekshtain, R., Greenbaum, N., Malinsky-Buller, A., Nir, N., Yeshurun, R., 2014. Islands in a stream? Reconstructing site formation processes in the late site of ‘Ein Qashish, northern . Quaternary International 331: 216-233. (Online) Isaac G.L. 1983. Bones in contention: competing explanations for the juxtaposition of Early Pleistocene artefacts and faunal remains. Reprinted in B. Isaac (ed.) The Archaeology of Human Origins. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 325-335. (Arch: BB 1 ISA, Issue Desk ISA1) • Malinsky-Buller, A., Hovers, E., Marder, O., 2011. Making time: ‘Living floors’, ‘palimpsests’ and site formation processes – A perspective from the open-air site of Revadim Quarry, Israel. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30: 89-101. (Online) • Sánchez-Romero, L., Benito-Calvo, A., Pérez-González, A. and Santonja, M., 2016. Assessment of accumulation processes at the middle Pleistocene site of Ambrona (Soria, ). Density and orientation patterns in spatial datasets derived from excavations conducted from the 1960s to the present. PloS one, 11(12), e0167595. (Online) Stern N. 1993. The Structure of the Lower Pleistocene Archaeological Record. Current Anthropology 34, 201-225. (Online) Schick, K., 1992. Geoarchaeological analysis of an Acheulean site at Kalambo Falls, . Geoarchaeology, 7(1), pp.1-26. (Online) Schick, K.D., 1986. Stone Age sites in the making: experiments in the formation and transformation of archaeological occurrences. Oxford, British Archaeological Reports 319. (Arch: AH Qto SCH)

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13. Exploitation of Faunal Resources: Late Glacial Hunters of the Jordanian Steppe – (25 Jan) Louise Martin

A key research focus in the Late Pleistocene of the Fertile Crescent area has been shifts in hunter- gatherer resource use and the impacts of climate changes in the late Glacial periods, which herald the arrival of agriculture in the early Holocene. This seminar side-steps the fertile zones of the Levant, focusing instead on the semi-arid steppes of Jordan, which has been a research area for several Institute of Archaeology researchers. Here, we will explore human- interaction (hunting methods, pressure on wildlife, and the organization of hunter-gatherer sites) through a series of zooarchaeological studies, and see how this area informs on broader debates about resource intensification in the Epipalaeolithic period.

Garrard A.N. and Byrd B.F. (2013) Beyond the Fertile Crescent. Late Palaeolithic and Neolithic Communities of the Jordanian Steppe. Oxford, Oxbow (Chapters 1, 9) (Online) Henton, E., Martin, L., Garrard, A., Jourdan, A.L., Thirlwall, M. and Boles, O., 2017. Gazelle seasonal mobility in the Jordanian steppe: the use of dental isotopes and microwear as environmental markers, applied to Epipalaeolithic Kharaneh IV. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 11: 147-158.(Online) Maher, L.A., Richter, T., Macdonald, D., Jones, M.D., Martin, L. and Stock, J.T., 2012. Twenty thousand-year-old huts at a hunter-gatherer settlement in eastern Jordan. PloS ONE 7 (2), p.e31447. (Online) Maher L.A., Richter T. & Stock J.T. (2012) The Pre-Natufian Epipaleolithic: Long-term behavioural trends in the Levant. Evolutionary Anthropology 21: 69-81. (Online) • Martin, L., Edwards, Y. and Garrard, A., 2013. Broad spectrum or specialised activity? Birds and tortoises at the Epipalaeolithic site of Wadi Jilat 22 in the eastern Jordan steppe. Antiquity 87 (337): 649-665.(Online) • Martin, L., Edwards, Y.H., Roe, J. and Garrard, A., 2016. Faunal turnover in the Azraq Basin, eastern Jordan 28,000 to 9000 cal yr BP, signalling climate change and human impact. Quaternary Research 86 (2): 200-219.(Online) • Munro, N., 2009. Epipaleolithic subsistence intensification in the southern Levant: the faunal evidence. In J-J. Hublin, M.P. Richards (eds.) The Evolution of Hominin Diets. Springer, Dordrecht: 141-155. Richter, T., Maher, L.A., Garrard, A.N., Edinborough, K., Jones, M.D. and Stock, J.T., 2013. Epipalaeolithic settlement dynamics in southwest Asia: new radiocarbon evidence from the Azraq Basin. Journal of Quaternary Science 28 (5): 467-479. (Online) Spyrou, A., Maher, L.A., Martin, L.A., Macdonald, D.A. and Garrard, A., 2019. Meat outside the freezer: Drying, smoking, salting and sealing meat in fat at an Epipalaeolithic megasite in eastern Jordan. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 54: 84-101.(Online) • Stutz, A.J., Munro, N.D. and Bar-Oz, G., 2009. Increasing the resolution of the Broad Spectrum Revolution in the Southern Levantine Epipaleolithic (19–12 ka). Journal of Human Evolution 56 (3): 294-306.(Online)

14. Archaeobotany of hunter-gatherer and hominin diets (01 Feb) - Dorian Fuller

The study of palaeolithic subsistence has often emphasized “Man the Hunter” in part because of limited empirical evidence of plant components of past diet. This has translated into popular notions, such as “Palaeo-diet” that emphasize meat and assume that starch-rich diets are a production of the advent of cultivation. Recent archaeobotanical recovery and theoretical development, however, has begun to call these assumption into question as archaeobotanical evidence has revealed Palaeolithic tuber use, starchy nut and small seed use. The mounting evidence for diversity in palaeolithic plant consumption may also challenge the concept of a “Broad Spectrum Revolution”, which has often been seen as a development of the terminal Pleistocene that paved the way for cereal consumption and agriculture. This session will explore some theoretical evidence for early dietary diversity and starch consumption as well as a selection of archaeobotanical case studies from southern Africa, north Africa, and .

Key Readings Larbey, C., Mentzer, S. M., Ligouis, B., Wurz, S., & Jones, M. K. (2019). Cooked starchy food in hearths ca. 120 kya and 65 kya (MIS 5e and MIS 4) from Klasies River Cave, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 131, 210-227. (Online) 13

Wadley, L., Backwell, L., d’Errico, F., & Sievers, C. (2020). Cooked starchy rhizomes in Africa 170 thousand years ago. Science, 367(6473), 87-91. (Online) Barton, R. N. E., Bouzouggar, A., Collcutt, S. N., Marco, Y. C., Clark-Balzan, L., Debenham, N. C., & Morales, J. (2016). Reconsidering the MSA to LSA transition at Cave () in the light of new multi-proxy dating evidence. Quaternary International, 413, 36-49. (Online) Florin, S.A., Fairbairn, A.S., Nango, M., Djandjomerr, D., Marwick, B., Fullagar, R., Smith, M., Wallis, L.A. and Clarkson, C., 2020. The first Australian plant foods at , 65,000–53,000 years ago. Nature Communications, 11(1), pp.1-8. (Online) Guan, Y., Pearsall, D. M., Gao, X., Chen, F., Pei, S., & Zhou, Z. (2014). Plant use activities during the upper Paleolithic in east Eurasia: evidence from the Shuidonggou site, Northwest China. Quaternary International, 347, 74-83. (Online)

Further readings Champion, L. and Fuller, D. Q. (2019) Archaeobotany: Methods and Themes. In Mitchell, Peter (ed.) The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Histories: Methods, Sources, and Historiographies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Online) [For those less familiar with archaeobotanical methods and issues in general, this provide an overview geared towards field conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa. It also includes a section on “Hunter- gatherer plant use” based on various African assemblages. PDF to be made available via moodle. Hillman, G. C., & Wollstonecroft, M. M. (2014). Dietary diversity: our species-specific dietary adaptation. In: Archaeology of African Plant Use (eds. C. J. Stevens, S. Nixon, M. A. Murray and D. Q. Fuller).Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press/UCL Institute of Archaeology Publications. Pp. 37-49 PDF to be made available via moodle. Roberts, P., & Stewart, B. A. (2018). Defining the ‘generalist specialist’niche for Pleistocene Homo sapiens. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(8), 542-550. (Online) Jones, M. (2009). Moving north: archaeobotanical evidence for plant diet in Middle and Upper Paleolithic Europe. In The Evolution of Hominin Diets (pp. 171-180). Springer, Dordrecht. (Online) Morales, J. (2018). The contribution of botanical macro-remains to the study of wild plant consumption during the Later Stone Age and the Neolithic of north-western Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 22, 401-412. (Online) Dilkes-Hall, I. E., O’Connor, S., & Balme, J. (2019). People-plant interaction and economic botany over 47,000 years of occupation at Carpenter’s Gap 1, south central Kimberley. , 85(1), 30-47(Online)

15. Application of Isotope Studies to the Palaeolithic (08 Feb) – Rhiannon Stevens

This lecture will introduce the application of isotopic analysis to Palaeolithic and Mesolithic archaeological studies. Isotope of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and strontium will be introduced, along with the mechanisms by which they vary in the biosphere. We will look at how stable isotopes ratios are measured and the types of materials that can be sampled. A range of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic archaeological case studies will show how isotope analyses can aid the reconstruction of past diets, environments and mobility patterns.

Principles of stable isotopes in archaeology: Ben-David, M., & Flaherty, E.A. 2012. Stable isotopes in mammalian research: a beginner's guide. Journal of Mammalogy 93 (2), 312–328. (Online) Bentley A. 2006. Strontium isotopes from the earth to the archaeological skeleton: a review. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 13 (3):135-187 (Online) Lee-Thorp J. 2008. On isotopes and old bones. Archaeometry 50: 925-950. (Online) Montgomery, J. 2010. Passports from the past: Investigating human dispersals using strontium isotope analysis of tooth enamel. Annals of Human Biology 37 (3): 325-346. (Online) Pollard A.M. & Wilson L. 2001. Global biogeochemical cycles and isotope systematics - how the world works. In D.R. Brothwell & A.M. Pollard (eds.) Handbook of Archaeological Sciences. Chichester: John Wiley. (Arch: AJ BRO)

Case Studies: Britton, K.H., Grimes, V., Niven, L., Steele, T. E., McPherron, S., Soressi, M., et al. 2011. Strontium isotope evidence for migration in late Pleistocene Rangifer: Implications for Neanderthal 14

hunting strategies at the Middle Palaeolithic site of Jonzac, . Journal of Human Evolution, 61 (2), 176–185.(Online) Copeland, S R., Sponheimer, M., de Ruiter, D.J., Lee-Thorp, J.A., Codron, D., le Roux, P.J., et al. 2011. Strontium isotope evidence for landscape use by early hominins. Nature, 474 (7349), 76– 78. (Online) Milner, N., Craig, O.E., Bailey, G.N. & Andersen, S.H. 2006. Touch not the fish: the Mesolithic- Neolithic change of diet and its significance - A response to Richards and Schulting. Antiquity 80: 456-458. (Online) Richards, M.P. & Schulting, R, 2006. Touch not the fish: the Mesolithic-Neolithic change of diet and its significance. Antiquity 80: 444-456. (Online) Richards, M.P., & Trinkaus, E. 2009. Out of Africa: modern human origins special feature: isotopic evidence for the diets of European Neanderthals and early modern humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (38), 16034–16039. (Online) Schoeninger, M.J. 2014. Stable Isotope Analyses and the Evolution of Human Diets. Annual Review of Anthropology, 43 (1), 413–430. (Online) Stevens, R.E., Jacobi, R., & Higham, T. 2010. Reassessing the diet of Upper Palaeolithic humans from Gough's Cave and Sun Hole, Cheddar Gorge, Somerset, UK. Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 52–61. (Online) Stevens, R.E., Hermoso-Buxán, X.L., Marín-Arroyo, A.B., González Morales, M.R., & Straus, L.G. 2014. Investigation of Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene palaeoenvironmental change at El Mirón cave (Cantabria, Spain): Insights from carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of red deer. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 414, 46–60. (Online)

16. Genetics and Human Evolution I: Introduction (Wed 24 Feb) – Mark Thomas

The study of molecular information revolutionised anthropology in the 1960s and 1970s, pointing to major conclusions such as the close relationships of humans to chimpanzees and the relatively high levels of genetic variation within human populations as opposed to between. In recent decades genetics has taken a central place in understanding modern human origins, and the study of ancient DNA may give us a complete Neanderthal genome within a matter of years. This session combines the history of understanding with current major topics in human evolutionary genetics.

Cavalli-Sforza L., Menozzi P. & Piazza A. 1994. The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press. (Arch: BB 1 CAV) Fu, Q et al. 2014. Genome sequence of a 45,000-year-old modern human from western Siberia. Nature 514: 445-449. (Online) Fu Q. et al. 2016. The genetic history of Ice Age Europe. Nature 534: 200-205. (Online) Green R.E. 2010 A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome. Science 328 (5979): 710-722. (Online) Jobling M.A., Hurles M.E. & Tyler-Smith C. 2004. Human Evolutionary Genetics: Origins, Peoples and Disease. London, Garland Science Publishing. (Arch: BB 1 JOB; Medical Science: BK 10 JOB) Krings M. et al. 1997. Neanderthal DNA sequences and the origins of modern humans. Cell 90: 19- 30. (Online) Mendez, F. L. et al. 2013. An African American paternal lineage adds an extremely ancient root to the human Y chromosome phylogenetic tree. American Journal of Human Genetics 92: 454-9. (Online) • Reich D. 2018. Who We Are and How We Got Here. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Arch: BB1 REI) Meyer, M. et al. 2014. A mitochondrial genome sequence of a hominin from Sima de los Huesos Nature 505: 403-406. (Online) Prufer, K. et al.2014. The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains Nature 505: 43-49. (Online) Prugnolle, F., Manica, A. & Balloux, F. 2005. Geography predicts neutral genetic diversity of human populations Current biology 15 (5): R159-R160. (Online) Sankararaman S, Patterson N, Li H, Pääbo S, Reich D 2012. The date of Interbreeding between Neandertals and Modern Humans. PLoS Genetics 8(10): e1002947. (Online) Slon V. et al. 2018. The genome of the offspring of a Neanderthal mother and a father. Nature 561: 113-116.

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17. Genetics and Human Evolution II: Demographic History (03 Mar) – Garrett Hellenthal & Aida Andres

We describe popular techniques being applied to genome-wide genetic variation data in order to infer features of human demography. Topics covered include genetic distance measures, principal- components-analysis, clustering algorithms, correlated drift models and haplotype-based methods. We highlight the intuition behind some of the widely-used software in the field and address their limitations. We also discuss how these tools have informed our current understanding of the population histories of modern and , as well as their interactions and intermixing.

Green R.E. et al 2010. A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome. Science 328(5979):710-722. doi: 10.1126/science.1188021. (Online) • Hellenthal G. 2019. Population Structure, Demography and Recent Admixture. In DJ Balding (ed) Handbook of Statistical Genomics, 4th edition (Chapter 8). (Online) Jacobs G.S. et al. 2019. Multiple Deeply Divergent Denisovan Ancestries in Papuans. Cell 177(4):1010-1021.e32. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.02.035. (Online) Kuhlwilm M. et al. 2016. Ancient gene flow from early modern humans into Eastern Neanderthals. Nature 530(7591):429-33. doi: 10.1038/nature16544. (Online) Li H, & Durbin R. 2011. Inference of human population history from individual whole-genome sequences. Nature 475: 493-496. (Online) McVean et al 2009. A genealogical interpretation of principal components. PLoS Genetics 5:e1000686. (Online) Meyer G. et al. 2012. A high-coverage genome sequence from an archaic Denisovan individual. Science 338(6104):222-6. doi: 10.1126/science.1224344. (Online) Novembre J. et al 2008. Genes mirror geography within Europe. Nature 456:98-101. (Online) Patterson N. et al 2012. Ancient admixture in human history. Genetics 192:1065-1093. (Online) Pritchard J.K., Stephens M. and Donnelly P. 2000. Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data. Genetics 155:945-959. (Online) Rosenberg N.A. et al 2012. Genetic structure of human populations. Science 298: 2381-2385. (Online) Sankararaman S. et al 2014. The genomic landscape of Neanderthal ancestry in present-day humans. Nature 507(7492):354-7. doi: 10.1038/nature12961. (Online) • Schraiber J.G. & Akey J.M. 2015. Methods and models for unravelling human evolutionary history. Nature Review Genetics 16(12):727-40. (Online) Speidel L. et al 2019. A method for genome-wide genealogy estimation for thousands of samples. Nature Genetics 51:1321-1329. (Online)

18. Genetics and Human Evolution III: Signatures of Selection (10 Mar) – Aida Andres & Mark Thomas

We discuss how genetics can help us understand how humans have adapted to their environment. We will introduce several methods commonly used to identify the genes that have mediated adaptation of humans to their environments. We will talk about methods that can identify the genetic signatures of population-specific adaptation to local environments, which generate genetic differences among human populations, and methods that identify the signatures of older events of genetic adaptation, which differentiate modern humans from archaic humans and other primates. We will also discuss the advantages and limitations of genomic analyses, and present some of the clearest and most interesting cases of natural selection in humans.

Ilardo M, Nielsen R. 2018. Human adaptation to extreme environmental conditions. Current Opinion in Genetics and Development 53:77-82. doi: 10.1016/j.gde.2018.07.003. (Online) Nielsen R. 2005. Molecular signatures of natural selection. Annual Review of Genetics. 39:197- 218. (Online) • Scheinfeldt L.B., Tishkoff S.A. 2013. Recent human adaptation: genomic approaches, interpretation and insights. Nature Review. Genetics. 14: 692-702. doi: 10.1038/nrg3604. (Online)

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19. From the Natural History Museum: Human Behaviour under the microscope (15 Mar) – Silvia Bello

Early humans modified and used bones, teeth and antlers in many ways, leaving traces that can be associated with butchery, the production of tools and the manufacture of artistic objects. Recent developments in imaging technologies provide new insights in bone taphonomy, furthering our understandings of ancient human behaviours. In this seminar, I will present case studies in which multiple techniques have been used to visualize and analyse the internal and external features of modified bone, teeth and antler. Examples from Prehistoric Europe will be described to highlight how microscopy has helped to (1) identify organic tools such as knapping tools; (2) suggest alternative interpretations of how organic tools such as Magdalenian perforated batons were used; and (3) to distinguish symbolic cannibalism from the defleshing of human bodies, not associated with the consumption of the cadaver.

Bello S.M. and Galway-Whitham J. 2019. Bone taphonomy inside and out: Application of 3- dimensional microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and micro-computed tomography to the study of humanly modified faunal assemblages. Quaternary International 517: 16-32. (Online) Bello S.M., Blinkhorn E., Needham A., Bates M., Duffy S., Little A., Pope M., Scott B., Shaw A., Welch M.D., Kinnaird T., Millar L., Robinson R., and Conneller C. 2020. Artists on the edge of the world: An integrated approach to the study of Magdalenian engraved stone plaquettes from (). Plos One 15(8): e0236875. (Online) Bello S.M., Wallduck R., Dimitrijević V., Živaljević I., Stringer C.B. 2016. Cannibalism versus funerary defleshing and disarticulation after a period of decay: comparisons of bone modifications from four prehistoric sites. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 161(4), 722-743. (Online) Hutson J.M., García-Moreno A., Noack E.S., Turner E., Villaluenga A.,·Gaudzinski-Windheuser S. (eds) 2018. The Origins of Bone Tool Technologies. RGZM – TAGUNGEN, Band 35 This collection of papers can be download free here: https://www.academia.edu/37356967/The_Origins_of_Bone_Tool_Technologies_Full_Text_edi ted_by_Jarod_M_Hutson_Alejandro_Garc%C3%ADa_Moreno_Elisabeth_S_Noack_Elaine_Tu rner_Aritza_Villaluenga_and_Sabine_Gaudzinski_Windheuser_ Soressi M, McPherron SP, Lenoir M, Dogandžić T, Goldberg P, Jacobs Z, et al. 2013. Neandertals made the first specialized bone tools in Europe. Proceedings National Academy of Sciences 110(35): 14186-14190. (Online)

20. From the British Museum (Franks House): Current Research on Lower and Middle Palaeolithic in UK (22 Mar) – Nick Ashton

Nick Ashton has been a curator at the British Museum for over 35 years, specializing in Lower and Middle Palaeolithic archaeology and helps curate the extensive stone tool collections from these periods. He has directed and published major excavation projects at the Lower Palaeolithic sites of High Lodge, Barnham, Elveden and Hoxne (all Suffolk) and Happisburgh (Norfolk). He was Deputy Director of the Ancient Human Occupation of Britain Project (AHOB) funded by the Leverhulme Trust and is currently co-Director of the Pathways to Ancient Britain project funded by the Calleva Foundation. These projects have been examining the presence and habitat preferences of early humans in north-west Europe over the last 800,000 years. His particular interests are: the earliest occupation of northern Europe; the early human adaptation to northern environments; and the effect of changes in climate and island/peninsula status of Britain on new populations entering from Europe.

Ashton N.M. 2016. The human occupation of Britain during the Hoxnian Interglacial. Quaternary International 409: 41-53. (Online) Ashton N.M. 2017. Early Humans. London: Harper Collins. (Arch: DAA 100 ASH) • Ashton N.M. & Lewis S.G. 2012. The environmental context of early human occupation of northwest Europe: The British Lower Palaeolithic Record. Quaternary International 271: 50-64. (Online) • Ashton N.M. & Scott B. 2015. The British Middle Palaeolithic. Quaternary International 411: 62-76. (online) Ashton N.M. et al. 2016. Handaxe and non-handaxe assemblages during Marine Isotope Stage 11 in northern Europe: recent investigations at Barnham, Suffolk UK. Journal of Quaternary Science 31 (8): 837-43.

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Hosfield R. 2020. The Earliest Europeans: a year in their life: seasonal survival strategies in the Lower Palaeolithic. Oxford, Oxbow. (on order for the library) Lewis S.G., et al. 2019. Human occupation of northern Europe in MIS 13: Happisburgh Site 1 (Norfolk, UK) and its European context. Quaternary Science Reviews 211: 34-58. Parfitt S.A., Ashton N.M., et al. 2010. Early Pleistocene human occupation at the edge of the boreal zone in northwest Europe. Nature 466: 229–233. (Online) Parfitt S.A. et al. 2005. The earliest record of human activity in northern Europe. Nature 438: 1008-12. (Online) Pettitt P. & White M. 2012. The British Palaeolithic. Human Societies at the Edge of the Pleistocene World. London, Routledge. (Arch: DAA 120 PET)

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ASSESSMENTS

The module will be assessed by two essays of 4,000 words each, one of which should be on a ‘Palaeoanthropological’ topic (see Group A essays below) and one on a ‘Palaeolithic Archaeological’ topic (see Group B essays below). You can choose which order your write these in. It is very important to select essay topics which do not overlap closely with those being written for other modules being undertaken as part of the degree. If you are uncertain, please check with the Module Coordinator. The coordinator will be willing to discuss an outline of the student’s approached to the assignment, provided this is planned suitably in advance of the submission date.

The deadlines for the essays will be: - Essay 1: Friday 18 December - Essay 2: Friday 26 March

ESSENTIAL INFORMATION regarding word length, citing of sources, presentation style, method of submission, granting of extensions will be found in the Institute of Archaeology Student Handbook: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/current-students/ioa-student-handbook and the Institute of Archaeology Study Skills Guide: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/current-students/ioa-study-skills-guide

Please note strict penalties are applied for overlength courswork and for late submission (if an extension has not been agreed). There are also serious penalties for plagiarism.

Cousework will be marked and returned within four calendar weeks of the official submission deadline.

ESSAYS – GROUP A: PALAEOANTHROPOLOGY

A1. History of palaeoanthropology. Write a synthesis of the history of interpretation of human evolution, focusing on a specific time period of your choice (e.g. late C19 / early C20). (N.B. If you choose this essay topic, you should not select essay B1 for your second assessment).

Useful reference (see also references for Essay B1) Bowler P.J. 1986. Theories of Human Evolution: A Century of Debate, 1844-1944. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press. (Anthrop: B 30 BOW; History of Science: RG 5 BOW) Cartmill M. 1990. Human uniqueness and theoretical content in paleoanthropology. International Journal of Primatology. 11: 173-192. (Online) Darwin C.R. 1885. The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. 2nd edn. London, Murray. (For reprints see: History of Science: RG 4 DAR) De Groote I. et al. 2016. New genetic and morphological evidence suggests a single hoaxer created Piltdown Man. Royal Society Open Science 3: 160328. (Online) Delisle R. 2006. Debating Humankind's Place in Nature: The Nature of Paleoanthropology: 1860- 2000. New York, Prentice Hall. (Arch: BB 1 DEL) Henke W. 2007. Historical Overview of Paleoanthropological Research. In W. Henke & I. Tattersall, (eds.) Handbook of Paleoanthropology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1-56. (Online book – see library catalogue) Keith A. 1916. The Antiquity of Man. London, Williams and Norgate. (Order from Library Stores) Lewin R. 1987. Bones of Contention: Controversies in the search for human origins. London, Penguin. (Arch: BB 1 LEW) Reader J. 1981. Missing Links: The hunt for the earliest Man. London, Penguin. (Arch: BB 1 REA) Schroeder L. 2020. Revolutionary fossils, ancient biomolecules, and reflections in ethics and decolonization: Paleoanthropology in 2019. American Anthropologist 122(2): 306-320. (Online) Schwartz J.H. (ed). (2018). Rethinking Human Evolution. London, The MIT Press. (On order for library) Tattersall I. 2000. Paleoanthropology: the last half century. Evolutionary Anthropology 9: 2-36. (Online)

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A2. Adaptation and primate evolution. Review and evaluate the methods for studying adaptation in the primate fossil record, focusing your discussion on the origins and diversification of any specific clade within primate evolution.

Useful references: Cartmill M. 1990. Human uniqueness and theoretical content in paleoanthropology. International Journal of Primatology 11:173-192. (Online) Fleagle J.G. 2013. Primate Adaptation and Evolution. 3rd ed. Academic Press, San Diego. (Online - Chapters available from library as separate downloads) Hartwig C. (ed.) 2002. The Primate Fossil Record. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. (Anthrop: B 40 HAR) Martin R.D. 1990. Primate Origins and Evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton. (Anthrop: B 34 MAR) Nunn C.L. 2011. The Comparative Approach in Evolutionary Anthropology and Biology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. (Online) Plavcan J.M., Kay R.F., Jungers W.L., & Van Schaik C.P. (eds). 2002. Reconstructing Behavior in the Primate Fossil Record. New York, Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers. (Arch: BB 3 PLA; Anthrop: B 44 PLA) Ravosa, M.J. & Dagosto, M. (eds). 2007. Primate Origins: Adaptations and Evolution. New York, Springer. (Anthrop: B 34 RAV) Ross C.F. & Kay R.F. 2004. Anthropoid Origins: New Visions. New York, Springer. (Anthrop: B 34 FLO) Smith R.J. 2016. Explanations for adaptations, just‐so stories, and limitations on evidence in evolutionary biology. Evolutionary Anthropology 25: 276-287. (Online) Soligo C & Smaers JB. 2016. Contextualising primate origins – an ecomorphological framework. Journal of Anatomy 228: 608–629. (Online)

A3. Hominin dispersals. Discuss the biogeographic history of the hominin clade, focusing on possible reasons behind the major dispersal events.

Useful references: Agusti J. & Lordkipanidze D. 2011. How “African” was the early human dispersal out of Africa? Quaternary Science Reviews 30: 1338-42. (Online) Antón S.C. & Swisher III C.C. 2004. Early Dispersals of Homo from Africa. Annual Review of Anthropology 33: 271-296. (Online) Arribas A. & Palmqvist P. 1999. On the Ecological Connection between Sabre-tooths and Hominids: Faunal Dispersal Events in the Lower Pleistocene and a Review of the Evidence for the First Human Arrival in Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science, 26: 571-585. (Online) Bar-Yosef O, & Belfer-Cohen A. 2001. From Africa to Eurasia – early dispersals. Quaternary International 75: 19-28. (Online) Carbonell, E., Mosquera, M., Rodríguez, X. P., Sala, R. & Van der Made, J. 1999. Out of Africa: The Dispersal of the Earliest Technical Systems reconsidered. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 18: 119-136. (Online) Dennell R.W. 2003. Dispersal and colonisation, long and short chronologies: how continuous is the Early Pleistocene record for hominids outside East Africa? Journal of Human Evolution 45: 421- 440. (Online) Dennell R. & Petraglia, M. 2012 The dispersal of Homo sapiens across southern Asia: how early, how often, how complex? Quaternary Science Review 47: 15-22. (Online) Groucutt H. S. et al. 2015. Rethinking the dispersal of Homo sapiens out of Africa. Evolutionary Anthropology 24 (4): 149-164. (Online) Langbroek M. 2004. Out of Africa. An investigation into the earliest occupation of the Old World. Oxford, BAR 1244. (Arch: Issue Desk LAN; BB 1 LAN Qto) Reyes-Centeno J. et al. 2014. Genomic and cranial phenotype data support multiple modern human dispersals from Africa and a southern route into Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111: 7248-53. (Online) Stewart J. R. & Stringer C. B. 2012. Human evolution out of Africa. the role of refugia and climate change. Science 335: 1317-21. (Online) 20

Turner A. 1999. Assessing earliest human settlement of Eurasia: Late Pliocene dispersions from Africa. Antiquity, 73: 563-570. (Online) Wood B. 2011. Did early Homo migrate “out of Africa” or “in to” Africa? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108: 10375-376. (Online)

A4. Neanderthals and Modern Humans. Synthesise what we know of the evolution and biology of Neanderthals and Modern Humans, focusing on the possible causes for the apparent demise of Neanderthals and the success of modern humans. (N.B. If you choose this essay topic, you should not select essay B4 for your second assessment).

Useful references (see also references for Essay B4): Banks W. E. et al. 2008 Neanderthal extinction by competitive exclusion. PLoS One 3, e3972. (Online). Bermudez de Castro J. M. & Martinon-Torres M. 2012. A new model for the evolution of the human Pleistocene populations of Europe. Quaternary International 295: 102-112. (Online) Bocquet-Appel J. & Demars P.Y. 2000. Neanderthal contraction and modern human colonization of Europe. Antiquity 74: 544-552. (Online) Churchill S. 2014. Thin on the ground: Neanderthal biology, archaeology and ecology. Oxford, Wiley (Online) Higham T. et al. 2014. The timing and spatial-temporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance. Nature 512: 306-9. (Online) Hortola P. & Martinez-Navarro B 2013. The Quaternary megafaunal extinction and the fate of Neanderthals: an integrative working hypothesis. Quaternary International 295: 69-72. (Online) Mellars P. 2005. The Impossible Coincidence. A Single-Species Model for the Origins of Modern Human Behavior in Europe. Evolutionary Anthropology 14: 12-27. (Online) Nowell A. 2010. Defining in the context of Neandertal and anatomically modern human populations. Annual Review of Anthropology 39: 437-452. (Online) Pettit P.B. 1999. Disappearing from the World: an archaeological perspective on neanderthal extinction. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 18 (3): 217-240. (Online) Roebroeks W. & Soressi M. 2016 Neanderthals revisited. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113: 6372-79. (Online) Smith F.H., Jankovic, I. & Karavanic, I. 2005. The assimilation model, modern human origins in Europe, and the extinction of Neandertals. Quaternary International 137: 7-19. (Online) Stringer C. 2006. The Neanderthal-H. sapiens interface in Eurasia. In Harvati K. & Harrison T. (eds) Neanderthals Revisited: New Approaches and Perspectives. New York, Springer. (Arch: BB 1 HAR) Stringer C. (2016) The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 371: 20150237 (Online) Zilhao J. 2006. Neandertals and Moderns Mixed, and It Matters. Evolutionary Anthropology, 15: 183- 195. (Online)

A5. Hominin adaptations. Discuss the development and significance of the bipedal locomotor adaptation in human evolution.

Useful references: Bramble D.M. & Lieberman D.E. 2004. Endurance running and the evolution of Homo. Nature 432: 345-352. (Online). Cerling T. E. et al. 2011. Woody cover and hominin environments in the past 6 million years. Nature 476: 51-56. (Online) Crompton R.H., Vereecke E.E. & Thorpe S.K.S. 2008. Locomotion and posture from the common hominoid ancestor to fully modern hominins, with special reference to the last common panin/hominin ancestor. Journal of Anatomy 212 (4): 501-543. (Online) DeSilva et al. 2013. The lower limb and mechanics of walking in . Science 340: 1232999. (Online) Lovejoy C. O. & McCollum M. A. 2010. Spinopelvic pathways to bipedality: why no hominids ever relied on a bent-hip-bent-knee gait. Philosophical Transactions for the Royal Society of London, B: Biological Sciences 365: 3289-3299. (Online)

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Niemitz C. 2010. The evolution of the upright posture and gait – a review and a new synthesis. Naturwissenschaften 97: 214-263 (Online) Spoor F., Garland T., Krovitz G., Ryan T.M., Silcox M.T. & Walker A. 2007. The primate semicircular canal system and locomotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (26): 10808-812. (Online) Venkataraman N. V., Kraft, T. S. & Dominy, N. J. 2013. Tree climbing and human evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110: 1237-42. (Online) Wheeler P. E. 1994. The thermoregulatory advantages of heat-storage and shade-seeking behavior to hominids foraging in equatorial savanna environments. Journal of Human Evolution 26: 339- 350. (Online) Winder I. C., King, G. C. P., Devès M. & Bailey G. N, 2013, Complex topography and human evolution: the missing link. Antiquity 87: 333-349. (Online)

ESSAYS – GROUP B: PALAEOLITHIC ARCHAEOLOGY

B1. Changing paradigms in the history of Palaeolithic archaeology. Review the history of research and theoretical agendas relating to the study of the earliest paleoanthropological and archaeological sites from Africa OR Asia. (N.B. If you choose this essay topic, you should not select essay A1 for your second assessment).

Useful references: (See also references for Essay A1) Berger L.R. & Hilton-Barber B. 2000. In the footsteps of Eve: Exploring the Mystery of Human Origins. Washington, National Geographic Society. (Arch: BB 1 BER; Anthrop: B 34 BER) Blumenschine R.J. 1991. Breakfast at Olorgesailie: the natural history approach to Early Stone Age archaeology. Journal of Human Evolution, 21: 307-327. (Online) Boaz, N.T., Ciochon, R.L., 2004. Dragon Bone Hill. An Ice-Age Saga of Homo erectus. Oxford, Oxford University Press. (Arch: BB 1 BOA) Clark J.D. 1990. A Personal Memoir. In P. Robertshaw (ed.) A History of African Archaeology. London, James Currey: 189-204. (Arch: DC 100 ROB; Issue Desk ROB 4) Dennell R.W. 2001. From Sangiran to Olduvai, 1937-1960: The quest for 'centres' of hominid origins in Asia and Africa. In R. Corbey & W. Roebroeks (eds.) Studying human origins: Disciplinary history and epistemology. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press: 45-66. (Arch: BB1 Qto COR) Dennell, R.W., 2010. "Out of Africa I": current problems and future prospects. In J.G. Fleagle et al. (eds.) Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia. Springer, Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series: 247-273. (Arch: BB1 Qto FLE) Gabel C. 1985. Archaeology in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1800-1960. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 18 (2): 241-264. (Online) Howell F.C. 1954. Hominids, pebble tools and the African Villafranchian. American Anthropologist 56: 378-386. (Online) Leakey L.S.B. & Goodall V.M. 1969. Unveiling Man's Origins. Ten Decades of Thought about Human Evolution. London, Methuen. (Arch: BB 1 LEA) Lewin R. 1987. Bones of Contention. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. (Arch: BB 1 LEW) Nilsson E. 1949. The pluvials of East Africa. An attempt to correlate Pleistocene changes of climate. Geografiska Annaler 31: 204-211. (Online) Price, D.H., 2011. How the CIA and Pentagon harnessed anthropological research during the Second World War and Cold War with little critical notice. Journal of Anthropological Research 67: 333- 356. (Online) Torre, I.de la, 2011. The origins of stone tool technology in Africa: a historical perspective. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B: Biological Sciences 366: 1028- 1037. (Online) Torre, I.de la, 2016. The origins of the Acheulean: past and present perspectives on a major transition in human evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 371: 20150245. (Online) Walker A. & Shipman P. 1996. The Wisdom of Bones. London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson. (Arch: BB 1 WAL)

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B2. Evolution of diet. Review and critique the various lines of evidence for the evolution of hominin diet EITHER (a) prior to the emergence of Neanderthals or other contemporary hominin populations OR (b) in Neanderthals and early Modern Humans (prior to the end of the Pleistocene). Discuss the potential importance of plant versus animal foods and in the case of earlier hominins the impact of the development of cooking.

Useful references: Aiello L. & Wheeler P. 1995. The expensive tissue hypothesis. Current Anthropology 34: 199-221. (Online) Carmody R.N. & Wrangham R.W., 2009. The energetic significance of cooking. Journal of Human Evolution 57: 379-391. (Online) Copeland S.R. 2007. Vegetation and plant food reconstruction of lowermost Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, using modern analogs. Journal of Human Evolution 53: 146-175. (Online) Cortés-Sánchez, M., et al, 2011. Earliest known use of marine resources by Neanderthals. PLoS ONE 6, e24026. (Online) Ferraro, J.V. et al. 2013. Earliest archaeological evidence of persistent hominin carnivory. PLoS One 8, e62174. (Online) Finlayson, C. et al., 2012. Birds of a feather: Neanderthal exploitation of raptors and corvids. PLoS One 7, e45927. (Online) Hardy K. et al. 2012. Neanderthal medics? Evidence for food, cooking, and medicinal plants entrapped in dental calculus. Naturwissenschaften 99: 617-626. (Online) Lemorini, C. et al. 2014. Old stones' song: Use-wear experiments and analysis of the Oldowan quartz and quartzite assemblage from Kanjera South (Kenya). Journal of Human Evolution 72: 10-25. (Online). Marean C. & Assefa Z. 1999. Zooarchaeological evidence for the faunal exploitation behaviour of neanderthals and early modern humans. Evolutionary Anthropology 8: 22-37. (Online) Melamed Y., Kislev M.E., Geffen E., Lev-Yadun S., Goren-Inbar N., 2016. The plant component of an Acheulian diet at Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov, Israel. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences: 113 (51): 14674-679. (Online) Pobiner B.L. 2013. Meat-eating among the earliest humans. American Scientist 104: 110-117. (Online) Smith, G.M. 2015. Neanderthal megafaunal exploitation in Western Europe and its dietary implications: A contextual reassessment of (Jersey). Journal of Human Evolution 78: 181-201. (Online) Speth J.D. 2017. Putrid meat and fish int eh Eurasian Middle and Upper Paleolithic: are we missing a key part of Neanderthal and modern human diet? PaleoAnthropology 2017: 44-72. (Online) Stiner M. et al. 2000. The tortoise and the hare. Small game use, the Broad Spectrum Revolution and Paleolithic demography. Current Anthropology 41: 39-73. (Online) Stringer C.B., et al. 2008. Neanderthal exploitation of marine in . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105: 14319-14324. (Online) Ungar P. (ed.) 2006. Evolution of the Human Diet. Oxford, Oxford University Press: 167-190. (particularly chapters by Bunn, Blumenschine) (Arch: Issue Desk UNG; BB 1 UNG) Wrangham R.W. et al. 1999. The raw and the stolen: cooking and the ecology of human origins. Current Anthropology 40: 567-94. (Online) Wrangham R. & Carmody R.N., 2010. Human Adaptation to the Control of Fire. Evolutionary Anthropology 19: 187-199. (Online)

B3. Earliest technology. Is there such a thing as the Developed Oldowan distinct from the Initial Oldowan represented at sites like Gona in Ethiopia and Lokalalei in Tanzania? Following from whether you agree or disagree with the reality of the Developed Oldowan, what are the wider implications for hominin behaviours in the period 2-1.5 million years ago?

Useful references: Blumenschine R.J., Masao F.T., Tactikos J.C. & Ebert J.I., 2008. Effects of distance from stone source on landscape-scale variation in Oldowan artifact assemblages in the Paleo-Olduvai Basin, Tanzania. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(1): 76-86. (Online)

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Braun, D.R., Rogers, M.J., Harris, J.W. and Walker, S.J., 2008. Landscape-scale variation in hominin tool use: evidence from the developed Oldowan. Journal of Human Evolution 55: 1053-1063. (Online) Delagnes, A. and Roche, H., 2005. Late Pliocene hominid knapping skills: the case of Lokalalei 2C, West Turkana, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 48: 435-472. (Online) Harmand S. et al. 2015. 3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya. Nature 52: 310-15. (Online) Kimura, Y., 2002. Examining time trends in the Oldowan technology at Beds I and II, Olduvai Gorge. Journal of Human Evolution 43: 291-321. (Online) Plummer T. 2004. Flaked stones and old bones: biological and cultural evolution at the dawn of technology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 47: 118-164. (Online) Proffitt T. 2018. Is there a Developed Oldowan A at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Journal of Human Evolution 120: 92-113. (Online) Sánchez‐Yustos, P., Diez‐Martín, F., Domínguez‐Rodrigo, M., Duque, J., Fraile, C., Baquedano, E. and Mabulla, A., 2017. Diversity and significance of core preparation in the Developed Oldowan technology: reconstructing the flaking processes at SHK and BK (Middle‐Upper Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania). Boreas 46: 874-893. (Online) Semaw, S., 2000. The world's oldest stone artefacts from Gona, Ethiopia: their implications for understanding stone technology and patterns of human evolution between 2· 6–1· 5 million years ago. Journal of Archaeological Science 27: 1197-1214. (Online) Stout D. et al. 2010. Technological variation in the earliest Oldowan from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia. Journal of Human Evolution 58: 474-91. (Online) Torre, I. de la 2004. Omo Revisited. Evaluating the Technological Skills of Pliocene Hominids. Current Anthropology 45 (4): 439-465 (Online) Toth N. 1985. The Oldowan reassessed: a close look at early stone artifacts. Journal of Archaeological Science 12: 101-120. (Online)

B4. Neanderthals and Modern Humans There has been a long-term debate about the nature of the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic Transition in Europe and the replacement of Neanderthals by early Modern humans. Contrast the spatial-temporal distribution and behavioural record of the two populations through the transitional period and evaluate the models for possible interactions and final replacement of Neanderthals. (N.B. If you choose this essay topic, you should not select essay A4 for your second assessment).

Useful references: Bar-Yosef O. 1998. On the nature of transitions: the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic and the Neolithic Revolutions. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 8 (2): 141-63. (Online) Benazzi S. et al. 2015. The makers of the Protoaurignacian and implications for Neandertal extinction. Science, 348 (6236):793-796. (Online) d'Errico F. et al. 1998. Neanderthal acculturation in Western Europe? A critical review of the evidence and its interpretation. Current Anthropology 39 Supplement: S1-S44. (Online) d’Errico F. et al. 2003. The search for the origins of symbolism, music and language: a multidisciplinary endeavour. Journal World Prehistory 17: 1-70. (Online) Higham T. et al. 2010. Chronology of the (France) and implications for the context of ornaments and human remains within the Chatelperronian. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (47): 20234-39. (Online) Higham T. et al. 2014. The timing and spatial-temporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance. Nature 512: 306-9. (Online) Joris O. & Street M. 2008. At the end of the 14C time scale – the Middle to Upper Paleolithic record of western Eurasia. Journal of Human Evolution 55: 782-802. (Online) Mellars P. 2006. Archaeology and the dispersal of modern humans in Europe: deconstructing the “Aurignacian”. Evolutionary Anthropology 15: 167-182. (Online) Mellars P., and French J.C. 2011. Tenfold Population Increase in Western Europe at the Neanderthal- to-Modern Human Transition. Science 333: 623-627. (Online) Nigst P. R. et al. 2014. settlement of Europe north of the Alps occurred 43,500 years ago in a cold steppe-type environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 (40): 14394-14399. (Online) Pettitt P. 1999. Disappearing from the world: an archaeological perspective on neanderthal extinction. Oxford Journal Archaeology 18 (3): 217-40. (Online) 24

Roussel M., Soressi M., & Hublin J.-J. (2016). The Châtelperronian conundrum: Blade and bladelet lithic technologies from Quinçay, France. Journal of Human Evolution 95: 13-32. (Online) Ruebens K., McPherron S. P., & Hublin J.-J. (2015). On the local Mousterian origin of the Châtelperronian: Integrating typo-technological, chronostratigraphic and contextual data. Journal of Human Evolution 86: 55-91. (Online) Sankararaman S. et al. 2012. The date of interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans. PloS Genetics, e1002947. (Online) Zilhao J. 2006. Neandertals and Moderns mixed, and it matters. Evolutionary Anthropology 15: 183- 195. (Online) Zilhao J. 2010. Symbolic use of marine shells and mineral pigments by Iberian neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107: 1023-1028 (Online)

B5. Taphonomy and site formation processes. Interpreting the hominin activity areas uncovered in Palaeolithic excavations requires a detailed understanding of the taphonomic and diagenetic processes which may have occurred since site abandonment. With reference to specific sites from the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic, evaluate the methods used in unravelling site formation processes and reconstructing activity areas.

Useful references: Alperson-Afil N.et al. 2009. Spatial Organization of Hominin Activities at Gesher Benot Ya‘aqov, Israel. Science 326: 1677-1680. (Online) Andrews P. 1990. Owls, Caves and Fossils. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. (Arch: DAA 410 S.4. AND) Blumenschine R.J. et al. 2003. Late Pliocene Homo and hominid land use from western Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Science 299: 1217-1221. (Online) Binford L. 1980 Willow smoke and dogs' tails: hunter-gatherer settlement systems and archaeological site formation. American Antiquity 45: 4-20. (Online) Denys C. 2002. Taphonomy and experimentation. Archaeometry 44 (3): 469–484. (Online) Goldberg P. & Bar-Yosef O. 1998. Site formation processes in Kebara and Hayonim Caves and their significance in Levantine prehistoric caves. In T. Akazawa et al. (eds) Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia. New York, Plenum. (Arch: BC 120 AKA; Issue Desk AKA) Henry D.O. 2003. Neanderthals in the Levant. Behavioural organization and the beginnings of human modernity. London, Continuum. (chapters 8-9) (Arch: DBA 100 HEN) Hovers E. et al. 2014. Islands in a stream? Reconstructing site formation processes in the late Middle Paleolithic site of ‘Ein Qashish, northern Israel. Quaternary International 331: 216-233. (Online) Malinsky-Buller A., Hovers E., Marder O., 2011. Making time: ‘Living floors’, ‘palimpsests’ and site formation processes – A perspective from the open-air Lower Paleolithic site of Revadim Quarry, Israel. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30: 89-101. (Online) Pettitt P.B. 1997. High resolution neanderthals? Interpreting Middle Palaeolithic intrasite spatial data. World Archaeology 29: 208-224. (Online) Pickering T., Schick K., and Toth N. (eds.) 2007. Breathing Life into Fossils: Taphonomic Studies in Honor of C.K. (Bob) Brain. Gosport, IN, Stone Age Institute Press. (Arch: Issue Desk PIC; BB 3 PIC). Sánchez-Romero, L., Benito-Calvo, A., Pérez-González, A. and Santonja, M., 2016. Assessment of accumulation processes at the middle Pleistocene site of Ambrona (Soria, Spain). Density and orientation patterns in spatial datasets derived from excavations conducted from the 1960s to the present. PloS one, 11(12), e0167595. (Online) Schick K.D. 1987. Modeling the Formation of Early Stone Age Artifact Concentrations. Journal of Human Evolution 16: 789-807. (Online) Soligo C. & Andrews P.J. 2005. Taphonomic bias, taxonomic bias and historical non-equivalence of faunal structure in early hominin localities. Journal of Human Evolution 49: 206-229. (Online) Torre de la I. & Wehr K., 2017. Site formation processes of the early Acheulean assemblage at EF- HR (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania). Journal of Human Evolution. (Online)

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