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China's Skateboarding Youth Culture As an Emerging Cultural Industry

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China's Skateboarding Youth Culture As an Emerging Cultural Industry China's Skateboarding Youth Culture as an Emerging Cultural Industry By Chuang (Austin) Li A doctoral thesis Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements For the award of Doctor of Philosophy Loughborough University November, 2017 © By Chuang (Austin) Li (2017) 1 Acknowledgement This thesis would not have been possible without my supervisors Graham Murdock, Karen Lumsden and Dave Elder-Vase. Thank you Graham, for your unreserved encourangement and enlightening intellectual guidance, but most of all, thank you for believing in me more than I did for myself from the very beginning. Thank you Karen, for your patiences with me and for always pushing me to work harder by being an excellent example. Thank you Dave, for taking over my supervision in the last year of my PhD, and for all the insights that strengthened this thesis greatly. You are all but more than I could possible ask for as caring and inspiring supervisors. I am deeply indebted to all of you. Secondly, I would like to thank all my participants who have inspired and help me before and during my fieldwork with great enthusiasm. I could not have produced this study without the level of insights enabled by their participation. I would also like to thank you all for all the good times we have shared. I would also like to extend my gratitude to all the intellectual inspirations and support I have received during my time here at Loughborough and beyond. My work has benefitted significantly from the insight, advice and support of so many generous people I have met during this long march of academic life - Emily Keightley, John Downey, Deirdre Lombard, James Stanyer, Thomas Thurnell-Read, Mark Banks, Iain Borden, Belinda Wheaton, Jim 2 McGuigan, Eleonora Belfiore, David Buckinham, David Hesmondalgh, Toby Miller, Angela McRobbie and many more. Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents and my friends. Thank you mom and dad for your selfless love. Thank you all my friends I have met around the world, including all the LSU Fever members and my circus friends who have kept me sane and fueled me with a new passion to share with. Thank you, my Loughborough family who have put up with me during my up and downs. Thank you, my friends back in China for all the precious memories we have shared, you are always on my mind. 3 Abstract This thesis focuses on the skateboarding industry in China as both a youth subculture and a cultural industry. I am investigating the transition between the two and examining how the emerging skateboarding industry operates through detailed analysis of the feelings, motivations and meanings attributed to it by its participants and the emerging strata of cultural workers. In order to achieve this research objective, this thesis has positioned the analysis in a triangle of forces between the development of Chinese skateboarding culture, the emerging skateboarding cultural industry and government interventions. This ethnographic study takes into account distinctive characters in the development of Chinese skateboarding communities that signify continuities inside contemporary Chinese youth cultures. I argue that such continuity is still embedded in the organisation of the Chinese skateboarding industry as a cultural industry, in both subcultural and corporate entrepreneurial practices. Moreover, this thesis contributes to ongoing discussions in the field of not only cultural studies but also of the political economic analysis of cultural/creative industries by examining the dynamic incorporations at play between the commercial and governmental forces at the centre of current debate around the inclusion of skateboarding in the Olympic Games, and the consequences of the sportisation of skateboarding in mainstream economic structures. Last but not least, this research captures the working conditions of the cultural labourers who are at the forefront of shaping and reshaping the Chinese skateboarding industry. 4 Table of Contents Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................. 2 Abstract .................................................................................................................................... 4 Table of Contents .................................................................................................................... 5 Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 11 Focus of the thesis: Chinese skateboarding ................................................................................. 11 Chinese skateboarding as a youth subculture ................................................................................ 12 Transition into cultural/creative industries .................................................................................... 13 The Chinese skateboarding industry .............................................................................................. 14 Methods .......................................................................................................................................... 16 Structure of the thesis ..................................................................................................................... 18 Chapter 2 Subcultural Studies ............................................................................................. 22 The invention of ‘subculture’ ......................................................................................................... 22 Subcultures and the persistence of class ....................................................................................... 23 After class ...................................................................................................................................... 24 From cultural studies of consumption to the political economy analysis of production ................ 27 The rise of cultural industries and the traditional critical political economy analysis ................ 29 Chapter 3 Continuities and Discontinuities in Contemporary Chinese Youth Subcultures – From the Red Guards to the Singles Festival ............................................ 34 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 34 Red Guards and the question of class ............................................................................................ 37 Leaving the Red Guards? ............................................................................................................. 39 Growing resistance towards social institutions .............................................................................. 41 Collapse of the old collective class identities and the rise of ‘new’ individual distinctions? ........ 43 Arrival of the consumption era ....................................................................................................... 48 Authenticity ................................................................................................................................... 49 Resistance and distinction in the age of consumption .................................................................... 51 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 57 5 Chapter 4: Skateboarding’s Transition from a Subculture to a Cultural/Creative Industry and a Lifestyle Sport ............................................................................................. 60 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 60 Ups and downs of the early skateboarding subculture and Dogtown Z-Boys ................................ 60 The Ollie, the Bones Brigade, VHS and the birth of the skateboarding industry as we know it today - “It sounds terrible to say, and I don’t want to say it this way, but our group of dudes pioneered the way to make money at skateboarding” ..................................................................................... 63 The golden era, and Styles, and the X-Games - commercial incorporation of skateboarding as a cultural economy ............................................................................................................................ 66 Cultural/creative labour, cultural intermediaries and forms of capitals ....................................... 68 The private and public spaces and the Olympics - Sportisation and governmental incorporation of skateboarding ............................................................................................................................... 77 Local government incorporations and the creative clusters .......................................................... 71 The Olympics and central governmental incorporations ............................................................. 73 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 74 Chapter 5 Methodology ........................................................................................................ 76 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 76 Research design .............................................................................................................................
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