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British Representations of the Kurds and the Armenian Question 1878 British Representations of the Kurds and the Armenian Question 1878-1908 Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Leicester by Adnan Amin Mohammed School of History, Politics & International Relations University of Leicester 2018 Abstract There are still gaps in the understanding of British representations of the Armenian question which was an important issue for Britain for decades. Notably, the Kurds were one of the most influential parties in the Armenian question and had a significant impact upon it. However, to date, there has been no study about how the British, who were the Europeans closest to the Armenian question, regarded the Kurds and their position in this conflict. It is this issue, therefore, that this thesis addresses. The thesis investigates the British perceptions of the Kurdish position and contributes to a better understanding of the image of the Kurds in the late Victorian period. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Kurds were seen in Britain through the prism of the Armenian question and were generally presented as oppressors of the Christians. This thesis examines the British views, official and public, of the Kurds and shows the effects of these perceptions in shaping British attitudes towards the Kurds, which in turn influenced British policy towards the Ottoman Empire. The study highlights the growing British attention to the Kurds as part of wider British concerns relating to the Armenian question and eastern Anatolia, which was an essential area for British interests in the East. This thesis is based upon analysis of British primary sources that have not previously been systematically analysed in relation to the history of the Kurds and their relations with the Armenians. While historians have used considerable amount of Foreign Office Papers regarding the Kurds and the Armenian question, other categories of British sources, in particular Parliamentary Debates and British newspaper material, have not been systematically studied. Through studying British attitudes to the Armenian question, as represented through these sources, many aspects of Kurdish and Armenian history can also be revealed during late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. i Acknowledgements This thesis has been completed with the help and support of a number of people who need much appreciation. First and foremost, I am greatly indebted to my first supervisor Professor Roey Sweet for being a great supervisor, for her guidance, suggestions, encouragement and corrections of my drafts, and for being ready to help at any time. I cannot express how much I appreciate all her effort to assist me succeed over the last four years and a half. Likewise, I greatly thank my second supervisor Dr James Moore for all his time and support. I really appreciate their suggestions, insightful comments, all the hours spent in supervision meetings, which were invaluable. This thesis would not have been achieved without their kind support, especially during last year and a half because of my health condition. I express my thanks to many members of staff in the University of Leicester, especially the School of History, Politics and International Relations, David Wilson Library, the Student Welfare Services for being ready to help during my study. I would also like to express my appreciation to the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Kurdistan Regional Government-Iraq for giving me the opportunity to do my PhD abroad and for their financial support. It would have been difficult for me had they not given me this opportunity. My deepest gratitude is to my dear friend Fred Cavill, his dear wife Joanna and the family who were always ready for help since we first met in October 2013 when I have just started my PhD journey in Leicester. I am very grateful to my dear friend Dr Shakhawan Abdullah in Kurdistan-Iraq who has always been a source of encouragement and for being always ready to help. I would also like to express special gratitude to the dear Dr Hogr Tahir Tofeeq there for his kindness and providing me a number of useful references. A special thanks goes to my dear friends Qadir Muhammad, Botan Maghdid for their kind help during my study. I should express my heartfelt appreciation and thanks to my Mum, sisters and brothers for their endless support and encouragement to follow the goal of completing my study. Finally, I would like to thank all friends and anyone who has helped me, even with a single word, during my long PhD journey. ii Table of contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................... ii Table of contents ....................................................................................................................................... iii List of maps .............................................................................................................................................. vii List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................. viii Introduction................................................................................................................................................ 1 1. The significance of this research ........................................................................................... 2 2. Literature Review ................................................................................................................. 2 3. The limits of this thesis ....................................................................................................... 16 4. Methodology and sources ................................................................................................... 22 5. Research questions .............................................................................................................. 27 6. Thesis structure ................................................................................................................... 28 Chapter one: The increase of British interest in the situation of the Armenians and Kurds 1878-82 33 1. The historiography and the argument of this chapter .......................................................... 33 2. Britain and the emergence of the Armenian question ......................................................... 35 2.1. British attitudes towards the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 and the treaty of San Stefano (1878) .................................................................................................................................. 35 2.2. British policy towards eastern Anatolia and the Anglo-Turkish Convention of 1878 38 2.3. British representation of the Armenians and Kurds in the Congress of Berlin (1878) 42 3. The beginnings of pro-Armenian activities in Britain ........................................................ 45 4. The Armenian Reforms ...................................................................................................... 49 iii 4.1. The reform project and the arrival of British consuls in eastern Anatolia ................... 49 4.2. Armenian demands for autonomy ............................................................................... 53 4.3. The Kurds and the Armenian Reforms ....................................................................... 59 4.4. Britain and obstacles in front of the application of the reforms .................................. 61 5. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 67 Chapter two: British representations of the affairs of the Kurdish Beys 1886-92 ............................. 69 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 69 1. The historiography and the argument of this chapter .......................................................... 70 2. The image of the Kurds in Britain before the Armenian question ...................................... 72 3. The Kurdish Beys and the politics between 1886 and 1892 ............................................... 77 4. The accuracy of British sources about the Kurds and Armenians ...................................... 84 5. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 91 Chapter three: British representations of the Hamidiye regiments and their position towards the Armenians from 1890 .............................................................................................................................. 93 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 93 1. The historiography, the argument and sources of the chapter: ........................................... 94 1.1. The historiography ...................................................................................................... 94 1.2. Outlines and the argument of this chapter ................................................................... 96 1.3. Sources of this chapter ...............................................................................................
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