Thinking Skill Frameworks for Post-16 Learners: an Evaluation
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LSRC reference Thinking skill frameworks for post-16 learners: an evaluation A research report for the Learning and Skills Research Centre Thinking skill frameworks for post-16 learners: an evaluation learners: post-16 for skill frameworks Thinking What is a ‘thinking skill’? How are thinking skills identified and classified? What kinds of thinking are needed in post-16 learning environments? This report evaluates 35 attempts to classify the skills and abilities used in thinking and makes recommendations for teachers, learners and policy-makers. A research report for the Learning and Skills Research Centre LSRC reference LSRC reference Thinking skill frameworks for post-16 learners: an evaluation A research report for the Learning and Skills Research Centre Thinking skill frameworks for post-16 learners: an evaluation learners: post-16 for skill frameworks Thinking What is a ‘thinking skill’? How are thinking skills identified and classified? What kinds of thinking are needed in post-16 learning environments? This report evaluates 35 attempts to classify the skills and abilities used in thinking and makes recommendations for teachers, learners and policy-makers. A research report for the Learning and Skills Research Centre LSRC reference LSRC reference Thinking skill frameworks for post-16 learners: an evaluation A research report for the Learning and Skills Research Centre David Moseley Viv Baumfield Steve Higgins Mei Lin Jen Miller Doug Newton Sue Robson University of Newcastle Joe Elliott Maggie Gregson University of Sunderland The Learning and Skills Research Centre is supported by a grant from the Learning and Skills Council and the Department for Education and Skills. It is managed by the Learning and Skills Development Agency Prepared by School of Education Communication and Language Sciences University of Newcastle upon Tyne Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU and School of Education and Lifelong Learning St Peter’s Campus University of Sunderland Sunderland SR6 0DD Feedback should be sent to: Mike Cooper Regional Director Learning and Skills Development Agency Room 2.3 Second floor North Berkeley House Cross Lanes Guildford Surrey GU1 1UN Tel 01483 500775 [email protected] Copyedited by Helen Lund Designed by sans+baum Printed by Cromwell Press Ltd Trowbridge, Wiltshire 1541/03/04/500 ISBN 1 85338 916 1 © Learning and Skills Research Centre 2004 All rights reserved LSRC reference Contents Acknowledgements Executive summary 1 Section 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Aims 1 1.2 Scope 1 1.3 The research team 1 1.4 Rationale 2 1.5 Context 3 1.6 Implications of contextual issues for the evaluation 3 1.7 Method 4 1.8 How the report is organised 7 Section 2 Surveying and mapping the field 7 2.1 Why classify? 7 2.2 An inclusive approach 7 2.3 What are thinking skills? 8 2.4 What is metacognition? 9 2.5 What is self-regulation? 9 2.6 What is critical thinking? 10 2.7 Classifiying the frameworks 10 2.8 The family groups 2.8.1 Group 1: all-embracing frameworks, covering personality, thought and learning 2.8.2 Group 2: instructional design frameworks 2.8.3 Group 3: frameworks for understanding critical and productive thinking 2.8.4 Group 4: explanatory models of cognitive structure and/or cognitive development 15 Section 3 Thinking skill frameworks evaluated 15 3.1 Evaluation criteria 15 3.2 Evaluation of all-embracing frameworks 3.2.1 Jonassen and Tessmer’s taxonomy of learning outcomes 3.2.2 Marzano’s new taxonomy of educational objectives 20 3.3 Evaluation of instructional design frameworks 3.3.1 Biggs and Collis’s SOLO taxonomy 3.3.2Anderson and Krathwohl’s revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives 26 3.4 Evaluation of critical/productive thinking frameworks 3.4.1 Ennis’s taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities 3.4.2Halpern’s reviews of critical thinking skills and dispositions 3.4.3 Paul’s model of critical thinking 37 3.5 Evaluation of cognitive structure and/or development frameworks 3.5.1King and Kitchener’s model of reflective judgement 3.5.2Pintrich’s general framework for self-regulated learning 43 Section 4 Making sense of thinking and learning 43 4.1 Introductory outline 43 4.2How are thinking skills classified? 44 4.3Can several frameworks be fitted into a single conceptual system? 47 4.4Which frameworks have the most to offer for general use with post-16 learners? 49 Section 5 Some ideas for using the frameworks 49 5.1Using a five-category framework to classify key skills objectives 51 5.2Other ways of using thinking skill frameworks 52 5.3Which frameworks are best suited to specific applications? 55 Section 6 Summary of what is known and the need for further research 55 6.1 Introductory outline 55 6.2 In which areas is there extensive or widely accepted knowledge? 57 6.3 In which areas is knowledge very limited or highly contested? 58 6.4 What questions arise for further research? 59 6.5 What are the implications of our research for policy-makers? 61 Glossary 63 References 71 Appendix 1 Theoretical frameworks for thinking about thinking 78 Appendix 2 Descriptions and evaluative summaries of 26 frameworks 78 Allen, Feezel and Kauffie’s taxonomy of concepts and critical abilities related to the evaluation of verbal arguments 80 Altshuller’s TRIZ (teoriya resheniya izibreatatelskikh zadach) theory of inventive problem solving 83 Ausubel and Robinson’s six hierarchically ordered categories 85 Baron’s model of the good thinker 87 Belenky’s ‘women’s ways of knowing’ developmental model 89 Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives 92 Carroll’s three-stratum theory of cognitive abilities 94 Feuerstein’s theory of mediated learning through Instrumental Enrichment 97 Gagné’s eight types of learning and five types of learned capability 99 Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences 102 Gouge and Yates’ ARTS Project taxonomies of arts reasoning and thinking skills 105 Gubbins’ matrix of thinking skills 107 Guilford’s structure of intellect model 110 Hannah and Michaelis’s comprehensive framework for instructional objectives 112 Hauenstein’s conceptual framework for educational objectives 115 Jewell’s reasoning taxonomy for gifted children 117 Koplowitz’s theory of adult cognitive development 119 Lipman’s three modes of thinking and four main varieties of cognitive skill 122 Perry’s developmental scheme 124 Presseisen’s models of essential, complex and metacognitive thinking skills 126 Quellmalz’s framework of thinking skills 128 Romiszowski’s analysis of knowledge and skills 131 Stahl and Murphy’s domain of cognition taxonomic system 134 Sternberg’s model of abilities as developing expertise 136 Vermunt and Verloop’s categorisation of learning activities 138 Williams’ model for developing thinking and feeling processes 141 Appendix 3 Reason!Able evaluations 141 Pintrich’s general framework for self-regulated learning 143 Halpern’s reviews of critical thinking skills and dispositions 145 Anderson and Krathwohl’s revision of Bloom’s taxonomy 147 Appendix 4 Using an integrated framework for understanding thinking and learning to categorise Costa and Kallick’s (2000a) ‘habits of mind’ LSRC reference Figures and tables Figures 18 1 The hierarchical control structure of Marzano’s theory-based taxonomy 23 2 Structural changes from Bloom to the Anderson and Krathwohl revision 24 3 Taxonomy table with illustrative examples 34 4 Paul’s model of critical thinking 45 5 An integrated framework for understanding thinking and learning 50 6 Percentage distribution of five types of thinking across key skills 50 7 Percentage distribution of five types of thinking within each key skill level 51 8 Percentage distribution of five types of thinking within each key skill 80 9 Classifying a specific problem as an instance of a TRIZ generic problem, using TRIZ tools to identify a generic solution, then translating it into a specific solution 107 10 The structure of intellect model 110 11 The complete framework for instructional objectives 119 12 Major modes of thinking (with criteria) 139 13 Williams’ model for encouraging thinking and feeling Tables 18 1 Marzano’s new taxonomy 21 2 The SOLO taxonomy levels, with descriptors and criteria 29 3 An example of one of the critical thinking skills specified by Halpern 30 4 Halpern’s categorisation of critical thinking skills 37 5 King and Kitchener’s seven-stage model 39 6 Phases and areas for self-regulated learning 45 7 Comparison of three sets of categories 49 8 Five types of thinking skill and their definitions 79 9 Evaluative summary of Allen, Feezel and Kauffie’s taxonomy of concepts and critical abilities related to the evaluation of verbal arguments 82 10 Evaluative summary of Altshuller’s TRIZ (teoriya resheniya izibreatatelskikh zadach) theory of inventive problem solving 84 11 Evaluative summary of Ausubel and Robinson’s six hierarchically ordered categories 86 12 Evaluative summary of Baron’s model of the good thinker: a typology of attitudes and dispositions related to acquiring and using thinking skills 88 13 Evaluative summary of Belenky’s ‘women’s ways of knowing’ developmental model 90 14 Levels of detail in Bloom’s taxonomy (cognitive domain) 91 15 Evaluative summary of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives: cognitive domain 93 16 Evaluative summary of Carroll’s three-stratum theory of cognitive abilities 95 17 Map of cognitive strengths and weaknesses (adapted from Skuy et al. 1991) 96 18 Evaluative summary of Feuerstein’s theory of mediated learning through Instrumental Enrichment 98 19 Evaluative summary of Gagné’s eight types of learning and five types of learned