Tara M. Owens
Improving Science Achievement Through Changes in Education Policy
The author reviews current science education policies in the United States and offers perspectives about ways that these policies can be changed to improve student science achievement.
Concerns over science education in being held responsible for the quality accountable and forming funding the United States continue to grow due of education they provide to students. and policy decisions. States use data to the increasing global demands and In order to ensure accountability and from the test results to determine competitiveness for careers in science higher performance of students, NCLB if schools and districts are meeting and technology. In addition, current required states to implement a method their established achievement goals. education policy will be scrutinized of assessing student knowledge of If schools and districts fail to meet more rigorously as the Obama the core content areas. Although not these goals, they can face sanctions that administration begins to implement mandatory, most states have opted to include reduced funding, mandatory their vision of public education, which use a multiple-choice, standardized reallocation of funds, and vast includes recruiting new teachers and test, because this type of assessment overhauls of curriculum (Wenning, rewarding effective teachers. The is most cost effective to administer et al., 2003). effectiveness of science teachers and score (Wenning, Herdman, Smith, While NCLB was passed by the Bush is often measured by the success McMahon, & Washington, 2003). administration under a republican-led of the students. In order to ensure Congress, new controversies over student success in science, research the policy are emerging under the about how students learn science new Obama administration and a and how teachers should be teaching Students come to the democratic-led Congress. Current science must be taken into account classroom with different education policy in the U.S. and by policy makers. Accomplishing skills, ways of thinking, and the effectiveness of NCLB is a hot the goal of improving student science learning styles. topic for debate among politicians achievement in the United States is and the general public. NCLB has necessary in order to increase overall This type of large-scale, high-stakes significantly influenced state policy, science literacy amongst the U.S. testing is now taking place in all fifty and this, in turn, has affected what is population and ensure preparedness states and is administered to all high being taught in the classroom. NCLB for the growing science and technology school students between the tenth calls on states to implement a more demands of the 21st century. and twelfth grades. The assessments rigorous science curriculum that is The current education policy in the are termed “high-stakes” because the more closely aligned with national and United States is strongly influenced results are used to determine which state standards for science education. by the No Child Left Behind Act of students will graduate from high The goal is to prepare students for 2001. One of the primary goals of school. Students must pass the test by success beyond high school (U.S. No Child Left Behind (NCLB) is the end of their senior year in order to Department of Education, 2004). stronger accountability for results receive a diploma. As states attempt to make their (U.S. Department of Education, 2004), These statewide test results have also science curriculum more rigorous and, consequently, schools are now become the basis for holding schools in compliance with NCLB, state
FALL 2009 VOL. 18, NO. 2 49 and national science standards call about science because they are not performed at or above the proficient for students to learn a vast amount aligned with the ways in which level on the 2005 NAEP science of scientific information, and this students are being taught. While these test, which is static from the 2000 knowledge is assessed during the arguments are compelling, the validity results and demonstrates a decrease statewide tests. As a consequence, of the NCLB mandated statewide in performance from 1996. (Grigg, teachers have been forced to alter their tests and national assessments of Lauko, & Brockway, 2006). methods of instruction to conform student proficiency in science is Another method for measuring to the assessment. Teaching to the an issue that extends beyond the student science achievement is to test has become more commonplace scope of this article. However, even compare U.S. students with students as pressures mount on teachers to under the constraints of NCLB and from other countries around the world. ensure they cover everything that our current methods of assessment, The Third International Mathematics their students need to know in order efforts can be made to improve overall and Science Study (TIMSS) is an to succeed on the state test. The pace understanding of science, which assessment of both science and at which content is covered has been should translate into improvements mathematics achievement in fourth accelerated to an extent that permits in science achievement. and eighth grade students from only superficial coverage of topics with various countries. The study has been little regard to student comprehension How do we measure conducted four times since 1995, with or depth of knowledge. Effective achievement? the most recent assessment occurring teaching strategies are giving way to While NCLB calls for accountability in 2007. Results from TIMSS showed quicker, fact-based instruction due for results, results are not easily that U.S. students performed at the to reductions in the amount of time identifiable under our current system. same level or below students of other allotted for each topic to be covered. Individual states have the flexibility to developed nations (Stigler & Hiebert, While national and state standards develop their own science curriculum, 1999). The situation has not improved call for inquiry-based science their own assessment, and set their own in recent years. Results from the instruction, teachers are finding it performance standards for proficiency 2007 TIMSS shows that the United increasingly difficult to meet this in science (Wenning, et al., 2003). States falls behind 9 other countries expectation and still expose students to Proficiency in science is defined as in science achievement among other all of the content they need to know to a threshold of performance on the 4th graders, and ranks 11th in 8th grade succeed on the state test. Furthermore, state test, but with each state having science achievement (Martin, et. al., short-term assessments are geared a different curriculum, a different 2008). Countries outperforming U.S. more towards preparing students with test, and a different set of criteria to students in science are primarily Asian questions that are similar in structure measure proficiency, comparisons nations, including Singapore, China, to those on the statewide test. All of of proficiency from state to state are and Japan. Furthermore, these results these factors combine to demonstrate a meaningless. For this reason, the reflect no measurable improvement clear discrepancy between the national national assessment results are used in U.S. student science achievement and state expectations of quality to discuss science achievement among since 1995 and illustrate that there is science instruction and what is actually U.S. students. At the national level, the a decline in U.S. student performance happening in science classrooms National Assessment of Educational in science between the fourth and across the United States. Progress (NAEP) defines proficiency eight grades in comparison with Some may argue that perhaps in science to be a raw score of 178 out other countries (Martin, Mullis, & students are not really underachieving of a possible 300 points on the national Foy, 2008). in science, and it is actually the method assessment. The NAEP includes not There are several possibilities as to of assessment that is inherently flawed. only multiple-choice and constructed why students are not demonstrating Most states use standardized, mostly response questions but also assesses improvements in science achievement. multiple-choice tests to assess student students as they engage in actual One theory is that our system of proficiency in science. It could be science investigations. (Loomis & education ignores the research about argued that these types of tests do not Bourque, 2001). Nationally, only how students learn science. A second accurately assess student knowledge eighteen percent of twelfth graders theory is that teachers are aware of the
50 SCIENCE EDUCATOR research but, for various reasons, are explanations. Science learning through connections. When students are able unable to implement these practices in doing has been termed “inquiry” and to connect new information with their classrooms. This may be related has been recognized as important something they already know, the to another theory, which purports for student learning of science since new knowledge becomes much more that our current system of education, the 1960s (Gallagher, 2007). Inquiry meaningful and easier to incorporate including standards, curriculum, is also emphasized by the National into their current knowledge and education policy as a whole, is Science Education Standards (2003). framework. Students come to the not conducive to effective science According to the Standards, learning classroom with prior knowledge about instruction. Whatever the reason, the science is an active process, and how the world works. This knowledge results of the national and international students should be participants in is formed by students’ experiences assessments of student achievement the learning process rather passive in the world. Based on their prior in science demonstrate the need for a recipients of knowledge. While experiences, students come to the re-evaluation of the ways that students engaging in the scientific process, classroom with their own, although learn science and ways that we should students are required to use critical sometimes faulty, explanations for be teaching science content in order to thinking to come up with explanations scientific phenomena. A student’s increase student achievement. that aid in the development of prior knowledge can be deeply student understanding of science. ingrained and very difficult to change. How Do Students Learn Overwhelmingly, educational research Students can only learn science when Science? supports the idea that engaging in their prior knowledge is considered Students learn science in many inquiry is one of the most important and integrated into the learning of different ways. Some students are able components to learning science. new concepts. If presented with observations or data that is consistent to learn from reading about science Peer-to-peer interactions concepts while other students are with their prior ideas, the students’ auditory learners. Other students may Students also learn science when current knowledge framework is learn better when given opportunities they discuss their ideas with their reinforced. However, if presented with to move and manipulate objects, or peers. Since communication is a main new experiences that are contrary to see concepts represented visually. component of the scientific process, their prior ideas, students’ will have Students come to the classroom with and research has shown that engaging to either explain the new information different skills, ways of thinking, and in science as a process aids in learning within their current framework, or learning styles. For this reason, there is science, it stands to reason that students alter their knowledge framework not one set way that all students learn must also engage in communication as to incorporate the new information science. However, current research one of the most important aspects of the (Moreno & Tharp, 2006). Students into science learning has identified scientific process. When students work also learn science when they apply several widely accepted ways in in groups to formulate explanations new knowledge to new situations, which students come to understand and reach a consensus, they are doing develop their own explanations for science. what scientists do. In addition, peer- science phenomena, and reflect on to-peer communications can help clear their own learning. Inquiry up misunderstandings. Since students Knowing how students come One of the most important things relate to one another on a more equal to learn and understand science to consider when examining how level, peers can explain complex is important. However, for this students learn science is that students ideas to one another in a way that knowledge to be useful, it needs to be learn science by doing science. This may have more meaning (Moreno & applied to classroom instruction. In means that students learn when they Tharp, 2006). other words, the way science is taught engage in the process of science. The Incorporation of prior knowledge in the classroom needs to be reflective process of science involves prediction, and connection of ideas of the ways in which students learn observation, collecting evidence, using Students also learn science when in order for the instruction to be truly evidence to develop explanations, and effective. repeating investigations and revising they are able to make meaningful
FALL 2009 VOL. 18, NO. 2 51 How should science be learn. Relating science content to it involves consensus building, taught? students’ real life experiences can peer review, and communication Teachers are undeniably crucial be very effective in motivating in many forms. Verbal and written to student learning. Teachers set the learning. This can be accomplished discourse is crucial to developing tone of for the learning environment. by developing analogies between scientific knowledge. Students should Teachers that have a positive, new science ideas and concepts with be given opportunities to work in enthusiastic attitude towards science which students are more familiar as groups to conduct investigations, are more successful in helping their a result of their own experiences. evaluate evidence, and formulate students learn (Moreno & Tharp, Student interest can also be piqued explanations. Having students develop 2006). Creating an open, student- by posing intriguing problems and their own explanations of scientific centered learning environment that challenging students to come up with events helps them to integrate new encourages curiosity and exploration solutions to the problem. In addition, knowledge with existing knowledge is more conducive to learning science using open-ended questioning rather and make connections between science than the traditional teacher-centered than soliciting simple one-word, right concepts. approach to instruction. or wrong answers requires students to use higher level thinking strategies Implications for Science instead of simple, rote memorization, Education and Policy and this leads to a deeper conceptual Teaching When students are able to understanding (Moreno & Tharp, 2006). The most immediate application of connect new information science education research can occur with something they already Using guided inquiry as a method of instruction has been shown to be at the classroom level. In Teaching st know, the new knowledge an effective teaching strategy. In Science in the 21 Century, Bybee becomes much more this teaching method, the teacher states that “… how much students meaningful and easier to establishes guidelines for a scientific learn is directly influenced by how they incorporate into their current investigation. Guidance can be very are taught” (2006, p. 25). Therefore, knowledge framework. direct, such as posing the problem if teachers implement effective to be solved in the investigation, or teaching strategies that correlate with very limited, such as simply helping the ways in which students learn, In addition to creating an students select a topic of appropriate performance on assessments should environment suitable for learning scope for an investigation. As students naturally improve, because students science, accomplished science gain the skills necessary to do scientific will have a deeper understanding of the teachers use a variety of instructional investigations, the teacher’s role can fundamentals of science (Gallagher, approaches to guide learners toward become increasingly more limited. In 2007). Although teachers can adjust knowledge about science. There is the process of guided inquiry, students their teaching methods to promote no cookie-cutter strategy of teaching improve their problem-solving skills student understanding of science, that reaches all students all of the and their abilities to use evidence to there are limitations to how much time. Therefore, it is important to use formulate explanations. In addition, they can do under the constraints of a variety of instructional strategies to the inquiry process provides students the educational system in which they address the unique needs and interests with the opportunity to work together teach, including the curriculum and the of individual students. Utilization and share ideas with one another, all amount of content they are required of a variety of teaching techniques of which leads to greater conceptual to cover. provides students with the most knowledge about science concepts Teacher education opportunities to learn and refine their (Moreno & Tharp, 2006). In order to deliver the best science conceptual framework. In scientific inquiry, students education, teachers need to be trained Introducing science content in need to be given opportunities to to provide excellent education to a way that engages students is one engage in discourse with one another. students. Both pre-service and in- key strategy that helps students Because science is a social endeavor,
52 SCIENCE EDUCATOR service teacher training should be curriculum. National and state science assist students in understanding these geared towards development of curricula too often place greater core concepts and the relationships science content knowledge and importance on quantity of knowledge between them. Students should have effective teaching strategies. than the quality of knowledge. the opportunity to experience a variety However, as Banilower, Heck, and Students are encouraged to memorize of learning activities and develop Weiss (2007) point out, particularly and learn scientific facts rather than meaningful science understanding. in grades K-8, science education explore and engage in science as a However, engaging in a variety of tends to be a low priority. This is process (National Research Council, application and problem-solving partially due to the emphasis placed 2007). experiences takes time. Furthermore, on mathematics and reading because the teaching materials and resources of high-stakes testing in those two used in the classroom are also limited, subject areas in the elementary which further supports the idea of grades. This is problematic, because Because science is a limiting the number of topics covered NCLB holds schools accountable for social endeavor, it involves and, instead, focusing on depth of student achievement in science during consensus building, peer coverage. the high school years. Therefore, review, and communication In formulating science education the foundations of a solid science policies and curriculum, much can education must be established earlier in many forms. be gained by looking towards the in the student’s career, and the value practices of countries that are having of science education at the elementary greater success in their science level must be reinforced. In accordance with researched- education programs. Our current In addition, teachers need to based understanding about how science curriculum focuses too be given more opportunities to students learn and how science should heavily on breadth of content and not observe modeling of effective science be taught, the scope of the science enough on depth, development, and teaching techniques so that they can standards needs to be reduced to the connections between concepts in be implemented in the classroom. allow for more in depth treatment of science. The Third International Math This can be accomplished during core scientific concepts. In addition, and Science Study (TIMSS) found undergraduate teacher education or emphasis needs to be placed on that U.S. students were outperformed through professional development connections between core concepts in science (Stigler & Hiebert, 1997). programs. and the building of science knowledge Valverde and Schmidt (1997) analyzed Increasing pedagogical content over all grade levels. In order to provide the results of TIMSS by comparing knowledge will help science teachers the time needed to explore science and the science curriculum in the U.S. of all grade levels refine and enhance acquire essential knowledge and skills, with that of the 10 highest-achieving their teaching methods, which will the sheer amount of material that countries in science and found lead to more effective instruction and, today’s science curriculum includes profound differences between them. ultimately, result in greater science must be significantly reduced. The U.S. science curricula tend to focus literacy among students. To provide focus needs to be on the big ideas of on broad coverage of science topics the most effective science instruction, science rather than the minute details of and shallow depth, and connections teachers need to be educated about how every concept in science. To improve between concepts are given little students learn so that they can adjust science achievement in the U.S., the attention (National Research Council, their teaching strategies to achieve curriculum should focus more on the 2007). greater student understanding. progression of learning and making Current research and examples connections between concepts and of effective science instruction from Standards and curriculum reform less on covering a wide range of high-achieving countries should More significant advancements individual topics. Learning should be used to shape U.S. education in science achievement can be made follow a logical, coherent progression policy and curriculum. As Vitale through fundamental changes to our (National Research Council, 2007). and Romance point out in their current science standards and science Teaching should be designed to analysis of TIMSS, “… the curricula
FALL 2009 VOL. 18, NO. 2 53 of high-achieving countries was has to begin at the national level with be as a broad base of scientific characterized as focused around big reform of our education policies. knowledge and understanding rather ideas, conceptually coherent, and In addition, while our current than detailed factual knowledge about carefully articulated across grade system of education allows each state specific science disciplines (American levels. In contrast, the curricula in to individually develop standards, Association for the Advancement low-achieving countries (including the curriculum, and assessments, countries in Science, 1993). For this reason, U.S.) emphasized superficial, highly- like Japan that have high-achievement Benchmarks offers good guidelines fragmented coverage of a wide range of in science have a national science for the creation of effective national topics with little conceptual emphasis curriculum (Stigler & Hiebert, 1993). science curriculum programs that or depth” (2006, p. 336). A more nationalized approach to address the interconnectedness of However, changes such as these science education would eliminate knowledge and ways to build upon must begin in the earlier grades. the inconsistencies in expectations that knowledge across grade levels. Student achievement in science and execution of science education New curriculum programs should amongst fourth graders is on par with throughout the nation. With this be changed to reduce the amount of other higher achieving countries. approach, new research about student content and emphasize core concepts However, as students progress in learning or effective teaching practices and the connections between them the U.S. education system, the could be implemented on a much across grade-levels and disciplines. discrepancy between U.S. students broader scale, since the curriculum Connections between concepts need to and their foreign counterparts become would be consistent throughout the be identified and explicitly outlined and more glaring. One explanation for entire country. A national proficiency mapped in curriculum programs. this is that up until the fourth grade, test for scientific literacy that is aligned expectations for student learning are with revised national standards should Conclusion similar between the United States and be developed and used in place of In conclusion, educators in the other countries. However, as students the statewide tests. A national test United States must look for ways in the U.S. progress through the upper that could be administered in schools to increase science proficiency and grades, more time is spent on repeating nationwide would give educators overall science literacy. Research about previously learned concepts instead and policy makers better data with how students learn science should be of providing in depth coverage of which to make comparisons between used to develop teaching strategies that new concepts. As a result, the list states or regions of the country and facilitate student learning. With better of topics that need to be covered at make it easier to identify areas which teaching methods and improvements subsequent grade levels continues to need improvement. A nationalized in science instruction, students will grow (Valverde & Schmidt, 1997). approach to science education would develop deeper understanding of Interestingly, as a part of NCLB, also help to alleviate some of the science concepts, which should programs of instruction and teaching problems that arise when students translate into better performance on practices are supposed to be aligned move into different school districts, assessments (Gallaher, 2007). with research about effective because the expectations would be the Higher levels of science instruction (Mundry, 2006). While same regardless of the school being achievement can be attained through NCLB calls for the use of research attended. an understanding of how students in making decisions about science Implications for development of learn science, as well as development education, it does not provide any a national science curriculum are and implementation of more effective recommendations about ways that this wide-reaching. The Benchmarks for instruction. It is also known that research can be practically applied in Science Literacy is a great resource learning science is a progression the classroom. One way to incorporate in developing a national science throughout the years and that a more current research into teaching science curriculum, because it describes thorough understanding of science is to revise and restructure curricula. levels of understanding and abilities concepts occurs when depth is Because science education research is expected at each grade level. The emphasized over breadth of content. In ongoing, so is the pursuit of a more focus of Benchmarks is on science addition, the content must be organized effective curriculum. This process literacy, which is considered to in a conceptual framework that allows
54 SCIENCE EDUCATOR for the retrieval and application of fields of science, engineering, and Moreno, N.P. & Tharp, B.Z. (2006). scientific knowledge. This needs to technology. How do students learn science? In begin in the early stages of science Rhoton, J. & Shane, P. (Eds.). (2006). st education and not just at the secondary References Teaching science in the 21 century education level. (pp. 291-305). Washington, D. C.: American Association for the Advancement NSTA Press. The subject of improving student of Science (1993). Benchmarks for Mundry, S. (2006). No child left behind: achievement in science is becoming science literacy: Project 2061. New Implications for science education. In increasingly important, because York: Oxford University Press. Rhoton, J. & Shane, P. (Eds.). (2006). districts and schools are now being Banilower, E.R., Heck, D.J., & Weiss, I.R. Teaching science in the 21st century held accountable for student success (2007). Can professional development (pp. 243-255). Washington, D. C.: under NCLB. Students are also feeling make the vision of the Standards a NSTA Press. reality? The impact of the National Stigler, J.W. & Hiebert, J. (1999). The the pressure to achieve as they are faced Science Foundation’s local systematic with passing a large-scale, high-stakes teaching gap. New York, NY: The change through Teacher Enhancement Free Press. science assessment in order to graduate Initiative. Journal of Research in from high school. Our current science U.S. Department of Education. (2004). Science Teaching, 44(3), 375-395. Four pillars of NCLB. Retrieved June education policy may have put the cart Bybee, R.W. (2006). The science 11, 2008, from No Child Left Behind before the horse by expecting results curriculum: Trends and issues. In Web site:
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