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Education Through Science As a Motivational Innovation for Science Education for All

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Education Through Science As a Motivational Innovation for Science Education for All Science Education International Vol.21, No.2, June 2010, 80-91 Education through science as a motivational innovation for science education for all Jack Holbrook ICASE & University of Tartu , Estonia Abstract Historically, science was introduced into the school curriculum to enable students, who were entering university to study science related subjects , to gain some background knowledge before beginning studies at the university level (Fensham, 2008, p 14). Unfortunately t his view is still very prevalent among policy-makers and teachers today . And this is so, even though science subjects have become part of ‘education for all’ and, in most systems, science have become compulsory for primary school students. This paper considers the role s of science education as expressed in curriculum documents and in educational standards. It notes the often expressed target of science education as enhancing scientific literacy and puts forwards views on what is meant by this expressio n Also noted is the comment in the UESCO booklet on the Eleven Emerging Issues in Science Education (Fensham, 2008, p.8 and 27) that the term ‘scientific literacy’ should no longer be used. The papers argues that policy -makers and teachers should rethink their vision of science in the school curriculum and accept the view that the teaching of science subjects is part of the overall educational provision and must not be viewed in a different philosophical light from other subjects. If education is the targe t, then the philosophy for the teaching of science subjects must be, it is argued, ‘education through science’. This view represents a paradigm shift in the purpose of school science education from the historical view . The new vision is put forward as an e ssential step if school science education is to play a meaningful role for the majority of students, especially girls, in 21 st century education. Key words: Scientific Literacy, education through science, science through education. Introduction Initially (19th century), science (or science subjects) w as included in the school curriculum to provide a background for students to better cope if they chose to study science subjects at university (Fensham, 2008). But today, and especially after the Edu cation for All conference 80 Jack Holbrook (UNESCO, 1990), there is a general recognition that science teaching in school ( let me call this science education ) has a much wider purpose. A common rationale given for studying science subjects in school is the achievement of scientific literacy (AAAS, 1989; Bybee, 1997; OECD, 2003, Brown, Reveles & Kelly, 2005; Shwartz, BenZvi, and Hofstein, 2005 ), although there are different interpretations of its meaning (Jenkins, 1990; DeBoer, 2000; Laugksch, 2000; Tippens, Nichols & Bryan, 2000; Kolstø, 2001; Hodson, 2002; Fensham, 2004). This paper sets out to establish the nature of science education (NSE) needed to prepare students for the kind of scientific literacy necessary for responsible citizenship. It proposes that abilities in a range of educational goals, including socioscientific decision making and scientific problem solving, are more important for enhancing true scientific literacy (Shamos, 1995), or multi-dimensional scientific literacy (Bybee, 1997) than a systematic, basic understanding of fundamental content knowledge (AAAS, 1993; NRC, 1996). Meaning of Scientific Literacy/Scientific and Technological Literacy (STL) As indicated in the introduction, the teaching of science in school is being accepted as enhancing scientific literacy. Noting that developments within society are largely of a technological nature, it is proposed that it is more appropriate to consider scientific and technological literacy (STL) in appreciation of the role science has played and is playing in technological developments within society (UNESCO, 1993; Holbrook, 1998). While communication skill is accepted as a crucial component of literacy - referred to as literacy in its fundamental sense, rather than a derived sense, by Norris and Phillips (2003) - it is difficult to see how any approach to STL is bound simply by language, or by a dominance of the written text. Scientific and technological literacy is much more than language proficiency, as the French translation as “culture scientifique et technologique“ (UNESCO, 1994) strongly suggests. The scientific thrust of STL has its focus on conceptualisations of needtoknow scientific knowledge, in contrast to many school curricula which still place high emphasis on an all encompassng knowledge component. The latter make student learning overloaded and problematic when it is considered that the science subject area is expanding in content at a faster and faster pace (Schibeci & Lee, 2003). It is argued in this paper that knowledge for its own sake, and hence communication linked to such knowledge (Norris and Phillips, 2003), needs to give way to knowledge and communication for an ability to function, or the potentiality to function, within society (Kolstø, 2000, Millar, 1996). Although this may be seen as covering an understanding of the science underpinning the technological advances of today, that is a still a gigantic undertaken and beyond the ability of any one person (Shamos, 1995). Shamos, in fact, recognised that global understanding of science in society cannot be seen as a target for school science education. Rather, STL can relate to an interaction of the science within society and an awarensss of opinions by experts who can provide the understanding that the ordinary citizen may lack (Shamos, 1995; DeBoer, 2000). But that still does not cover the enabling of decisions to be made in a democratic society, where science driven technology is playing a greater and greater role. Nor does it develop an appreciation that the advantages of technological developments can be great for some, but a major 81 Education through science as a motivational innovation for science education for all disadvantage for others. Furthermore, side-affects related to health, the sustainability of the environment, or economic concerns can become key factors in choosing the most appropriate science–driven technology (Roth and Lee, 2004; Sadler and Zeidler, 2005). STL is seen as embracing all of this. This view of STL suggests responsible citizenry as a major focus, in which scientific knowledge is used wisely for the benefit of society. Roth and Lee (2004) and others (Jenkins, 1999) have called this citizen science. It strongly includes the personal and social domains alongside an appreciation of the functioning or nature of science. And where its teaching is seen in the context of issue-based or context-based learning (Zeidler et al., 2005), the scientific ideas are limited to the issues at hand. However, this does not eliminate the inclusion of a historical perspective, nor exclude teacher knowledge inputs alongside student constructivist learning. “School science education needs to respond to a changed social context and to help prepare young people to contribute as citizens to shaping the world in which they will live“ (Jenkins, 1999 ). A single, simple definition of STL or scientific literacy is always likely to be extremely problematic. The inclusion of a social and personal domain concept of scientific literacy, promoted in the ICASE-UNESCO forum on scientific and technological literacy for all (UNESCO, 1993), suggested scientific literacy as: “the capability to function with understanding and confidence, and at appropriate levels, in ways that bring about empowerment in the manmade world and in the world of scientific and technological ideas”. A later definition by ICASE, intended to involve the nature of science, the personal and the social domains, but also stressing socioscientific decision making, is (Holbrook and Rannikmae, 1997): “developing the ability to creatively utilise sound science knowledge in everyday life, or in a career, to solve problems, make decisions and hence improve the quality of life”. Such refocusing of science education leads to a strong expectation for science to be an essential, or core subject in the school curriculum, for the benefit of all students. In line with this, curriculum developers are increasingly indicating that the overall goal of science education is scientific literacy. Unfortunately, the very need in promoting scientific literacy through developing wider reasoning skills and guiding students to draw conclusions (Sadler 2004; Sadler and Zeidler, 2005), to guide students to develop argumentation skills (Driver, Newton & Osborne, 2000; Osborne, Erduran & Simon, 2004) and to make social judgemental decisions utilising scientific ideas (Ratcliffe, 1997; Kortland, 2001) that science education becomes problematic for teachers. Yet, without this, there is the danger that an over-emphasis on content overshadows acquisition of educational goals and thus inhibits the promotion of multi-dimensional levels of scientific literacy (Bybee, 1997) for functioning within society. Jack Holbrook The Goals of Education Each country has explicit statements for the direction of their education provision. These statements may be called – aims, goals, general objectives, targets, standards, key competencies, etc. They are likely to cover, for example, the development of: cognitive abilities, personal attitudes, personal aptitudes (behaviour/skills), communication skills, social values, social skills and aspects of self-efficacy. These goals are not targeted at any subject discipline in particular, but are expectation
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