INTERPRETING RIGHTNESS AT A U.S. ISLAMIC SCHOOL: A _____ ADVENTURE TALE A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by Aaron J. Weiss May 2016 Examining Committee Members: Maia Cucchiara, Advisory Chair, Urban Education Novella Keith, Urban Education James Earl Davis, Urban Education Khalid Blankinship, External Member, TU Department of Religion ii © Copyright 2015 by Aaron J. Weiss All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT In popular Western culture and media Islam is widely reified, flattened, and treat- ed as a static, monolithic entity. Monochromatically negative depictions of Islamic edu- cation betray a lack of understanding of the diverse personalities, pedagogies and purpos- es found in Muslim schools. Even those presenting Muslim schools in positive light often fail to communicate Islam’s socially constructed and contested dimensions, minimize the significance of interpretive disparities among believers, and diminish the associated con- flicts potentially experienced by members of Islamic school communities. The United States boasts approximately 250 full-time Islamic schools, serving thirty-two thousand students of a growing Muslim population, and yet little research exists discussing the cur- ricular content, pedagogical methods, and ideological orientations of these institutions. My study took place at Tafsir Islamic School (TIS), a mid-sized K-12 private Islamic school in a metropolitan area in the Midwestern United States, and seeks to answer two questions: (1) by what means are specific versions of orthodoxy and orthopraxy con- structed, maintained, and challenged in the Tafsir community?, and (2) how could the general interpretive climate corresponding to these processes be described in theoretical terms? Qualitative field work was conducted at TIS over an 18 month span, involving semi-structured, one-on-one interviews with 20 adult participants, including teachers, administrators, and involved members of the community. The study utilizes ethnographic data collection methods, a flexible and collaborative research design strategy, and an iter- ative, grounded theory-inspired approach to data analysis. My findings suggest that or- thodoxy and orthopraxis are constructed and contested through a complex network of iv corroborating and competing factors. These include (a) authorized executive decisions , (b) rogue pedagogy , (c) theological dialogue , (d) peer discipline , (e) community rein- forcement , (f) sanctioned ideological associations , and (g) vigilante religious policing. The distribution of interpretive power within the school community results in a de facto system of checks and balances, as intra- and inter-sectarian disputes prevent any one group from gaining explicit prominence. Colliding hermeneutical processes result in a normative balance that fluctuates over time with changing community members and so- cio-historic circumstances. This balance, referred to as a dynamic interpretive equilibri- um , characterizes the general ideological climate of the school. The inadmissibility of certain outlying ideas is both the cause and effect of this climate. In examining the diver- sity of interpretive orientations at an Islamic school, my study demonstrates the active role Muslims play in shaping the character of their faith. It likewise undermines popular one-dimensional depictions of Muslim schools, portraying Islamic education as a living, active and contested phenomenon. v DEDICATION For Abu Talib, Aziza, & Tajali, Bawangal & Louie, Buckwheat & Birdie. Thank you God, no thank you. What’s next? vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS However it came to be that Novella Keith was my graduate advisor—divine providence, cosmic logarithm, dumb luck—I am deeply grateful, eternally if possible. To my other committee members—Maia Cucchiara for her persistent clarity and professional leader- ship (Educ2103), Khalid Blankinship for his dizzying topical expertise and keen attention to detail, and James Earl Davis for his brilliant mind, warm character and ever-present [elbow nudge to rib] support—I owe, at the very least, many more never-to-be-opened tubs of sun-dried tomatoes and Kalamata olives. Many sincere thanks are due to Erin Horvat, Will Jordan, and Joan Goodman for their collective guidance and puzzling votes of confidence, e.g., pulling for my acceptance into their respective schools. I am also of course immensely indebted to the participants in this study for their time, openness, and tolerance of my many intrusions, and to the Tafsir community at large for their ongoing hospitality and friendship. I’d lastly like to opaquely acknowledge my beloved, intermit- tent shaikh for sending me to grad school and not the military, for the mediocre coffee, and the thumb-and-forefinger-circle-reminder of what I know about the Prophets. vii Table of Contents ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. vi LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ xii GLOSSARY OF SELECT TERMS ................................................................................ xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1 Background of the Problem ............................................................................................ 3 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................ 6 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 11 Overview of Methodology ............................................................................................ 12 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................. 14 Limitations .................................................................................................................... 16 Delimitations ................................................................................................................. 18 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 20 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 21 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 21 Part I: Islamic Education in North America ................................................................. 23 Islamic Education in the United States: A Brief History .......................................... 24 Popular Fears and Criticisms ................................................................................... 26 Civic Engagement and Morality ............................................................................... 29 Students and Parents ................................................................................................. 33 Safety and Selfhood ................................................................................................... 36 viii Pt. II: Interpretation and Sectarian Diversity ................................................................ 43 Revelation and Rationality ........................................................................................ 43 Knowledge in Islam and the West ............................................................................. 44 Salafism/Wahhabism ................................................................................................. 47 Sufism ........................................................................................................................ 52 CHAPTER 3: METHODS ................................................................................................ 56 Objectivity..................................................................................................................... 56 Reflexivity..................................................................................................................... 57 Grounded Theory .......................................................................................................... 58 Research Site ................................................................................................................. 60 Designations and Demographics................................................................................... 64 Access and Early Observations ..................................................................................... 65 Participant Criteria ........................................................................................................ 67 Sampling and Enrollment ............................................................................................. 69 Sectarian Affiliation ...................................................................................................... 72 Data Organization and Selection .................................................................................. 74 Hand in Hand: Researcher Positionality