Worlds of Desire: Gender and Sexuality in Classical Tamil Poetry By Elizabeth Rani Segran A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in South and Southeast Asian Studies and the Designated Emphasis in Women, Gender and Sexuality in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor George Hart, Chair Professor Paola Bacchetta Professor Penelope Edwards Fall 2011 1 Abstract Worlds of Desire: Gender and Sexuality in Classical Tamil Poetry by Elizabeth Rani Segran Doctor of Philosophy in South and Southeast Asian Studies and the Designated Emphasis in Women, Gender and Sexuality University of California, Berkeley Professor George Hart, Chair This dissertation contributes to the nascent study of the Tamil Ca!kam corpus, a collection of poetic anthologies produced in the first three centuries CE. The Ca!kam poems are constructed around the two complementary themes of the “inner world” relating to emotions, romance and family life, and the “outer world” relating to kingship, warfare and public life. This dissertation argues that the thematic division within the corpus is gendered, as the “inner world” is associated with the feminine while the “outer world” is associated with the masculine. Each chapter explores the way that the poets establish the boundaries of femininity and masculinity through both the form and content of their verses. This dissertation focuses closely on the moments of rupture in the poets’ system of gender construction, for these moments suggest that the poets acknowledged that gender is more fluid and complex than it initially appears. To better understand the workings of gender and sexuality in these poems, this study juxtaposes recent theoretical frameworks with these poems from the distant past. Methodologically, this dissertation collapses traditional historical time, bringing the ancient Ca!kam anthologies into conversation with ideas that are circulating now. In doing so, it seeks to elucidate both the poems and the theory, while also opening up new questions in both fields. i Dedication For my father. ii Acknowledgements I would like to express my thanks to my three advisors, who have offered their insight and guidance through the writing of this dissertation. George Hart has been the kindest and most loyal advisor any student could ask for. He has encouraged me to pursue the ideas that have interested me, even when they seemed unconventional. He has always approached my work with enthusiasm and generosity. More than this, I have valued his friendship and his advice as I have navigated through the thorny patches of the doctoral program. I thank Penelope Edwards for being a sensitive and meticulous reader. Her comments on my drafts have been an invaluable source of inspiration to me at every stage of the writing process. In my time at Berkeley, she has tirelessly advocated for her students and organized conferences to help us develop our work. All of this has helped us more than she knows. Finally, I would like to thank Paola Bacchetta, who introduced me to feminist theory and practice. It is through her class that I first discovered that feminist philosophy opens up new and imaginative ways to engage with literature, culture and society. She also demonstrates that academic work and activism are not conflicting endeavors, but support one another. I would have been completely lost without Lee Amazonas, our departmental advisor, who has been a good friend. She has helped me find resources in the midst of overwhelming administrative procedures. I am grateful for the funding that has been generously provided by the Mustard Seed Foundation, the Berkeley Regents, the American Institute of Indian Studies and UC Berkeley’s Graduate Division. Through this chapter of my life, I have relied on the love of my parents and fiancé, who have always believed in me and have supported me through the most difficult moments. It is their kindness that keeps me afloat. iii Table of Contents Abstract ..........................................................................................................................1 Dedication .......................................................................................................................i Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ii Table of Contents ...........................................................................................................iii Chapters Chapter One – Introduction: The Task of Measuring Silences ...........................1 I Introduction ..............................................................................1 II The Ca!kam Corpus ...............................................................3 Poetic Structure .......................................................3 Historical Problematics ...........................................6 The Problem of Poetic Production ..........................8 III Methods ............................................................................11 Poststructuralism .................................................11 Gender and Sexuality ..........................................12 History ................................................................15 IV Plan of Study ...................................................................21 Appendix 1: Detailed List of Works in Ca!kam Corpus .......23 Chapter Two – The Talaivi: Subjectivity and Desire ........................................24 I Introduction ............................................................................24 II The Desiring Subject ............................................................26 III Subjectivity and Gender ......................................................32 iv IV Sex/Gender .........................................................................39 Chapter Three – The Talaiva!: Hegemonic and Subservient Masculinities .....42 I Introduction ............................................................................42 Literary Conventions of the Pu"am Genre ...........42 Hegemonic Masculinity .......................................45 II Gender Trouble .....................................................................52 Desirable Women .................................................52 Desirable Men ......................................................57 Domestic Responsibility ......................................58 III Fractures in the System ....................................................60 Chapter Four – The Parattai: Male Infidelity and Female Agency .................63 I Introduction ...........................................................................63 II Two Models of Female Sexuality ........................................65 III Female Desire ......................................................................71 IV Female Community ............................................................74 V The Performance of Wifely Jealousy ..................................80 Appendix 2: The Kamaparattai/Cheriparattai Distinction ......86 Chapter Five – The Daughter, The Son: The Queerness of the Mother Figure 88 I Introduction ...........................................................................88 II Mothers, Daughters and the Cultivation of Desire ...............89 III Mothers, Sons and the Cultivation of Bodies .....................98 IV The Lament of the Queer Mother ....................................107 v Chapter Six – Conclusion: On Pleasure and Scholarship ...............................111 I Introduction ........................................................................111 II The Poet’s Pleasure ............................................................112 III The Character’s Pleasure ...................................................113 IV The Reader’s Pleasure ......................................................114 Bibliography ...............................................................................................................116 ! 1 CHAPTER ONE The Task of Measuring Silences I In this dissertation, I examine the way that gender and sexuality is constructed in anthologies of classical Tamil verse written in the first three centuries CE. These poems are collectively described as Ca!kam literature, named for the academies (ca!kams) of poets who composed the poems. The corpus is the oldest extant literature written in Tamil and occupies a canonical position in the cultural history of the Tamil people. The Ca!kam poets engage with many themes relating to life in the ancient Tamil country, including kingship, warfare and family life. Within the love genre, they present intricate descriptions of desire and sexual intimacy. Although the poems are highly stylized and abide by rigid poetic conventions, they display remarkable creativity and expressivity, as is evident in the following verse: There was no one there, only that man who is like a thief. If he lies, what can I do? With little green legs like millet stalks, a heron searched for eels in the running water when he took me. 1 This intimate articulation of a woman’s emotional state is typical of the love genre of classical Tamil poetry. Our speaker expresses ambivalence towards her lover. As she recalls their lovemaking, she is nostalgic about the closeness they shared but she is also resentful that he now denies his love for her. This man has betrayed her and she feels helpless to change his behavior.