76 Erdkunde Band 54/2000

THE ETHNIC GEOGRAPHY OF ON THE EVE OF INDEPENDENCE: THE 1962 CENSUS

With 1figure, 4 tablesand 1 supplement(III)

William T W. Morgan

am von Zusammenfassung. Ethnogeographie Kenias Vorabend der Unabhangigkeit: Der Zensus 1962 von von Der Zensus Kenia erfaBte 1962 die Bevolkerungszahl 36 verschiedenen ethnischen Gruppen auf der Grundlage von war es 510 raumlichen Einheiten. Wahrend die allgemeine Verbreitung der Ethnien bekannt war, jetzt erstmals moglich, zu den ethnischen Homogenitatsgrad der Siedlungsgebiete bestimmen und eine quantifizierende Verteilungskarte dieser zu vor Gruppen auf der Basis kleinerer raumlicher Einheiten entwerfen. Der Zeitpunkt, ein Jahr der Unabhangigkeit, macht man von so das Belegmaterial besonders wertvoll. Benicksichtigt die Definitionsprobleme Stammen, bleiben die Ergebnisse bemerkenswert, daB sie eine Erklarung erfordern. 85% der kenianischen Bevolkerung lebt in landlichen Siedlungsgebieten, in denen inmehr als der Halfte der Falle 95% der jeweiligen Nachbarn demselben Stamm angehoren. Nur drei kleinere Stamme besitzen kein deutlich erkennbares Siedlungsgebiet, in dem sie iiber 50% der Bevolkerung stellen. Haufig konnen die Sied lungsgebiete physischgeographischen oder okologischen Raumeinheiten in groben Ziigen zugeordnet werden. Bemerkens werte Gebiete mit einer ethnischen Mischstruktur sind einzig mit einem geringen Bevolkerungsanteil die Stadte bzw. die zu um Highlands^ in denen sich verschiedene Stamme in der Nachbarschaft europaischen Siedlern niedergelassen haben, dort zu von eine Beschaftigung finden. Der Zensus dokumentiert die Situation im vorletztenjahr der Kolonialverwaltung, die 1895 bis 1963 dauerte. Danach entstand auf der Basis der aufgezahlten unterschiedlichen ethnischen Gruppen ein souveraner, unabhangiger Staat, innerhalb dessen Grenzen aber die Verteilung der einbezogenen Bevolkerungsgruppen raumlich stabil von blieb und zur Ursache gegenwartiger und zukunftiger Probleme wurde. Dies bestatigt der Zensus 1989 ebenso wie die zwischenethnischen Landstreitigkeiten, die mit Heftigkeit und Bevolkerungsverdrangung ausgetragen werden.

census to Summary'. The 1962 of Kenya recorded the numbers belonging 36 different African 'tribes' within 510 geographi was was to cal units. Whereas the general distribution of such tribes familiar, it possible for the first time calculate the degree a of ethnic homogeneity among local populations and to construct map showing their distribution within precise boundaries on eve of the and in quantifiable terms. Its timing, the of independence, makes this evidence particularly valuable. Problems are so as to definition of tribes are acknowledged but the results striking require explanation. Of the Kenya African popula on were same tion, 85% were living in rural areas where, average, 95% of their neighbours of the tribe. Only three small or more tribes did not have a recognisable 'homeland' where they numbered 50% of the population. Most such homelands a or areas were in can be broadly related to physiographic ecological setting. The only significant of ethnic mixing the small towns or in to different tribes had entered proportion of the population in the 'Highlands' alienated European settlers where census the colonial which lasted to gain employment. The showed the situation in the penultimate year of administration, the com from 1895 to 1963. A sovereign, independent state had been created from the separate ethnic groups enumerated but a source munities which had been enclosed within its borders remained strongly localised, of contemporary and subsequent was the census and continued inter-tribal land with associated problems to its peoples. This confirmed by 1989 disputes violence and displacement of population.

Introduction tial record of the ethnic groups at that time,providing a base line for comparison with previous and sub was Ethnic groupings are an inheritancewhich is a major sequent situations (KENYA 1964?1966). It less was a of intense constituent of the political and socio-economic life of fortunate that it period particularly en the of the Kenya, as of many other African states, and which ethnic rivalry which threatened stability state state. The removal of race capsulates much of itshistory and culture. The of emerging independent was a colonial from a forma restrictions on land in the "White Kenya creation resulting ownership High on tive process which may be said to have commenced lands" (Fig. 1) in 1960 had focussed attention which with the establishment of a British Protectorate on African groups were already in residence there or tak a new over had 1July 1895 and which ended, or at least entered ing the farms, and the political parties strong a. ROSBERG OKUMU phase, with independence on 12December 1963. It is tribal bases (BENNETT 1961; was fortunate therefore that the first comprehensive census, 1975). Although the detailed map presented here taken in 1962, supplies us with a quantitative and spa compiled in 1963, the author judged that itspublica WilliamT W Morgan:The ethnicgeography ofKenya 11

35?E 36? 37?

^ ^-i^ 0 kilometres60 i \ I.i.I l^^J r^S ^ ( 0 miles60 iC S soT

1^ \. W 11 / M'K0nya x-*/ ) C

NAIROBI M?J6K @ f

^ A I TheWhite Highlands \ J ^ 2? R? Forest reserves \ ?n 2? |j|

35?E 36? 37?

T. The an area Fig. 'White Highlands': The heavy line encloses the 'Scheduled Areas' plus of Asian farming near .

Die White Highlands': Die starke Linie umschlieBt die ,Scheduled Areas' sowie ein Gebiet asiatischer Landwirtschaft nahe Kisumu

tion at that moment could have exacerbated the situa within it,may have inherited traits. Sometimes, of not our as our tion and should be done. This is consequently its course, social group is much determined by first as our own appearance. neighbours' responses by inclinations. For this studywe have to accept the classification used in the census, for which no was 1 'Tribe'and triballands justification published. The ascriptions were those routinely used by the ad The census of 1962 allocated the indigenous African ministration and which appear to have presented few population (including Somali) between forty 'tribes', problems to those recording or those being recorded. was which the ethnic category and term which was They were the socio-political groups encountered by specified and which will thereforebe used here. A tribe the colonial power upon itsentry and with which ithad a to deal. were con is unit which evades satisfactorydefinition but which Administrative boundaries normally was widely recognised. Itmay be said to be a group to structed to contain them and this probably increased which the individual feels a strong sense of belonging the sense of tribal identity at that level. Thus at an and which is usually distinguished by a common lan earlier stage, or in relation to neighbours, people might and culture since are as guage and, marriages mostly think of themselves Bakusu but during the colonial 54/2000 78_Erdkunde_Band

some period or when asked by a central government official, Table 1: Changes inpopulation recordedfor tribes between 1948 and 1962 they would be more likely to state that they were Baluhya (of theLuhya, which include theBakusu). Dif Veranderungen der Bevolkerungszahl einiger etnischer ferent levels of classification could be used for different Gruppen zwischen 1948 und 1962 purposes and occasions so that, for the Mbere example, Tribe 1948 1962 Change % were classified as Embu in the 1948 census but were Masai +129.3 treated as a separate tribe in that of 1962. An element 67,201 154,079 159,692 341,771 +114.0 of choice may also be present so that in 1962, someone Kipsigis Kisii +111.0 who would at other times have described themselves as 255,108 538,343 + Baluhya 653,774 1,086,409 66.2 Swahili were probably included under (see Mijikenda Luo 697,551 1,148,335 + 64.6 + below). Kikuyu 1,026,341 1,642,065 60.0 The of 'tribe' and 'tribalism'has been a sub concept All tribes 5,251,120 8,365,942 + 59.3 ject of debate and controversy among social scientists Kamba 611,722 933,219 + 52.6 and It are a con historians. has been argued that tribes Meru 324,894 structof European 'experts' (harries 1988), that colo Meru and Tharaka 478,395 + 47.3 nial as a Taita + 47.0 administrators encouraged them form of 56,912 83,613 a. nottingham and that Nandi 116,681 170,085 + 45.8 regionalism (sanger 1963) - Swahili 12,757* 8,657 32.1 theymay also have been promoted by African elites Embu 203,690 (Vail 1989). A trenchant statement of this position is - EmbuandMbere 133,819 34.3 given in a review of vail (1989) which refers to: "... the * invention of languages through standardisation into Total for four coastal districts only competing versions by rival missions, the deliberate creation of colonial tribes to ease administration, and the precipitation of false or illusorygroupings through The borderland between areas dominated by differ obstinate error or Most was was inadvertence. humiliating ent tribes often in dispute in earlier times and to a the co-operation of African intellectuals in falsifying tended form sparsely occupied "no-man's land" theirown identities" (southall 1990).Whatever their (Morgan 1973, 144-145). That of theKikuyu-Masai origins, the reality and significance of such population border was described in theReport of theKenya Land groups at the time of Kenyan independence and after Commission, 1933, Chapter 2 and in the Evidence. cannot resentment wards be denied, with of minority More peaceful conditions encouraged settlement of tribes at the political dominance and economic and such areas by people from either side, a feature wide as other advantages accruing to the Kikuyu and Luo spread in and characterised "the descent from leading to complaints of 'Kikuyuisation' (rothchild the hills" (gleave 1966). In traditional society, expan 1969). The relevance of ethnicity to the development sion of the home area also took place by incursion into process has subsequently become more widely recog that of a neighbour, peacefully or otherwise. In this nised (Dwyer a. Drakakis-Smith 1996; Berman way, itwas possible for a tribewith an increasing popu 1998). lation to takemore land for itsmaintenance from that The identificationof tribeswas recognised as a prob of a weaker neighbour, most likely one with a dimin lem in the earlier 1948 census. If the names of clans ishing population. Tribal boundaries would thus be or sub-tribes had been given, the analysis would have adjusted to accommodate differences in rates of popu been greatly prolonged since theywere generally only lation growth. The colonial government attempted to to conversant area. over a reserves or known persons with the The tribal stop such disputes land by systemof names to be used were therefore specified but even so "native land units" allocated to specific tribes. Since they totalled some 340 in the three East African terri land within such reserves was held by customary law, tories (martin 1949, 312 and 317). InKenya however, often with strong communal rights, itwas generally the thirteenmain tribes accounted for 86.8% of the impossible in practice for individuals to move from own reserve to one to totalAfrican population. The close relationship between their belonging another tribe. a tribe and a home area was demonstrated in the report The boundaries of reserves were only very rarely at on Geographical and Tribal Studies of the 1948 varied, while the population within them grew dif Census which listed themain tribes in each location ferent rates, so that after a time, population densities resources. (KENYA 1950). Outside of the "White Highlands", got out of step with natural most locations recorded 90-100% membership of one The tribal nature of land holding was recognised by tribe. the creation of these reserves restricted to one tribe. WilliamT. W Morgan: The ethnicgeography ofKenya 79

Although some were of an earlier date, most such tribal ceded to Italy in 1915, leaving Kenya approximately areas were defined in 1926 and placed under theNative within its present borders, for which the official Lands Trust Ordinance in 1930. The importantReport estimates of the native population rose from 2,549,300 of theKENYA LAND COMMISSION (1933) (the "Car in 1925 to 3,825,533 in 1944 (Kuczynski 1949, terCommission") maintained this tribal basis to land 144-145). allocation and extended it to the boundaries of the Official estimates of African population before and were between censuses were based on Hut and European Highlands which also to be defined by principally Order inCouncil and subject to safeguards analogous Poll Tax returns and records under theNative Regis to those of theAfrican reserves (Report 1933, par. 2077 trationOrdinance, 1915, which became operative in and 2152). Despite minor exceptions, including 'Native 1920, by which everymale native apparently over the Leasehold Areas' and 'Class D' lands, tribal and cus age of 16 years should have been registered and been tomary rights remained the basis of African land policy issuedwith a registration certificate (a "kipande"). The sources were until the Report of the ROYAL COM inadequacies of these examined by MISSION 1953-1955 (1955), which recommended a Kuczynski (1949, 133-143). Of the registration new law to promote private ownership of land and the records he emphasised that "their demographic value abandonment of policies which maintained customary is nil" (p. 143), but itmay well be that in limited geo tenures areas a and sectional land reservations (Conclusion, graphical detailed examination of both these para. 18). Legal restrictionson land ownership by tribe sources would be a fruitfulfield for research in histori or race were removed from African lands by the Native cal geography. Lands Registration Ordinance and the Land Control The first complete census of the population of (Native Lands) Ordinance in 1959 and from the Euro Kenya was taken in 1948, the only one prior to that of pean Highlands by the Land Control Regulations 1962 (EAST AFRICAN STATISTICAL DEPARTMENT made in 1961 under the authority of theKenya (Land) 1950 and KENYA 1953). The total population was Order inCouncil, 1960 (morgan 1963). given as 5,407,599 of whom 5,252,753 were classified Many unofficial studies of tribal populations and as Africans and 154,846 as non-Africans. This included areas theirdistributions had been made, mostly of individual estimates of the population for certain northern tribes, in studies usually conducted by social anthropo totalling 219,000. The previous estimate of theAfrican logists.Useful summaries of these up to the 1950swere population for 1948 had been 4,055,000, a discrepancy contained in the volumes of the Ethnographic Survey mostly attributable to an underestimate of the ratio of of Africa published by the INTERNATIONAL AFRI dependants to adult males in the tax registers (Census CAN INSTITUTE (1952-1962) and edited by daryll 1962, III, p. 2). forde. A tribalmap of Eastern Africa in two sheets at a scale of 1 : 3million was drawn and published by the Base Survey Company, East African Engineers, 1943, 3 The 1962 Census and a volume on Tribal maps of East Africa and Zanzibar by golthorpe and wilson (1960) was The census of 1962 was taken on the night of published by the East African Institute of Social 15/ 16thAugust and was followed by a detailed sample census. were Research in 1960. Special arrangements made for the sparse ly populated and largely nomadic inhabitants of the Northern Province where the count was effected in a 2 Population recordsbefore 1962 parts on dejure basis and also partly by sampling.An account of the enumeration and the care taken to account censuses An of the of Kenya and official check the results is given inVol. Ill of theReport. The estimates of theAfrican population up to and including total population, including in transit, amounted to that of 1962 is given inVol. Ill of the 1962 Report 8,636,263 of whom 8,365,942 were recorded as Afri more can (published 1966),with detail of the earlier records and Somali, 176,613 Asian, 55,759 European, in Kuczynski (1949) and Martin (1949). Following 34,048 Arab and 3,901 others. A geographical intro the transferof the Provinces of Kisumu and duction to the census of 1962 was published by from to the in 1902, MORGAN and SHAFFER (1966) includingmaps at a scale was the native population estimated at 4 million, which of 1:1 million showing the distribution of the whole remained in the figure subsequent Colonial Office population by dots and its density in rural areas by Lists, although theAnnual Blue Book for 1911-1912 shading, based on 510 location, wards, divisions or gave only 2,483,500. The Province of Jubaland was communities. 80 Erdkunde Band 54/2000

The African and Somali population was grouped accounts of tribal distributions were generalised by into40 tribes.Over half (57.8%) of thepopulation con being related to the extensive Districts. By using the sisted of four tribes,Kikuyu, Luo, Luhya and Kamba smaller units, the concentration of the tribal popula and over three quarters (78.3%) of the eight largest, tions and the sharp boundaries between them could including theKisii, Meru, Mijikenda and Kipsigis. A be mapped with greater precision and quantified, for comparison of tribal populations as recorded in the the first time across the entire country. Censuses of 1948 and 1962 provides a warning of their A summary of the tribal populations is provided by inexact nature. Table 1 shows the totals for some of the Table 2. In Tables 2 and 4 the sub-divisions of the major tribes, fromwhich it can be seen that the rate of Somali have been amalgamated. Of theKenya African inter-census increase was reasonable for some but for population, 85.1 % lived in a location or ward inwhich own others itwas unlikely (e.g.Kisii, Kipsigis, Masai, Embu 50% or more were of their tribe,with 5.0% in and Swahili). One cause of error is illustrated by the townships (some being within the tribal area) and 9.9% decrease of 34% in the number recorded as Embu. elsewhere. The homelands were defined by the 50% was Most of this is explained by the large number of boundary but within them the average dominance as as out The Kikuyu residents in the part of Embu which, following high 94.7% (7,075,859 of 7,473,329). fact a the report of the Regional Boundaries Commission, that in 1962, 85% of theAfrican population lived in on 1962, was subsequently excised to form Kirinyaga tribal homeland where, the average, 95% of their District. In 1948 most residents in the relevant divi neighbours were of their own tribe is very relevant to sions,Ndia and Gichugu, were reported as Embu but in our understanding of the political and social problems a. 1962 as Kikuyu. Similarly, in 1948 the four coastal of the time (Bennett rosberg 1961, 27-29). districts alone recorded 12,757 Swahili but in 1962 The area, population and density of the homelands was a varied as was to be in a con therewere only 8,657 for the entire country This greatly, expected country category where the element of personal choice was taining extremes of very sparsely populated arid plains areas and more than usually present and some who would have and intensively settled of high reliable referred to themselves as Swahili in 1948 may have fall on very fertile soils (morgan a. shaffer 1966). described themselves as eitherArab or by the omnibus The surprisingly low density given for the Kikuyu was somuch of the rela termMijikenda in the changed political and social homeland because it included inwhich of 1962 (Morgan 1973, 169-171; Willis tively sparsely populated "White Highlands" not own the land. In the tradition 1993). Kikuyu lived but did allyKikuyu Districts of Kiambu, Fort Hall and , the densities were much higher (1,444, 1,272, and The of the of 4 Mapping thetribes 1,108 p. sq.km.). meaning density popu was lation also became imprecisewhere the population a as with the or Tribal affiliationwas reported by location, ward or concentrated along river, Pokomo, was a into wilderness a township inVol. Ill of theCensus Report. Very few of where there gradation along as inwhich cases the these boundaries were available in published form but border, with theMijikenda, align ment an administrative affected theywere obtained, largely through the co-operation of of boundary greatly District Commissioners, and reproduced inmorgan the density shown. and shaffer (1966) and were used in the accompany ingmaps of the total population. For each location, the for the most numerous tribe 5 Tribal homelands percentage accounted by was calculated and is represented by four categories of Most tribalhomelands can be seen tohave had an in shading: 90-100%, 75-89.9%, 50-74.9% and less than a exact but real to environmental features of 50% (Supplement III). This enabled heavier bound relationship are themselves ary line to be drawn around areas within which every relief,rainfall and ecology. They ecolog features but of human rather than animal location contained a majority of the same tribe (which ical being or of culture and were also in we may call 'homelands') while leaving the location populations, factors history Cultural ward boundary shown. The population of townships volved. features, including language, writing, and in was not included. Out of the total population of marriage and land arrangements mobility gen whether a tribe accretion and 8,318,070 African, only 420,459 (5.0%) were recorded eral, influences grows by as it or divides into in townships. The only tribe significantlyaffected by remains united grows, separate this exclusion was the Swahili, which was 49.3% urban entities. Historical influences include demographic with and the of and which is not represented on the map. Previous trends, relationships neighbours length WilliamT W Morgan: The ethnicgeography ofKenya 81

Table 2: Tribes ofKenya and theirhomelands in 1962

Ethnische Gruppen Kenias und ihre Siedlungsgebiete 1962

in % PopuladonTribe % in % Homeland majority Density area Homeland Towns sq.km tribe p.p.sq.km

Kikuyu1,642,065 80.4 8.6 18,192 91.590.3 Luo1,148,355 86.6 5.2 9,559 95.2 121.4 Luhya1,086,409 80.6 5.6 7,291 92.6 149.0 Kamba933,219 88.7 5.9 25,809 98.236.2 Kisii538,343 94.8 0.7 1,942 99.1 277.2 Meru439,921 96.4 1.1 5,170 97.785.1 Mijikenda414,887 88.0 11.0 17,879 23.293.2 Kipsigis 341,771 78.6 1.2 5,074 94.967.4 Nandi170,085 62.9 1.9 1,906 90.789.2 Masai 154,079 80.1 0.9 34,566 90.24.5 Tugen109,691 93.2 0.9 5,157 97.521.3 Elgeyo100,871 88.7 0.5 984 96.2 102.5 Embu95,647 85.6 5.5 487 96.2 196.4 83,613Taita 81.0 13.6 1,676 93.9 49.9 Pokot76,537 95.7 0.2 8,780 92.78.7 Iteso72,357 58.6 1.3 575 90.1 125.8 Marakwet 66,965 96.8 0.3 881 95.376.0 Kuria41,885 90.3 1.8 572 97.473.2 Tharaka38,474 75.1 0.7 1,831 87.521.0 Mbere38,172 95.5 1.0 1,494 95.325.6 Sabaot28,012 41.7 0.1 158 52.3 177.3 Nderobo14,378 71.0 0.4 1,010 92.414.2 Bajun11,280 65.9 15.0 2,776 4.174.0 - - - Swahili/Shirazi 8,657 49.3 - -- - Taveta 4,855 3.0 - Boni/Sanye 4,797 2.4 Njemps4,681 88.0 0.3 715 78.36.5 Northern Province: Somali275,241 97.0 1.8 127,775 99.02.2 Turkana181,387 92.0 1.2 63,188 99.72.9 Boran58,346 95.8 2.2 39,780 97.51.5 Samburu48,750 96.5 0.5 18,542 97.22.6 Pokomo30,350 93.1 1.0 5,682 89.15.3 Rendille 13,724 97.6 1.8 22,805 100.00.6 Orma11,646 89.0 1.3 30,021 96.60.4 Gabbra11,478 97.9 0.6 32,458 99.70.4 Sakuye1,681 83.5 5.3 925 94.91.8 Not stated 15,481 11.9 TOTAL8,318,070 85.1 5.0 495,660 94.7 16.8

time a tribe has been in occupation. They help to compact scale but with larger populations, the division determine whether a tribe fitsinto a geographical unit, of the eastern slopes of Aberdare-Mt. Kenya between shares itwith others, or expands beyond it.Some tribes theKikuyu, Embu and Meru. Itmay well be thatwith occupied a distinctive feature so that, for example, we populations with little internalmobility and not tradi can describe theTaita of theTaita Hills or theTugen tionally literate, the undisturbed occupation of an area of the Kamasia Ridge. Where the natural unit is over a long period would encourage fissionas families, extensive or the tribal population relatively small, it clans and dialects grow apart, e. g. Luhya. By contrast, a may be shared by more than one tribe, such as the group which has entered and taken over an area division of the northeast of the country between within the last few generations might be expected to Somali, Boran, Gabbra and Rendille or, on a more have more cohesion, e. g. Luo (Ogot 1967). The loca 82 Erdkunde Band 54/2000

tion of a tribewithin an area mostly containing one eastern Aberdares and the southern side ofMt Kenya type of natural ecology would seem to be the most which, in 1962, were occupied by well over 90% are at over usual. Since they rural communities, this provides Kikuyu with individual divisions 1300 per sq. for an or opportunities agricultural pastoral system km. With the alienation of land for European settle common to themajority of the tribe to emerge with a ment in adjacent Districts, it isnot surprising thatmuch was consequent degree of homogeneity inmaterial culture. of the labour in such Districts Kikuyu (morgan A critical situation appeared to exist where a tribe 1963; Sorrenson 1968; Furedi 1976; Wambaa a. was occupying a homeland which straddled twomajor king 1976). Thus, by 1962, the Plains to the ecological zones. In this case, the two portions of the east, northern Nyeri and Nanyuki to the north and the tribewere finding themselves exploiting a differenten central Rift Valley from Naivasha to and vironment with different techniques and thus develop Thomson's Falls contained a majority of Kikuyu. areas ing a contrasting life-stylewhich leads to some social These contiguous contained 1,294,869 Kikuyu differentiation.Thus theKamba recognise the distinc out of a Kenyan African population of 1,396,569 were tion between those of themore hilly and moist Macha (92.7%). On the western side of the Highlands kos District or 'thehigh country') and those of the three isolated locations which held over 50% Kikuyu, (Ulu - drier and more Kitui District who were namely Kipkabus-Lessos (18,766 out of 36,374 low-lying - to as or out a sometimes referred Adaisu Athaisu (MlDDLE 51.6%), Ravine (6412 of 9545 67.2%) and small from the remain ton a. Kershaw 1965, 97). The Pokot, (formerly portion of Njoro location separated as a contrast the der a forest reserve. Most of these areas were in the known Suk) contain stronger between by pi pa pax, the 'corn people' , of the hills and the pi pa occupation of theMasai before the imposition of colo a tic, the 'cattle people' of the plains (huntingford nial rule and the change from population of predom was 1969). If this situation had continued unchanged, itcan inantlypastoral Masai to agricultural Kikuyu fore a. be hypothesised that culture, language and group cast in a remarkable passage in routledge, W.S. K. . identificationwould have diverged sufficientlyfor the (1910, 349) Writing of theMasai, they said: "The - as forest the dichotomous sections to become recognised separate nations thathe formerlydrove back into the - now out tribes.Just such a process may have divided the Embu Akikuyu and theAkamb'a will rapidly creep and theMbere, and theMeru and theTharaka. again and re-occupy the country under the aegis of the Five tribes are shown as occupying more than one white man, whose purpose they serve, and theMasai homeland but in each case one of thesewas clearly the will remain but a name." for different is that original homeland supporting the greatmajority of the Another special case, very reason, which con tribes-people. Of the 933,219 Kamba, 823,963 of the two very widely separated locations a on the (88.7%) were living in the homeland extending from tained majority of Nderobo: Olungerone, the of the eastward to the boundary southern margin of the Mau upland (5,453 out of margins highlands - of the bushland. However, tra 5,918 92.1 %) and Mukugodo, hill land on the north unpopulated nyika they - ern out of ditionally maintained linkswith the coast and formed edge of the Laikipia Plateau (4,769 5,130 caravans across the belt and These account for 71% of the tribe who trading intervening empty 92.8%). of a settlement to have been a and they took advantage government appear widespread hunting gather scheme in the coastal Shimba Hills after 1953, where ing people in the past but who elsewhere had been they only numbered 2,586 but comprised 73.6% of absorbed by other communities. were a thatone location. The small outliers of theKipsigis and Only three small groups completely without sense a or inwhich Masai homelands (containing 6,263 and 5,015 respec homeland, in the of location ward in the Trans-Mara area where there numbered a half or more of the inhabitants. The tively) occurred they are a and was a mixture of Masai (Purko),Kipsigis and Nandi, Bonyi/Sanye scattered hunting gathering to theNderobo. were few in complicated by official efforts to improve the pastoral people, comparable They some and were in system by ranching and tsetse control and with number dispersed Kilifi-, , the Taveta cultivation introduced (KENYA MINISTRY OF AGRI and Garissa Districts. Of 4,855 were in the Taveta Division/ CULTURE 1962). in Kenya, 4,636 living in District on the border with The Kikuyu homeland was a special case, consisting Location Taita , accounted for 35.3% of the total.Taveta of themajor area with three separated segments. The but theyonly a and itwas shared with traditional Kikuyu heartland lay in the Districts of is border railway settlement others. More Taveta Kiambu, Fort Hall and Nyeri and thewestern portion Taita, Kamba, Luhya, Luo and were Pare across the border. of Embu, subsequently excised as Kirinyaga District. living in the highlands were These contained the middle and lower slopes of the Nearly a third (32.7%) of the Swahili/Shirazi in William T W. Morgan: The ethnicgeography ofKenya 83

the large town ofMombasa, with the remainder widely 6.3 Western highlands dispersed in Coastal Province, although with notable High, originally forested, western shoulder of the concentrations in the far south (15.9% inMsambweni, Rift Valley, with lava-derived soils.Elgeyo andMarakwet Vanga and Pongwe) and in the north, around Lamu. It at altitudes up to 3000 m and m. a. r. up to 1500 mm: is strikingthat nowhere did the ancient Swahili/Shirazi largely cultivators, including with irrigation channels community occur in themajority while in two places at down the Rift scarp. At generally lower altitudes, but theCoast over declared themselvesArab. fiftypercent above 1800m, with m. a. r. of 1000-1500 mm in areas no one was were Areas where tribe in the majority originally forested are theNandi and Kipsigiswith culti widely scattered and mostly occurred in the 'White vated lava-derived soils but culturally favouring cattle Highlands' in areas at one time occupied by Masai keeping. The Sabaot homeland is comparable, on the and intowhich migration had taken place in search of slopes of Mt Elgon. Distinct physiographic units are employment. The Highland areas with a Kikuyu ma occupied by the Tugen homeland on a large ridge run jority have been mentioned above but therewere also ning into theRift Valley and theKisii homeland on a two Trans-Nzoia North West and Turbo - wards, dissected at 1950 2200 m 300 m above where had created a plateau rising Kipkarren, migration Luhya pre a m. a. r. the surrounding plains and receiving higher dominance. Mixed populations outside theHighlands - (1500 2000 mm). The homeland of thePokot people were at Taveta (see above), Witu/Mkunumbi (Bajun/ is on the drier, rain-shadowed, northern edge of the Orma/Boni-Sanya), theMombasa hinterland and the highlands with a range of altitude from 1000 to 2000 m Uasin-Gishu/Emarti area of theTrans Mara (Masai/ and of m. a. r. at the down to 500 mm, see margins giving Kipsigis, above). to rise contrasting ecologies and intra-tribal differences (see above). The Nderobo people occupy two hilly and forested homelands at the southern of 6 Homelands and the environment partially edge physical western at eastern the and the northern edge of the shoulders of theRift an Valley. Despite the above qualifications, environmental influence on the location of tribes is persuasively sug 6.4 Lake basin gested by a broad relationships between their home lands and their boundaries with and physiographic Most of the drier plains rising gently from the shores climatic Kesby This patterns (morgan 1973; 1977). of (1133 m) to the edge of the higher be described in form. may summary ground represented by theNyando Scarp and theKisii Highlands (1500 m) are within theLuo Homeland with a range of soils derived from alluvium, young sediments 6.1 Easternflanks of theAberdare Range andMt Kenya or m. a. r. old crystalline rocks and with moderate of Traditional homeland of Embu and Kikuyu, Meru, 750-1000 mm supporting a mixed cultivation and from about 1500 m to 2200 m with mean annual rain pastoral economy. Between theLuo land and the high fall a. of 1000-1500 mm on red lava (m. r.) deep lands represented in part by the Nandi Escarpment derived soils montane forest cleared for loamy carrying (1800 m) is an area of subdued relief occupied by cultivation. On the lower and at 1000 slopes plains the with particularly well distributed and m were - 1200 Mbere and Tharaka with variable m. a. r. of reliable rainfall of 1200 2000 which - mm, permits 500 800 mm or lesswith soils derived from crystalline intensive cultivation supporting very high densities of rocks savanna with and scattered culti bearing grazing population. On itsdrier western border, a small section vation. The rain-shadow to thenorth is dry occupied by of the Iteso homeland extends fromUganda. Further the Samburu. largelypastoral south, theKuria homeland extends fromTanzania in a zone of higher rainfall (over 1250mm m. a. r.)between the drier area near theLake tsetse 6.2 Eastern hills andPlains and the dry, infested, Masai Mara Game Reserve to the east. Occupied by Kamba from the edge of Kikuyu lands (1500 m) eastwards with altitudes 600 decreasing (to m) 6.5 and m. a. r. from over 800 mm to 500 mm and increas Dry plains ing temperatures.More hilly in the west, with better The plains surrounding theHighlands to the north, soils and more cultivation, to plains and more grazing east and south decline from about 1500 m to sea level a eastwards givingway to tsetse-infestedbush , distinc with an unreliable m. a. r. typicallyfrom 500 mm to 200 tion associated with social differentiation (see above). mm, supporting vegetation of bushland, semi-desert 54/2000 84_Erdkunde_Band

use i. e. Zanzibar and scrub, herbs and grass, only inhabitable with the of international law, Germany, Italy, nomadic livestock.The colonial government attempted . Their alignment was influenced by four fac to stabilise the frontiers between mobile populations. tors; the strengthof the competing claims of each state, Broadly, the Turkana occupied the area between Lake widespread ignorance of the detailed human and phys Turkana (Rudolf) and the escarpment forming the ical geography of the interior,and the convenience of for ethnic boundary with Uganda and theKaramojong. East of administration, qualified by consideration treaties or the Lake is shared between the Gabbra and theRendille, groupings, sometimes involving agreements two with the Boran further east, who are able to use water with indigenous tribal leaders. The other inter a of draining from the Ethiopian highlands and Mt Kenya. national boundaries form special case, those were to established The Orma, related to the Boran, encouraged Kenya with Uganda and the Sudan being move south and west of the Tana river to avoid the when theywere controlled by the same power. These encroachment of the Somali groups and a "Somali colonial boundaries persist except for very minor Line" was administered to separate the Boran, the adjustments. Member states of the Organisation of would Orma and the small Sakuyegroup on the one side and African Unity affirmed in 1964 that they respect on of the Somali on the other (MORGAN 1973, 216 and Fig. the borders existing their achievement indepen a border that 7.1). The Somali clans extended from , with dence, although theKenya-Somali dispute, on use existed to remains unresolved. nomadic pastoral economy based especially the prior independence, international boundaries of camels. The Masai (orMaasai) were now occupying The legal status of Kenya's were in a detailed McEWAN grazing lands south of the Highlands but formerly described very study by the in extended into some of its better watered grasslands (1971) and their evolution is depicted by maps to of during the dry season but had surrendered them the theAtlas Kenya (KENYA 1970, 84-85). "White Settlers" after 1904. A section of the tribehad In East Africa, the colonial powers entered from the an even the extent of the derives occupied theUasin Gishu plateau at earlier coast, where Kenya portion from with the Sultan of Zanzibar Ger period. agreements by many, Britain and Italy,or by their trading companies, The confirmed between the latter three governments. 6.6 The coast region border with Tanzania cuts through the Swahili/ mm m. a. r. belt and then follows two This region of good rainfall (e. g. 1200 Mijikenda inhabited straight, a zone with tenmonths over 50 mm) and access to fishingand offset lines, at firstthrough of negligible popula a and later the the theKuria maritime tradingwas occupied south of theTana by tion partitions Masai, Luo, zone. The areas near the Lake number of sub-groups forming theMijikenda homeland and Kipsigis/Masai known to the German and with am. a. r. diminishing to 500 mm in the interior would have been little the small stretch (the "Taru Desert"), and to the north of theTana, with British boundary negotiators. Only east was influenced treatiesmade poorer rainfall, by theBajun. The Pokomo bordered the of Kilimanjaro by Tana River, bounded by the Somali and Orma lands with tribal rulers, keeping separate Chagga (Tanzania) The northern limit of the away from its banks. Within the administrative Prov and Taita (Kenya) people. Swahili be ince of the Coast, the Taita inhabited a physically Kenya coast similarly divides the (Bajun) an distinctive unit, theTaita Hills, rising from 700 m alti tween Kenya and the Somali Republic, formerly of the tude and 200 mm m. a. r. to over 1500 m and a m. a. r. Italian colony and previously part of the domain the of 1200 mm. Sultan of Zanzibar. Inland, agreements between British and the Italian governments bisect Somali a or population, mostly along meridian other straight 7 Homelands and theinternational boundaries lines.The boundary with Ethiopia was negotiated with on the Ethiopian emperor based competing claims of are effective rather than tribal affinities and Many homelands on the borders of the country occupation divides the arid nomad-inhabited bisected by an international boundary, thus truncating essentially plains on our These borders are from the rather better watered and more settledmar their representation map. as a of inherited from the colonial origins of Kenya state gins theEthiopian highlands. international with was estab and it is commonly observed that such colonial bound The boundary Uganda to lished between two British so aries have an imperfect relationship ethnic group dependencies, rivalry international borders conform between the was absent and more consideration ings. Three of Kenya's powers could be to tribal areas intact.A curious to thisgeneral case, being established by negotiation by given keeping was for reasons of conve the United Kingdom with other states recognised in anomaly the administration, WilliamT W Morgan: The ethnicgeography ofKenya 85

Table 3: Population composition of towns, 1962

Bevolkerungszusammensetzung der Stadte 1962

Towns Total No Kenya Asian European Arab Other Total population % % African% % %% % % 266,794 1 56.6 32.4 8.0 0.4 2.6 100.0 179,575 1 57.1 24.3 2.9 9.9 5.8 100.0 5,000 to 100,000 175,574 16 72.3 16.7 4.1 3.9 3.0 100.0 2,000 to 4,999 48,991 16 81.9 11.2 1.8 1.0 4.3 100.0 Total 670,934 34 62.7 24.6 5.2 3.9 3.6 100.0

nience, of a portion of Pokot tribal territory(Karasuk) evidence in that some towns had a peri-urban fringeof byUganda although recognised as part of Kenya. This dense settlement just beyond the limitof urban regula continued untilJuly 1970, long after the independence tions, of which Kisumu provided a strikingexample. of both countries. The boundary between Turkana District and southern Sudan involved another special to sea administrative arrangement allow for changes in 9 Ethnicity,regions and thenation sonal grazing in the . In reviewing the accordance between international boundaries and The census of 1962 has enabled us to quantify and those of tribal areas, allowance must be made for tem map the extent towhich thepopulation and the land of porary or permanent migration and for the difference Kenya were ethnically differentiatedon the eve of inde between residence by individuals or small groups pendence. Of the Kenya African population, 85% and entire communities. On the ground and in detail were living in rural areas where 95% of their neigh agreement is seldom perfect. bours were of the same tribe.Of the total land area, 85% was comprised of such tribal "homelands", where one of the tribeswas in a majority: over 50% of the areas so 8 Ethnicityin towns inhabitants. The only considerable not domi nated were parts of the "White Highlands" inhabited Only 7.8% of the total population of Kenya, of all by migrant labour from several tribes, or theywere races, was recorded in towns in 1962, even with a lower essentially uninhabited forest or reserves. two accounts a limit of 2000 inhabitants, and only exceeded Descriptive make it clear that similar pat 100,000, namely the capital, Nairobi and the port city tern was met when the colonial administration was a ofMombasa (Table 3). They contained very different established in 1895. The only major change had been was ethnicmix from the rural homelands It only in the the creation of the "Highlands", diminishing the area towns that the immigrant communities occurred in occupied by theMasai and forming a curious variant of over a substantial proportions, in aggregate thirdof the a tribal homeland where land rightswere exclusive to inhabitants. The proportion increased the larger the Europeans but the greater number of the inhabitants settlement, from only 18.7% in towns less than 5000 were Africans of varied origins. Outside of theHigh population to 43.4% inNairobi. Although theAfrican lands, the creation of 'Native Land Units' and 'Native component normally reflected the tribal composition Reserves' had been a recognition of ethnic localisation of or the adjacent surrounding homeland, inNairobi and helped tomaintain it.Ethnic mixing was primarily were the Kikuyu only 24.6% and inMombasa the restricted to the small urban populations. At itsdemise, Mijikenda only 23.4% of the total of inhabitants. Of it could be seen thatwhile the period of colonial ad out a the smaller towns, 15 of the 32 had preponder ministration had brought great changes to the areas ance one (over 50%) of tribe, fivebeing Kikuyu, three which had become the state of Kenya, ithad done little one and one to Kamba, Luhya Mijikenda. This reflected alter the regional pattern and intensityof ethnicity the greater urbanisation of theHighlands in general (MORGAN 1969). The substantial presence of more than one tribe inmost areas was urban associated with /0 Ethnic geographyfollowing independence a degree of inter-action not always comfortable and in contrast to the . Homelands (TAMARAKIN 1973) The In the decades following independence in 1963, the of alignment township boundaries affect the statistical broad pattern of the ethnic expe 86 Erdkunde Band 54/2000

Table 4: Tribalpredominance byDistricts, 1962 and 1989 history of the country,no meaningful political analysis be to Dominanz ethnischer Gruppen in Distrikten 1962 und could made without reference tribal dispositions. 1989 These changed over the years but remained of per vasive In 1963-1964 the Swahili term numerous as as significance. Most tribe Population the fear of smaller ethnic groups % of District population % of Kenya total "majimbo" expressed of dominated the and Luo 1962 1989 being by Kikuyu (ogot a. ochieng 1995, 258) whereas by 1997 it stood for a 90-99.9 52.01 41.32 federal system based on the ethnic settlements and self 80-89.9 17.48 24.53 determination of the various tribes inhabiting the 70- 79.9 13.19 8.47 country although itwas also accused of being, in effect, 1.15 60-69.9 4.62 a for the of all other ethnic 50-59.9 7.53 9.08 specific policy expulsion from the land before the colonial era 40-49.9 1.48 2.12 groups occupied the and other allied to 30-39.9 1.43 7.10 by Kalenjin pastoral groups 20-29.9 5.73 2.76 them (Abdullahi 1997, 202). We have noted that the intense attachment of tribal Mean predominance (50%) 91.88 87.98 Number of Districts 41 40 communities towhat they regarded as exclusively their land and itspotential for conflictwith others had been recognised by the colonial power in settingaside 'native rienced only modest change, and its significance reserves' for individual tribes. By 1959 it had been remained considerable. In the absence of detailed made legally possible for a member of any race or tribe areas mapping comparable to that for 1962, the statistical to purchase or lease land in theAfrican towhich evidence of change can be examined by a comparison titlehad been registered and by 1961 similarly in the of the District totals in the 1962 and 1989 censuses. former European Highlands. The problem was that Boundary changes qualify the precision of the com these legal de-restrictions did not diminish the resent parison but it remains usefully indicative. ment of the tribal communities to any incursions by The Districts have been ranked by the proportion of members of another tribe, which eventually led to were the population belonging to themost numerous tribe bloodshed. Accusations of political incitement one made and violent incidents became numerous present (Tab. 4). The predominance of any tribe in just a theDistrict occupying themean population point fell before general election in 1992 and afterwards. from 91.88% to 88.98%. In some Districts of the abdullahi (1997) quotes reports of 1,500 dead and former 'Scheduled areas', where land ownership had 250,000 displaced. Violence and population displace to ments to another election in been restricted Europeans, predominance actually continued up and beyond increased. Between 1962 and 1989 the proportion of 1997, reported in the localmedia. The relevant point is were Kalenjin in Uasin Gishu increased from 31.0% to thatmost of these disturbances in theRift Valley or 55.0% and ofKikuyu inNakuru from 53.4% to 59.7%. Province and concerned claims thatKikuyu, Luo to In the two largest towns,Nairobi and Mombasa, the Luhya had moved into the lands rightfullybelonging also increased but this was associated or Masai. the statistical predominance the Kalenjin Considering with an extension of boundaries into adjacent tribal evidence, its political relevance and the associated areas. violence, the ethnic geography of Kenya had much the a same characteristics and no less than that Tribal allegiance remained major factor in party significance census of politics, and hence of government, following indepen shown by themap of the 1962. dence. Negotiations with the colonial government had been complicated by thepresence of twomajor African parties, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), References perceived to be dominated by two large tribes, the Abdullahi, A. M. Ethnic clashes, persons Kikuyu and Luo from the centre and west, and the (1997): displaced in a forbid and the potential for refugee creation Kenya: Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU) essentially forecast. In: International of Law 9, the smaller with its leader ding Journal Refugee representing tribes, originat 196-206. from Coast Province. This division continued ing Bennett, G. a. Rosberg, C. G. (1961): The Kenyatta Elec the first election in 1961 and contin through general tion: Kenya 1960-1961. London. ued after KADU disbanded independence, although BERMAN, B.J. (1998): Ethnicity, patronage and the African Affairs. itself in 1964 and merged with the government party, State: the politics of uncivil nationalism. African KANU. Without detailing the convoluted political In: African Affairs 97, 305-341. William T. W Morgan: The ethnicgeography ofKenya 87

a. Dwyer, D. Drakakis-Smith, D. (Ed.) (1966): Ethnicity planning and enumeration. In: Population Studies 3, and Development: Geographical Perspectives. Chichester. 303-320. EAST AFRICAN ROYAL COMMISSION 1953-1955 (1955): Morgan, W. T. W. (1963): The 'White Highlands' of Kenya. Report Cmd 9475. London. In: The Geographical Journal 129, 140-155. - EAST AFRICAN STATISTICAL DEPARTMENT (1950):Afri (1969): Urbanization in Kenya: origin and trends. In: can Population of and Protectorate; Geo Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 46, graphical and Tribal Studies (Source: East African Popula 167-178. - tion Census, 1948). Nairobi. (1973): East Africa. London. a. furedi, f. (1976): The Kikuyu squatters in theRift Valley, Morgan, W. T. W. Shaffer, N. M. (1966): Population of 1918-1929. In: Ogot, B.A. (Ed.): Economic and Social Kenya, Density and Distribution. Nairobi. History of East Africa Hadith 5. Nairobi. Odingo, R. S. (1971): The Kenya Highlands, Land Use and gleave, m. B. (1966): Hill settlements and their abandon Agricultural Development. Nairobi. ment in tropical Africa. In: Transactions of the Institute of OGOT, B. A. (1967): History of the Southern Luo. Nairobi. British Geographers 40, 39-50. OKUMU, J.J. (1975):The problem of tribalismin Kenya. In: a. van den goldthorpe, J. E. Wilson, E B. (I960): Tribal maps of Berg (Ed.): Race and Ethnicity in Africa. East Africa and Zanzibar. Kampala. Nairobi. harries, P.(1988): The roots of ethnicity: discourse and the Ominde, S. H.(1965): The EthnicMap of theRepublic of no. politics of language construction in south-east Africa. In: Kenya, Occasional Memoir 1, Department of Geo African Affairs 87, 25-52 graphy, University College, Nairobi. Nairobi. - INTERNATIONAL AFRICAN INSTITUTE (1952-1962): (1968): Land and population Movements in Kenya. Lon Ethnographic Survey of Africa, East Central Africa, Parts don. 13. 3, 5,7,8, 12, London. rothchild, D. (1969): Ethnic inequalities in Kenya. In: on KENYA (1953): Report the Census of the Non-native Journal of Modern African Studies 7, 689-711. of 1948. a. a Population Kenya Nairobi. routledge, W. S. K. (1910): With Prehistoric People. - (1970): Atlas of Kenya. Nairobi. London. - (1992): Reports of the Parliamentary Select Committee to ROYAL COMMISSION 1953-55 (1955): East Africa Royal in Investigate Ethnic Clashes Western and Other Parts of Commission 1953-55 Report, Cmd. 9475. London. Nairobi. a. Kenya. Sanger, S. Nottingham, J. (1963): The Kenya general - 1989. (1994): Kenya Population Census Nairobi. election of 1963. In: Journal of Modern African Studies 2, KENYA DIRECTORATE OF ECONOMIC PLANNING 1-40. (1964?1966): Kenya Population Census 1962. Advance Southall, A. (1990):Review of Vail (1989), in:Journal of I Report of Volumes and II, Tables 1964; Vol. I. Popula Modern African Studies, Vol. 28, 341-342. tions of Census Areas Sex and Tables by Age Groups, sorrenson, M. P. K.(1967): Land reform in the Kikuyu 1964; Vol. II. Populations of Locations and County Coun Country. Nairobi. cil Wards Tribe and Tables Vol. III. by Race, Sex, 1965; tamarakin, M. (1973): Tribal associations, tribal solidarity African Vol. IV Non-African tribal a Population 1966; Population and chauvinism in Kenya town. In: Journal of 1966. Nairobi. African History 14, 257-274. KENYA LAND COMMISSION D. A. a. (1933):Report. Nairobi. Throup, hornsby, C. (1999): Multiparty Politics in KENYA MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (1962):African Land Kenya. Oxford. Development inKenya, 1946-1962. Nairobi. Vail, L. (Ed.) (1989):The Growth of Tribalism in Southern D. The Cultural of Kesby, J. (1977): Regions East Africa. Africa. London, Los Angeles. London. a. Wambaa, R. M. King, K. (1976): The political economy of R. R. the rift a kuczynski, (1949):Demographic Surveyof theBritish valley: squatter perspective. In: OGOT, B. A. (Ed.): Colonial Vol. II East Africa etc. London. Empire. Economic and Social History of East Africa, Hadith 5. McEWAN, A. C. (1971): International Boundaries of East Nairobi. Africa. Oxford. Willis, J. (1993):Mombasa, the Swahili, and theMaking of martin, C.J. (1949): The East African population census; theMijikenda. Oxford.