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Chapter 1: Profile______5 Introduction ______5 Geography______5 Area ______5 Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features ______6 Climate ______7 Bodies of Water ______8 Bay ______8 River ______8 Lake de Bay ______8 Lake Taal ______8 Philippine Sea ______9 ______9 ______9 Sea ______9 Major Cities ______10 Manila ______10 City ______11 ______11 ______11 ______11 History ______12 Pre-Spanish Era ______12 Spanish ______12 Nationalism ______13 American Rule ______13 Post-Independence ______14 Recent Events ______15 Economy ______15 Agriculture and Fishing ______15 Manufacturing and Industry ______16 Exports ______16 Ethnic Groups and Languages ______17 Tagalog ______17 Ilocano ______17 Kapampangan ______17 ______18 Kankaney ______18 ______18 Bicolano ______19 ______19 Chapter 1: Assessments ______20 Chapter 2: Religion ______21 Introduction ______21 The Role of Religion in the Government ______22

©DLIFLC | 2 Influence of Religion on Daily Life ______23 Protestant Resurgence ______23 Religious Holidays and Festivals ______24 ______24 and Easter ______24 All Saints’ Day ______25 ______25 Eid al-Fitr ______25 Buildings of Worship ______26 Behavior in Places of Worship ______26 Churches ______26 Mosques ______27 Chapter 2: Assessments ______29 Chapter 3: Traditions ______30 Introduction ______30 Traditional Economy ______30 Tagalog Social Traditions ______32 Greetings ______32 Hospitality and Gift-Giving ______35 Dress Codes ______36 Types of Food and Eating Habits ______38 Non-Religious Public Holidays ______39 EDSA Revolution Day ______39 Day ______39 ______40 National Heroes Day ______40 Independence Day ______40 ______41 (Andres Bonifacio’s Day) ______41 Day ______41 Social Events ______42 Weddings ______42 Funerals ______43 Dos and ’ts ______44 Chapter 3: Assessments ______45 Chapter 4: Urban Life ______46 Urbanization ______46 Urban Jobs and Workforce ______47 Bribery and Paternalism ______47 Daily Urban Life and Living Conditions ______48 ______50 Health Care ______51

©DLIFLC | 3 Transportation and Traffic ______53 Restaurants and Marketplaces ______56 Restaurant ______56 Marketplaces ______58 Beggars ______60 Urban Crime ______61 Chapter 4: Assessments ______62 Chapter 5: Rural Life ______63 Rural Economy ______63 Rural Transportation ______66 Rural Health ______67 Rural Education ______68 Village Life and Gender Roles ______69 Who’s in Charge ______70 Checkpoints ______70 Land Mines ______71 Chapter 5: Assessment ______72 Chapter 6: Family Life ______74 Family Roles and Responsibilities ______74 Status of Women, Elderly, and Children ______76 Women ______76 Elderly ______76 Marriage, Divorce, and Birth ______79 Marriage ______79 Divorce______79 Birth and Birth Ceremonies ______80 Naming Conventions ______81 Chapter 6: Assessments ______82 Final Assessment ______83 Further Resources ______85

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Chapter 1: Profile Introduction Tagalog is one of the two largest of nearly 100 distinct ethnic and language groups in the .1 Located primarily on the of and , constitute approximately 28% of the Philippine population.2 Like most of the nation’s other ethnicities, they are descendants of the Malay people.3 Their language, Tagalog, forms the basis of the official , Filipino, the most widely spoken of the .4

On Luzon, Tagalog people inhabit Manila and the surrounding area. Since the Spanish arrived in the late , the city of Manila and its large protected natural harbor, , have played a leading role in the country’s history.5, 6 Manila is the nation’s vibrant capital and center of government, finance, and industry.

Geography Area Members of the Tagalog group are concentrated around Manila Bay, and occupy the of Luzon in its central and south-central region. Luzon is the northernmost island in the Philippines and the largest in the archipelago, which includes over 7,100 islands and islets.7 It covers an area of 104,688 sq km (40,420 sq mi).8 The Tagalog people also occupy most of the island of Mindoro,

1 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: People–Ethnic Groups,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 2 CIA World Factbook, “Philippines,” 28 April 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/rp.html 3 Asianinfo.org, “The People of the Philippines,” 2010, http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/philippines/pro- people.htm 4 The Language Chronicle, “ History,” 9 July 2008, http://thelanguagechronicle.com/tagalog-language-history/ 5 Aenet.org, “Philippine Journeys,” n.d., http://www.aenet.org/philip/manila.htm 6 Manila.ph, “Short ,” 2009, http://www.manila.ph/manila/info/history01.html 7 European Commission, The Philippines, “Country Environmental Profile,” August 2005, http://www.delphl.ec.europa.eu/docs/cep%20Philippines.pdf 8 The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, “Luzon,” 2008, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1- Luzon.html

©DLIFLC | 5 located off Luzon’s west–central shore.9 Most islands in the Philippines lie south of Luzon.10, 11

The closest neighboring countries of the Philippines are Borneo to the south and to the south-southwest. Vietnam lies west of the north-central Philippines, and southern China lies northwest of Luzon.12, 13

Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features Coastal mountains are found along both the eastern and western sides of Luzon. In the central Tagalog region, the Sierra Madre Mountains lie along the eastern Pacific shore (the Philippine Sea). They are the longest mountain range in the Philippines, extending from northern Luzon to the southeastern peninsular part of the island.14 The Sierra Madre forms a steep ridge so close to the island’s shoreline that there is almost no coastal plain on that side of the island.15

Other coastal ranges extend along the western side of the island. In the Tagalog region along Luzon’s western coast lie the . They reach all the way to Bataan Peninsula, which encloses the northwestern side of Manila Bay. This rugged mountain chain consists mostly of ancient volcanic rock.16 The Zambales merge in a southeastward direction into the Cabusilan, which end slightly north of the waters of Manila Bay.

One of the highest peaks in this region is at 1,780 m (5,840 ft), located in the Zambales near their convergence with the Cabusilan range.17 Although it was thought to be dormant, Mount Pinatubo erupted in 1991, 600 years after its last-known volcanic activity. Ash and smoke from the volcano reached a height of over 30 km (19 mi), with

9 European Commission, The Philippines, “Country Environmental Profile,” August 2005, http://www.delphl.ec.europa.eu/docs/cep%20Philippines.pdf 10 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Philippines: Land,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines/23724/Land 11 Maps of the World, “Philippines Latitude and Longitude,” 1999, http://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/philippines-lat-long.html 12 Maps of the World, ”Philippines, Information,” 2009, http://www.mapsofworld.com/country- profile/philippines-information-geography-history.html 13 Everyculture.com, “The Philippines: Location and Geography,” 2011, http://www.everyculture.com/No- Sa/The-Philippines.html 14 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Philippines: Relief,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines/23725/Relief?anchor=ref387425 15 The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, “Luzon,” c. 2011, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1- Luzon.html 16 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: Land,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines/23725/Relief?anchor=ref387425 17 Mountainsmounts.com, “Mount Pinatubo,” n.d., http://www.mountainsmounts.com/mountain/34587/mount-pinatubo/

©DLIFLC | 6 hot ash and debris raining down that same distance around the sides of the volcano. The eruption caused enough destruction to force the closure of Clark Air Force Base, 16 km (10 mi) east of the volcano.18

A long, wide plain, known as the Valley, covers the center of Luzon between the mountain ranges. This central plain stretches between Lingayan Gulf in the north and Manila Bay in the south. Most of the land in this fertile region is no higher than around 30 m (100 ft) above sea level.19

Hills and mountains are scattered in an irregular pattern across the region. The land narrows here as it extends into the southeast, and the Tagalog people occupy only part of this peninsula. Beyond this, Luzon’s southern end is occupied by other ethnic groups.

Mindoro is separated from Luzon by a narrow stretch of water known as the Passage. The island consists of an elevated plain in its interior and a low coastal strip that fronts most of the shoreline. The hills and mountains of Mindoro’s highland interior rise to heights of 2,581 m (8,469 ft) above sea level.20

Climate In its location approximately 15 degrees north of the equator, the Tagalog region (like all of the Philippines) has two distinct climate zones.21, 22 A hot and humid tropical marine climate is typically found year-round in the coastal and lowland areas. In Manila, temperatures often rise as high as 38°C (100°F). During most of the year (except between March and the end of May), this zone’s heat and humidity are tempered by breezes from the ocean. Two seasons are marked in this zone: the dry season between mid-November and May, and the monsoon season between May or June and October. In the dry season, winds are from the northeast, and during the wet season, monsoon winds bearing rain blow from the southwest. During the wet season, typhoons (bagyos) lasting three to four days pass over the islands, often causing considerable damage with their high winds and heavy rainfall.23

The second climate zone is found at higher elevations in the mountains, especially in the northern parts of Luzon. The dry season in the mountains is shorter and cooler than at

18 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Mount Pinatubo,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/460806/Mount-Pinatubo 19 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: Land,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 20 Depedmimaropa.ph, “Division of ,” 2011, http://depedmimaropa.ph/occidental_mindoro.asp 21 World 66, “Climate,” n.d., http://www.world66.com/asia/southeastasia/philippines/climate 22 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: Climate,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 23 A typhoon is a tropical cyclone; in the Atlantic, it is called a hurricane.

©DLIFLC | 7 lower elevations, and nights here can be cool throughout the year. Some of the coastal mountains in the Tagalog region fall within this zone, although the climate of this region is characterized as warm or hot.

Bodies of Water Manila Bay An inlet carved into Luzon’s western shore on the South China Sea, Manila Bay is considered one of the world’s finest harbors because of its sheltered access. Almost landlocked, it covers an area of 2,000 sq km (770 sq mi) and stretches across 58 km (36 mi) at its widest point. The island of divides the bay at its entrance into the 3.2-km-wide (2 mi) North Channel, with the Bataan Peninsula and the central plain on its northern shore. Although much wider, the South Channel is seldom used because it is less safe to navigate. The bay is further divided into two sections, one for international shipping and one for inter-island shipping. A joint U.S.–Filipino naval base ( Point) is located on the southeastern shore.24, 25

Pampanga River The Pampanga River begins in the mountains of east–central Luzon and flows to the southeast approximately 190 km (120 mi). It empties into northern Manila Bay, creating a wide, swampy delta. The Candaba Swamp north of the delta, where the Pampanga merges with another river, covers over 500 sq km (200 sq mi) when it is flooded. Several large commercial fishponds are farmed on the lower stretch of this River.26

Lake Located southeast of Manila, Lake Laguna de Bay is “the largest inland body of water in the Philippines,” with an area of 922 sq km (356 sq mi). Its length is 51 km (32 mi). The lake is believed to be a remnant of Manila Bay that was separated from the bay by volcanic activity. The River extends 16 km (10 mi) to the northwest, providing drainage from the lake into Manila Bay.27

Lake Taal The Philippines’ third largest lake, Lake Taal, is located in southwestern Luzon, directly south of

24 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Manila Bay,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/362288/Manila-Bay 25 The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, “Manila Bay,” 2008, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-ManilaBa.html 26 Encyclopædia Britannica. “Pampanga River.” 2011. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/440458/Pampanga-River 27 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Laguna de Bay,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/56646/Laguna-de-Bay

©DLIFLC | 8 Manila. It occupies the crater of an extinct volcano and encompasses an area of 244 sq km (94 sq mi). forms an island in Lake Taal called Volcano Island. It in turn has its own smaller lake. Taal Volcano has erupted periodically, the last time in 1970.28

Philippine Sea Part of the North Pacific Ocean, the Philippine Sea is located east and north of Luzon. Crossing the southern part of the Philippine Sea, the Pacific North Equatorial Current is a warm current that flows westward. It divides at the Philippines, with part of the current moving north near Luzon, where it forms the Current (Kuroshio). There, the current divides further into a countercurrent. Together, these varied, strong movements of water support rich fishing grounds among the reefs and islands.29

South China Sea Lying west of Luzon, the South China Sea is a western section of the North Pacific Ocean. Its eastern shore is the Philippines, and it extends west to the Southeast Asian mainland and , covering an area of 2,590,000 sq km (1,000,000 sq mi). The southern part of this sea, which overlies the Sunda Platform (between the Gulf of Thailand and southern ), is shallow while the northern part reaches depths of up to 5,490 m (18,000 ft).30

Sibuyan Sea A small sea that separates Luzon from the Philippine islands that lie to its south, the Sibuyan Sea extends as far south as the island of . Mindoro forms its western boundary.31

Sulu Sea The is a section of the North Pacific Ocean that lies south of Luzon. It extends as far as Borneo to the southwest, and the Sulu Archipelago on its southeast. The Sulu Sea has a surface area of 260,000 sq km (100,000 sq mi) and reaches as deep as 5,600 m (18,400 ft). It is famous as the former stronghold of the Moro pirates, who raided ships in the Sulu Archipelago. Spanish opposition in the mid-19th century, followed by U.S. opposition in the early 20th century, eventually

28 Encyclopædia Britannica, “,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579618/Taal- Lake 29 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippine Sea,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456389/Philippine-Sea 30 The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, “South China Sea,” 2008, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-SthChi.html 31 Deepseawaters.com, “Sibuyan Sea,” 2011, http://www.deepseawaters.com/Sibuyan_Sea.htm

©DLIFLC | 9 defeated the pirates, and the Sulu Sea is now a crossing for inter-island trade.32 However, is still present in this area.33

Major Cities Manila Located on Manila Bay on Luzon’s southwestern coast, the nation’s capital of Manila is the largest city and port of the Philippines. It is also the nation’s center of culture, government, industry, and commerce, and one of Asia’s most cosmopolitan cities. Manila has over 20 colleges and universities, a variety of TV and radio stations, and a symphony orchestra.34

With a population of 11.5 million, metropolitan Manila has swallowed up some of the cities on its fringes, such as Kalookan and , which formerly existed as separate cities.35, 36, 37 Manila’s entire extended metropolitan area, officially named the National Capital Region, covers an area of 636 sq km (246 sq mi). Since 1945 and the end of World War II, the city and region have experienced heavy migration from rural areas. The rapid population growth has created urban problems such as shortages of housing, overcrowding, traffic congestion, and widespread pollution.38

The flows through Manila and dissects it into southern and northern sections. , a Spanish walled city, stands in the southern part of Manila as a remnant of Spanish . Tourist hotels and government buildings are also found in the southern section. The more modern northern bank of the city includes the Chinese area (), the commercial district, and large, congested slums.39

32 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Sulu Sea,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/573066/Sulu- Sea 33 Advisorone.com, “Piracy: Not Just Shipping Vessels Are at Risk,” 16 August 2010, http://www.advisorone.com/article/piracy-not-just-shipping-vessels-are-risk 34 The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, “Manila,” 2008, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1- Manila.html 35 CIA World Factbook, “Philippines: People,” 28 April 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- world-factbook/geos/rp.html 36 Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Philippines- Population source,” 29 October 2010,http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm 37 Other population statistics for metropolitan Manila are much larger because they report for the Manila agglomeration, which can include outlying cities, such as . In the report cited here, Quezon City is not included as part of Manila but is listed as a separate city. See source: City Population, “The Principal Agglomerations of the World: Manila,” 2008, http://www.citypopulation.de/world/Agglomerations.html 38 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Manila,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/362270/Manila 39 The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, “Manila,” 2008, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1- Manila.html

©DLIFLC | 10 Quezon City Replacing Manila as the capital of the Philippines from 1948 to 1976, Quezon City adjoins and lies directly northeast of Manila. It was named after Manual Luis Quezon y Molina, who served as the first president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. Similar to Manila, Quezon City grew rapidly after the end of World War II. Although it is primarily residential, it has also developed as a center of light industry. Quezon City is one of the nation’s largest cities with a population close to 2,680,000.40, 41

Lucena Capital of Quezon Province, Lucena lies in southern central Luzon, near the coast. The city is a gateway between the southern Tagalog region and the Bikol Peninsula to the south, populated by Bikol-speaking people. Although it is a major urban center, Lucena’s economy is predominantly agricultural. Much of its residential area formerly consisted of plantations.42

Batangas Located on a bay in the southwestern Tagalog area of Luzon, Batangas is a trading center, a seaport, and the capital city of Batangas Province. The city’s economy is based on farming along with oil production from a large oil refinery located here. Batangas is also a center for tourism, being close to Lake Taal and other tourist attractions.43, 44

Calapan Since 1837, Calapan has been the capital of Mindoro, a province that is an island located off Luzon’s southwestern shore. As Mindoro is a farming region, Calapan’s main economic activity is agriculture. It also supports metalworking and fishing industries, and is a popular tourist site. Calapan is the most urbanized city on Mindoro and provides a range of public services. A number of hospitals, higher-learning institutions (including technical and trade schools), and world-class resorts are located here.45

40 Quezon City Government, “City Population,” 8 December 2008, http://www.quezoncity.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=59&Itemid=66 41 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Quezon City,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 42 Philippine Travel, “Lucena City,” 17 March 2008, http://www.philippinetravel.ws/philippine- cities/lucena-city-philippines 43 The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, “Batangas,” 2008, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1- Batangas.html 44 LakbayPilipinas, “Batangas Travel Guide,” 2002, http://www.lakbaypilipinas.com/travel_batangas.html 45 City of Calapan Government, “General Information,” 2007, http://www.cityofcalapan.gov.ph/index.php/component/content/article/1-calapan/89-general-information

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History Pre-Spanish Era Tagalog in written form was in use when the Spanish arrived in the Philippines. Used only for personal communication, little is known of Tagalog history prior to the 16th century.46 The Philippines generally consists of people of Malay descent, who began arriving around the third century B.C.E. They settled throughout the islands, and their languages became separate over time, each developing in isolation from the others.47, 48

Villages were based on extended family units called barangays, each ruled by a chieftain (). They shared the land, producing what they needed to live. Villagers organized into three classes of people: (including the datu and his family), “freeholders,” and “dependents.” The latter group included debtors, sharecroppers, and slaves captured in war.49

Spanish Colonialism In 1521, , a Portuguese explorer on an expedition for the Spanish king, became the first European to discover the Philippine archipelago. More expeditions followed from , which used its soldiers, settlers, and church to colonize the land, which they named after King Philip II of Spain. Although the Spanish eventually ruled over the lowland people throughout the islands, the center of their rule was Manila, which they named the Spanish capital.

From their strategic site in Manila, with its sheltered bay, the Spanish developed extensive commercial relations with . They obtained a monopoly on trade with , using huge ships known as galleons to carry their cargo. They acquired goods from the Chinese merchants who became prominent in Manila, drawn there by the lucrative business opportunities. The Spanish traded Chinese porcelain and silk cloth in exchange for silver from Mexico, which they then used to purchase more goods from the Chinese intermediaries. It was not until 1815 that the galleon trade and monopoly finally

46 Hector Santos, "Literacy in Pre- Philippines," c. 1995–96, http://www.bibingka.com/dahon/literacy/literacy.htm 47 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: History,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 48 Beda7882.com, “The Philippines: A Glimpse through History,” 2006, http://www.beda7882.com/Philippine_History.htm#Ancient_and_pre-Spanish_Era 49 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: History,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines

©DLIFLC | 12 ended, weakened through war with Great Britain, opposition to Spanish rule and deteriorating economic and social conditions.50, 51

Nationalism Over the course of many decades, a new mestizo class formed of those of Chinese-Filipino ancestry, which gained both economic and political power. In the 19th century, public education was introduced in the Philippines. As education and knowledge of the world spread among the local population, liberal ideas and a sense of national identity developed. Nationalist views that were critical of Spanish rule began to emerge, articulated by leaders such as the Chinese-Filipino national hero, Jose Rizal. Led by another Chinese-Filipino nationalist leader, , revolted against Spain in 1896. After the won the Spanish-American War in 1898, defeating the Spanish fleet, Aguinaldo declared independence for the Philippine and became president.52

American Rule The between the U.S. and Spain gave possession of the Philippines to the U.S. in exchange for the sum of USD 20 million.53 Refusing to recognize U.S. sovereignty over them, Filipinos began fighting the U.S. occupation forces. The subsequent Philippine-American War lasted from 1899 until 1902.54 After peace was established, a resistance movement continued against the U.S. presence until 1913. During these years, a legal system and public infrastructure were formed, public education was extended, and English became the of schools and businesses. Dependence on the U.S. economy developed after free trade, established in 1913 between the Philippines and the U.S., supplied manufactured goods to the Philippines duty-free. During this period, large landholdings increased, as did tenant farming among peasants who owned no land.55 By the end of World War I, Filipinos had taken control of their own civil service, but the U.S. government retained significant control in many areas.

50 Philippine History.com, “Philippine History-Spanish Colonization,” n.d., http://www.philippinecountry.com/philippine_history/spanish_colonization.html 51 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: History,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 52 Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Philippines,” 29 October 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm 53 Historycentral.com, “Treaty of Paris with Spain-1898,” 2000, http://www.historycentral.com/documents/TreatyparisSpain.html 54 Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Philippines,” 29 October 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm 55 Camperspoint, “The American Occupation,” 2009, http://www.camperspoint.com/article.php3?id_article=230

©DLIFLC | 13 During World War II, Japanese forces invaded the Philippines. On Luzon, overwhelmed allied forces made a final stand on Corregidor and the Bataan Peninsula in 1942. In 1944, the historic Battle of Gulf marked a turning point in the war, and in 1945, Allied forces were able to recover Luzon and Manila from the Japanese. Manila was in ruins from the fighting, as was the entire country’s infrastructure, and post-war rebuilding efforts began. In 1947, the U.S. government negotiated a 99-year lease over military bases in the Philippines, later amended to a shorter period.

As tensions increased between the rural poor and landowners, an insurgency associated with the Communist Party of the Philippines, the Huk Rebellion, began in 1945. The insurgency comprised mainly landless peasants who demanded an end to the system of tenant farming. Suppressed in 1953, the rebellion was followed by land reforms and programs to diversify the economy. One of the programs involved purchasing land on and encouraging landless peasants from Luzon to move there. The resettling of Christians from Luzon to the southern island had a dual effect however, resulting in minority status for the Muslims on Mindanao, which led to conflict and competition for resources.56

Post-Independence Between 1965 and 1986, served as elected president of the Philippine Republic. Responding to increasing opposition to his government and opposition to its support for both the Vietnam War and the presence of U.S. military bases, he declared in 1972. During his rule, Marcos curtailed civil liberties, suppressed democratic processes, and detained many journalists and activists. Government corruption and crony capitalism (in which Marcos controlled monopolies in most economic sectors) eventually led to his downfall. He and his wife were forced to depart the Philippines in 1986, leaving the country in debt and a deep recession.

The next president, , took steps to restore democracy and freedom of the press. She freed political prisoners, restored civil liberties, and endorsed a new constitution. Her government also tried to negotiate with Muslim rebels in Mindanao who had been fighting a war to secede since the 1970s. The military, however, opposed her and backed several attempts to overthrow her government. During the last year of her presidency, the government did not extend leases on U.S. bases, determining that they infringed upon the sovereignty of the Philippines.

Subsequent presidents restored civilian authority over the military and pursued economic and other reforms. President Fidel Ramos continued to negotiate with the Muslim rebels in the south, some of whom were demanding a separatist state. In 1999, President

56 Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: The Philippines,” 29 October 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm

©DLIFLC | 14 Estrada took a different approach when he declared war on all rebel groups in the south. At the same time, he tried to modernize and develop the nation’s agricultural infrastructure. Government corruption led to charges of impeachment against him in 2000, which in turn led to his downfall in 2001.57, 58

Recent Events Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo succeeded Estrada in 2001 and was reelected in 2004. Her term was colored by scandal and corruption charges. Benigno Aquino was elected in May 2010. The country continues to struggle against Islamic separatism in the south and “faces threats from three terrorist groups on the U.S. Government's Foreign Terrorist Organization list.”59 In 2006 and 2007, the government was successful in bringing to justice several insurgents identified as terrorists. Negotiations toward peace with the southern Muslim insurgency have been ongoing and negotiations with the Communist insurgents have recently been ramped up.60 The president has promised to end all insurgency in the country by 2016.61

Economy Agriculture and Fishing Agriculture is the primary economic base of the Tagalog region (Mindoro and central and southwestern Luzon). The main crops grown on Luzon are rice, coffee, sugarcane, corn, , and fruits such as , mangoes, and bananas. The central plain of Luzon is the most productive rice-growing region in the entire country and the second most productive for sugarcane. Southeast of Manila, the plains that encircle Lake Laguna de Bay remain saturated throughout the season of heavy rainfall, ensuring optimal growing and cultivation conditions for rice.62, 63

57 Philippinehistory.org, “Philippine History,” 2011, http://www.philippine-history.org/ 58 Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Philippines,” 29 October 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm 59 CIA World Factbook, “Philippines,” 28 April 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/rp.html#Govt 60 Sri Lanka Mirror, “The Communist Insurgency in the Philippines: Tactics and Talks,” 15 February 2011, http://www.srilankamirror.com/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2128:the- communist-insurgency-in-the-philippines-tactics-and-talks&catid=76:feature&Itemid=316 61 International Crisis Group, “The Communist Insurgency in the Philippines: Tactics and Talks,” 14 February 2011, http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/publication-type/media-releases/2011/asia/the-communist- insurgency-in-the-philippines-tactics-and-talks.aspx 62 The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, “Luzon,” 2008, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1- Luzon.html 63 International Lake Environment Committee, “Laguna De Bay (Lake Bay),” n.d., http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-13.html

©DLIFLC | 15 Fishing is also an important economic activity. Lake Laguna de Bay is a source of fish for the region. The ocean waters that surround both Luzon and Mindoro (particularly on Mindoro’s west coast) are also rich fishing grounds.64, 65, 66

Manufacturing and Industry Manufacturing is concentrated in Manila, where the main industries produce chemicals, textiles, and metal products. On the Bataan Peninsula that stretches south into Manila Bay, bamboo is harvested for commercial use. Other industries found at various sites on Luzon include lumber processing and plywood mills, and mining of copper, gold, nickel, chromite, and iron.

Exports The main agricultural export is rice, in years when a surplus can be accumulated.67 A substantial increase in rice output since the early 1970s is attributed to a variety of factors. Foremost among these factors are the development of strains with higher yields, greater use of insecticides and fertilizers, and improved sources of irrigation.68, 69

Other export goods include coconut products and sugarcane.70 Between the mid 1800s and the mid 1970s, sugar was the Philippines’ main agricultural export, but international dynamics have caused that industry to decline. Specifically, one cause is the 1974 expiration of a U.S. quota system that regulated sugar imports, and another is the steep worldwide decline in sugar prices that followed.71, 72

64 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Laguna de Bay,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/56646/Laguna-de-Bay 65 .net, “Occidental Mindoro,” 2011, http://mimaropa.net/otop/otop/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=50&Itemid=56 66 mindorousa.com, “Mindoro History,” n.d., http://mindorousa.com/3/miscellaneous12.htm 67 Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “Republic of the Philippines Country Brief,” September 2010, http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/philippines/philippines_brief.html 68 Soyatech.com, “Philippines Expects to Exceed Rice Output Targets,” 30 April 2011, http://www.soyatech.com/news_story.php?id=23309 69 V. Balasubramanian, M. Bell, and M. Sombilla, “Yield, Profit, and Knowledge Gaps in Rice Farming: Causes and Development of Mitigation Measures,” International Rice Research Institute, n.d., http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6905e/x6905e0f.htm 70 USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, “Philippines,” 22 November 2010, http://www.fas.usda.gov/country/Philippines/Philippines.asp 71 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: Economy,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 72 Ronald E. Dolan, ed., “Philippines: A Country Study: Philippines,” ( D.C.: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991), http://countrystudies.us/philippines/64.htm

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Ethnic Groups and Languages Tagalog The Tagalog people speak Tagalog, which also forms the foundation for Filipino, the nation’s official language. The Tagalog language is spoken by approximately 15 million people on the islands of Luzon and Mindoro in the Philippines.73 Although its script was originally of South Asian origin, it now utilizes the Roman .74, 75

Ilocano The Ilocano people live mainly in the northern part of the island of Luzon, although many have migrated to other scattered areas of the country. They are the third largest in the Philippines and northern Luzon’s dominant ethnic group. Their main language is Ilocano, and they speak Filipino and English as second languages.

In the 17th century, the Ilocanos were one of the first ethnic groups to rebel against the , who had colonized the region. The first Ilocano revolt took place in 1661, resulting in the of their own king until the Spaniards executed him and dissolved the short-lived kingdom. Throughout the years, the Ilocanos continued to struggle for independence. Ferdinand Marcos, elected president of the country in 1965, was the second Ilocano to attain that position, and he instituted land reforms that benefitted thousands of people.76

Kapampangan The Kapampangan kingdom was extant when the Spaniards arrived at this region in the 16th century. Founded in 1571, the same year the city of Manila was founded, Kapampangan (also called Pampanga) became the country’s first official province. The area it encompassed was much larger than the linguistic region the Kapampangan people now occupy in western– central Luzon. The originally used a script descended from India’s Brahmi script, then switched to the alphabet. In 1965, a new orthography similar to that used by Tagalog was adopted and has remained in use.77

73 .com, “Tagalog: A Language of Philippines,” 2008, http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tgl 74 TheFreeDictionary by Farlex, “Tagalog Language,” 2008, http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Tagalog+(language) 75 Ethnologue.com, “Tagalog: A Language of Philippines,” 2008, http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tgl 76 NationMaster.com, “Ilocano People,” http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Ilocano-people

©DLIFLC | 17 After they arrived, the Spanish colonials sent many of the native people to work in gold mines in the north. In later years, they taxed the Kapampangans and continued the practice of forced servitude. The Kapampangans repeatedly rebelled against the Spanish, and Kapampangan was one of the provinces that spearheaded the against Spain. They later fought alongside U.S. forces against the Japanese invasion in World War II.78

Pangasinan The Pangasinan people live in central Luzon on the western side of the island, bordering the South China Sea. Their population is close to 2.5 million (based on the 2000 ), and their language is Pangasinan, a major language in the Philippines. The Pangasinan people have preserved not only oral traditions in their language, but also a body of written literature, which gained influence in both the Spanish and American colonial period.79, 80

Kankaney The Kankaney81 people are agriculturalists who live in a highland region of north–central Luzon. They have blended their culture with that of other ethnic groups who live in the area, such as the Ibalois and the Kalanguyas, although the Kankaneys have their own language. The rituals the three tribes share include beliefs in the supernatural and in spirit beings that may cause difficulties as well as good fortune in the people’s lives.82, 83

Ifugao The Ifugao people of north central Luzon speak different dialects of Ifugao, and use either Ilocano or English as a . Their culture has developed socially and economically around rice growing, and their region is characterized by its elaborately terraced rice fields. Using rudimentary tools, the built their terraced fields over a 2,000-year period, adhering to strict social rituals thought to ensure a rich yearly harvest. Fiercely independent, they resisted Spanish colonization. They were however colonized

77 Center for Kapampangan Studies, “Kapampangan Homepage: History,” 2002, http://www.geocities.com/balen_net/ 78 Kapampanganku.com, “About the Kapampangan Language,” 2007, http://www.kapampanganku.com/about/language.php 79 NationMaster.com, “Pangasinan Language,” 2005, http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Pangasinan-language 80 NationMaster.com, “Pangasinan People,” 2005, http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Pangasinan- people 81 This term is also spelled “Kankanaey” and “Kankanay.” 82 Ethnologue.com, “Kankanaey: A Language of the Philippines,” 2008, http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kne 83 Province of , “Culture and Arts,” 2011, http://www.benguet.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=209&Itemid=271

©DLIFLC | 18 by the Americans, who built hospitals, schools, and roads in the Ifugao region in the early 1900s.84, 85

Bicolano Descendants of immigrants from South China, the Bicolanos live on Luzon’s southern peninsula. They speak the Bicolano language (also called Bikol). This language has a number of dialects that are mutually difficult to understand by speakers of each different Bicolano dialect. The city of Naga, located in the central part of the peninsula, is the cultural center of the Bicolanos in this region.86, 87, 88

Kalinga Inhabiting a region in the far north of central Luzon, the Kalinga people have resisted attempts to be ruled by others. Their territory was neither explored nor colonized by the Spanish, and Dominican missionaries who came to the region in the 17th and 18th centuries met with hostility. The Kalingas also opposed the Philippine government after it orchestrated the building of dams along the Chico River in Kalinga territory.89, 90

After the Ifugaos, the Kalingas have the most elaborately terraced rice fields in the Philippines.91 They are also known for their pottery, baskets, and metal ornaments.92 Their rich land is a resource not only for agriculture, but also for raising livestock and harvesting timber, bamboo, and rattan.

84 Tribalsite.com, “The Ifugao: A Mountain People of the Philippines,” n.d., http://www.tribalsite.com/articles/ifugao.htm 85 Tribalsite.com, “The Ifugao: A Mountain People of the Philippines,” n.d., http://www.tribalsite.com/articles/ifugao.htm 86 Ethnologue.com, “Bicalono, Central,” 2008, http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=bcl 87 NationMaster.com, “Bicolano People,” http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Bicolano-people 88 Mabuhay Radio, “How American Soldiers Named the in 1900,” 3 October 2007, http://www.mabuhayradio.com/content/view/568/90/ 89 Philippine Provincial Profile. “Kalinga.” n.d., http://www.geocities.com/lppsec/pp/kalinga.htm 90 Philippinemaps.ph, “The Kalinga & Isneg Way of Life,” 1988, http://philippinemaps.ph/filer/toledo- /Kalinga-Isneg-way-of-life.pdf 91 World Heritage Site, “Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras,” n.d, http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/riceterracescordilleras.html 92 Library.thinkquest.org, “Kalinga,” N.d., http://library.thinkquest.org/C003235/kalinga.html

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Chapter 1: Assessments

1. The Tagalog people live primarily on the southern Philippine island of Mindanao. False

They are located primarily on the islands of Luzon and Mindoro in the northern Philippines. Ethnic Tagalogs constitute approximately 28% of the Philippines’ population.

2. The Sierra Madre Mountains extend along Luzon’s western coast. False

The Zambales Mountains are found on Luzon’s western coast. From the north, the Zambales reach south to the Bataan Peninsula, which encloses the northwestern side of Manila Bay. The Sierra Madre Mountains lie on the other side of the island, along its eastern shore.

3. Lake Laguna de Bay is the Philippines’ largest inland body of water. True

The lake is believed to be a remnant of Manila Bay that was separated from the bay by volcanic activity in centuries past.

4. Manila was the center of the in the Philippines. True

From Manila’s sheltered bay, the Spanish developed a monopoly on trade with Acapulco, Mexico, using huge ships known as galleons to carry cargo. They traded rare porcelain and silk from Chinese merchants in the Philippines, in exchange for silver that the Spanish acquired in Mexico.

5. The ethnic people known as Ilocanos were characterized by their peaceful relations with the Spanish colonizers. False

The Ilocanos in northern Luzon were one of the first ethnic groups to rebel against the Spaniards. The first Ilocano revolt (1661) led to the reign of their own king until the Spaniards executed him and dissolved the kingdom. Through the years, Ilocanos continued to fight for independence. Ferdinand Marcos, elected president of the country in 1965, was the second Ilocano to attain that position.

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Chapter 2: Religion

Introduction The predominant religion of the Tagalog people is Christianity, historically Roman Catholicism blended with indigenous beliefs.93 The same is true for the entire Philippines, where close to 93% of the people are Christian and 81% are Roman Catholic. A small percentage of Filipinos (fewer than 12%) are members of other Christian denominations.94

The southern island of Mindanao and other small islands nearby escaped Christian conversion.95 Here, the Islamic religion was introduced by Malay settlers and traders during the 14th century, and shortly thereafter Islam became the established religion. During the next two centuries, Islam extended its reach into small principalities in other parts of the islands, including the Manila area. However, no political or religious entity gained unified regional power until the Spanish colonized the islands in the 16th century and beyond. In Mindanao and other areas, Muslims resisted Spanish rule for over 300 years and never converted to Christianity.96 Today, Christians and Muslims live together throughout Mindanao and the rest of the Philippines.

Prior to the Spaniards’ arrival, religion in the Philippines was based on ancestor worship and belief in nature deities and other spiritual forces. Polytheism (worship of more than one god) dominated, and spiritual beliefs varied among different groups of people on the islands.97, 98 The establishment of Christianity did not signal a clean break with the religious past. As other religions had blended, so too did Christianity, incorporating local customs. It replaced some traditional pre-Christian beliefs and co-existed with others, such as communing with the unknown through mystical practices. People developed rituals to mediate the uncertainties of their local environment, which was “prone to catastrophic storms, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and social upheaval.” Such

93 Everyculture.com, “Tagalog: Religion and Expressive Culture,” 2008, http://www.everyculture.com/East-Southeast-Asia/Tagalog-Religion-and-Expressive-Culture.html 94 Central Intelligence Agency, , “Philippines,” in The World Factbook, 25 April 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rp.html 95 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Philippines: Religion,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 96 Spread the Word of Islam, “History of ,” 2011, http://www.ahmadbarcelon.com/page/history-of-islam-in-the-1 97 visitPhilippines.org, “Philippines: Religion,” 2008, http://www.visitphilippines.org/guide/8_0_17_1_People-and-Population-.:-VisitPhilippines.org-a-Best- Destination-Travel-Guide-by-Travelindex.html 98 William Henry Scott, : Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society (Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994), 233.

©DLIFLC | 21 uncertainties tended to “reinforce the traditional fatalism expressed in the phrase bahala na, or ‘it's all up to God.’”99

The Role of Religion in the Government From the beginning of the Spanish colonial period, the government was active in attempts to spread Christianity. As the Spanish settled the land around Manila Bay in the 16th century, they converted the local people in the lowland areas to Catholicism. The Spanish colonial government subsidized the missionary activity. In exchange, the government gained the right to name church officials, choosing priests and friars who were politically favorable in the eyes of the Spanish crown. Catholicism spread further through other methods employed by the government and church working together. The clergy possessed a broad knowledge of local languages and were able to talk with the local people. The information gleaned from these conversations was then passed on by the priests and friars to the Spanish colonial governmental authorities. Working with the government, the suppressed local religions, although never entirely. Traditional beliefs remained imbued in the new Catholic beliefs that local people adopted.100

After the Philippines gained independence, the church remained active and influential in political and social affairs.101 It could not, however, sustain the former power it enjoyed in the colonial state. According to the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines, church and state are separate, and freedom of religion is protected. Organized religions are required to establish their tax-exempt status by registering with the Bureau of Internal Revenue and the Securities and Exchange Commission.102

Public schools are secular, although the government does allow a limited level of privately funded religious education within them. If parents request this service in writing, their children are allowed to receive teachings from church groups that come into the public schools. Children who do not want to participate in religious education are not required to do so.103

99 Everyculture.com, “Tagalog: Religion and Expressive Culture,” 2008, http://www.everyculture.com/East-Southeast-Asia/Tagalog-Religion-and-Expressive-Culture.html 100 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: History,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 101 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: People—Religion,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 102 Bureau of Democracy, , and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Philippines,” 19 September 2008, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108421.htm 103 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Philippines,” 19 September 2008, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108421.htm

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Influence of Religion on Daily Life The Catholic Church is especially prominent in and around Manila, where the Tagalog people are concentrated. It is customary for the local people to practice their religion with devotion since they see it as a central part of their lives. They regularly attend church or chapel services offered by the church clergy. People also rely on alternative spiritual practitioners “who have special powers for curing and making contact with spirits of the deceased.”104, 105, 106

Exchange 1: When do you pray?

Soldier: When do you pray? kaa-eelaan kaayo naagdaaraasaal?

Local: We pray at noon. naagdaaraasaal kaamee saa taanghaalee

In addition to the annual religious holidays celebrated by all Christian faithful, such as Easter and Christmas, Tagalog Filipinos express their spiritual beliefs in the many festivals that honor patron saints or other representatives of their faith. These religious celebrations may connect a patron saint to the success of agricultural or other work. By honoring the saint who protects and influences agriculture, for instance, people seek a good harvest, which is the foundation of their economic survival. They lavishly decorate 107 their houses, display fruits and vegetables, and celebrate together.106F

Protestant Resurgence A recent trend has shown that Protestant and evangelical churches are gaining parishioners because many Filipinos are leaving the Catholic Church. In some cases, the source of parishioners’ dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church is tied to its policies on birth control. The Philippines has one of Asia’s fastest-growing birthrates, and the Catholic Church has actively opposed family planning, including giving government- 108, 109, 110 issued free contraception to the poor.107F 108F 109F

104 Everyculture.com, “Tagalog: Religion and Expressive Culture,” 2008, http://www.everyculture.com/East-Southeast-Asia/Tagalog-Religion-and-Expressive-Culture.html 105 Camperspoint.com, “Filipinos as Christians,” 2004–2005, http://www.camperspoint.com/article.php3?id_article=61 106 Everyculture.com, “Tagalog: Religion and Expressive Culture,” 2008, http://www.everyculture.com/East-Southeast-Asia/Tagalog-Religion-and-Expressive-Culture.html 107 Northern Illinois University, “Philippine Festivals,” n.d., http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Cynthia/festivals/philippine_festivals_fs.htm 108 Indexmundi, “Country Comparison Birthrate,” 2009, http://www.indexmundi.com/g/r.aspx?c=rp&v=25

©DLIFLC | 23 Religious Holidays and Festivals Religious public holidays in the Philippines include Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Easter, All Saints’ Day, and Christmas Day.111 The nationwide Muslim public holiday of Eid al-Fitr is observed much more widely in the southern islands than in the Tagalog region, where Christianity is the principal religion. Still, Muslims live and practice their religion throughout the islands. Eid al-Fitr was declared a national holiday in order to promote “cultural understanding between Filipino Muslims and Christians.”112

Maundy Thursday Maundy Thursday, also called Holy Thursday, is part of the Easter holidays. It commemorates Christ’s last supper and his sharing of bread and wine with his disciples. On this solemn day in the Philippines, Christians attend church services in the evening.113 Many Catholics visit seven or more churches on this day (an activity known as visita iglesia, or “church visit”), saying prayers at a different Station of the Cross in each church.114

Good Friday and Easter Good Friday, commemorating the death of Jesus, is followed by Easter, a Christian celebration to celebrate Christ’s rising from the dead. Both holidays usually fall in April. Although church leaders disapprove, some Catholics in rural areas have adopted the practice of submitting themselves as volunteers to be nailed to a cross on Good Friday, in imitation of the Crucifixion. This and other acts of penance, such as self-flagellation, have become tourist attractions in some parts of the countryside. Such practices are widely condemned by church officials.115

109 MySinchew.com, “Philippines: Churches Losing Manila’s Birth Control Battle,” 3 October 2008, http://www.mysinchew.com/node/16917 110 D’Jay Lazaro and Julian Labores, “INC Backs Philippine Birth Control Bill,” 7 April 2011, http://www.ucanews.com/2011/04/07/influential-group-backs-rh-bill/ 111 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Philippines,” 19 September 2008, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108421.htm 112 Joel Guinto, “Palace Declares Eid al-Fitr Holiday,” Inquirer.net, 1 October 2007, http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/topstories/topstories/view_article.php?article_id=91873 113 Encyclopedia.com, “Maundy Thursday Rites Today,” 16 April 2003, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-100129432.html 114 Star Pampagna, “Malig: Visita Iglesia and the Relic of the True Cross,” 5 April 2007, http://www.sunstar.com.ph/static/pam/2007/04/05/oped/cognition.jun.a..malig.html 115 USA Today, “Philippines: Devotees Crucified in Good Friday Rites,” 21 March 2008, http://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2008-03-21-philippines-good-friday_N.htm

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All Saints’ Day This national holiday, also called Day of the Dead, is a time for remembering and honoring those who have died. Families gather together at cemeteries, cleaning the gravesites of deceased family members. Often they will spend the entire night at the gravesites.116

Christmas Christmas, on 25 December, marks the birth of Christ. It is celebrated throughout the nation. Christmas in the Philippines begins on 16 December with the first of nine days of prayer at early morning mass. Families gather on Christmas Day to share food and exchange gifts. People decorate their homes with unique, colorful adornments, including star lanterns that represent the star of Bethlehem. They hang Christmas cards in their houses and display candles, multi-colored lights, streamers, and wreaths. It is customary for families to attend mass together on or Christmas Day.117, 118

Eid al-Fitr The Eid al-Fitr feast officially ends Ramadan.119 The date for Eid al-Fitr is based on the lunar calendar, but in relationship to the , it usually moves back approximately 11 days every year.120 On this important day, Muslims visit each other’s homes, exchange gifts, ask for forgiveness of wrongdoing, give alms to the poor, and share a special meal. To reflect the spirit of the celebration, adults and children wear bright colors and special articles of clothing.121

116 Ehow.com, “How to Celebrate the Philippines’ Day of the Dead,” c. 1999–2008, http://www.ehow.com/how_2061602_celebrate-philippines-day-dead.html 117 Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University, “Christmas: A National Fiesta,” n.d., http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Cynthia/festivals/philippine_christmas.htm Northern Illinois University, “Christmas: A National Fiesta,” n.d., http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Cynthia/festivals/philippine_christmas.htm 119 During the holy month of Ramadan, Muslims in the region fast daily from morning until night. This abstinence from food, drink, and worldly desires is an act of spiritual discipline and faith. It may be preceded by a cleansing ceremony to prepare for fasting. Typically, Muslims get up before sunrise to eat a daily meal. They then fast until sunset, when they eat a small meal. 120 When-is.com, “When is Eid al-Fitr in 2008?,” 2006–2008, http://www.when-is.com/eid-al-fitr-2008.asp 121 GMA News, “Malacañang Greets Muslims on Eid al-Fitr,” 30 November 2008, http://www.gmanews.tv/story/123954/Malacañang-greets-Muslims-on-Eid-al-Fitr

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Buildings of Worship A large number of Catholic churches are found in and around Manila and throughout the Tagalog countryside.122, 123 Alongside Catholic churches, it is common to find churches of other Protestant denominations. One of Manila’s larger churches is the (Church of Christ), with its tall gothic spires.124

Several churches in the Philippines have been designated World Heritage Sites because of their unique construction and fusion of cultural design. San Agustin, a baroque church constructed in a blend of European (Spanish) and local style, stands in Manila. It is the only building in the old, historic district that was not destroyed in World War II and is Manila’s oldest church, dating back to 1607.125 Its present structure (three earlier wooden churches at the site burned down) was built using heavy stone buttresses so that the church could withstand earthquakes, which are common to this region.126, 127

Behavior in Places of Worship Churches Statues and images of Christ are sacred to Filipinos and should be approached quietly and with a respectful attitude. Although Catholic churches represent much of the Philippines’ religious and cultural background, Filipinos show reverence toward the Catholic faith, regardless of the denomination they belong to.

122 Eyp.ph, “Churches: ,” 2011, http://www.eyp.ph/search?catid=17912&loc=Metro+Manila&locid=11488&q=Churches&src=100 123 TheCatholicDirectory.com, “Philippines: Manila,” 2011, http://www.thecatholicdirectory.com/directory.cfm?fuseaction=search_directory&country=PH&absolutecit y=Manila 124 MyTravelGuide, “Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ),” 2008, http://www.mytravelguide.com/attractions/profile-79546505- Philippines_Manila_Iglesia_ni_Kristo_Church_of_Christ_.html 125 Quazen, “San Agustin Church: The Oldest Roman Catholic Church in the Philippines,” 6 September 2008, http://www.quazen.com/Arts/Architecture/San-Agustin-Church-The-Oldest-Roman-Catholic- Church-in-the-Philippines.243089 126 World Heritage Site, “Baroque Churches,” n.d., http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/baroquechurches.html 127 Intramuros, “San Agustin Church and Monastery,” 19 February 2007, http://intramuros2007.wordpress.com/2007/02/19/san-agustin-church-and-monastery/

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Exchange 2: May I enter the church?

Soldier: May I enter the church? pooweydey baa aakong poomaasok saa seembaahaan?

Local: Yes. opo

Visitors should dress modestly and avoid wearing skimpy, revealing, or dirty clothing. The dress code includes clean shirts and long pants for men and skirts or pants along with blouses or sweaters for women. Inside a church, visitors should refrain from touching paintings or statues.

Exchange 3: Must I take off my shoes inside the church?

Soldier: Must I take off my shoes daapaat ko baang aaleeseen aang inside the church? saapaatos ko saa lo-ob oog seembaahaan?

Local: Yes. opo

Mosques If visiting a Muslim mosque, visitors should observe polite conduct and modest appearance. Women’s clothing should be loose fitting, and skirts should not be shorter than knee length. Men should wear loose fitting pants and a shirt. All clothing should always be clean and neat. If they observe others doing so, women should cover their head with a scarf.128

Exchange 4: Do I need to cover my head?

Soldier: Do I need to cover my kaa-eelaangaan ko baang taakpaan aang head? oolo ko?

Local: Yes. opo

128 Digoy Fernandez, “Church Etiquette (or How to Dress and Behave in Church.),” 13 August 2007, http://jdhparish.multiply.com/journal/item/8/Church_Etiquette_or_How_to_Dress_and_Behave_in_Church _by_Digoy_Fernandez

©DLIFLC | 27 Visitors to any church, mosque, or building of worship should follow protocols that are posted in writing. Once inside, if people are praying or meditating, visitors should remain silent because talking can interrupt prayers or be interpreted as rude behavior. Visitors should not bring food or drink into a church or mosque, and they should not take photographs inside or outside places of worship without permission.129

129 Gregory Rodgers, “Mosque Etiquette: Do’s and Don’ts When Visiting Mosques,” 2011, http://goseasia.about.com/od/travelplanning/a/mosque-dos-and-donts.htm

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Chapter 2: Assessments

1. In their religious practice, the Tagalog people are predominantly Protestant. False

In the last few centuries, the Tagalogs have historically practiced Roman Catholicism blended with indigenous beliefs. In the entire Philippines , close to 93% of the people are Christian and 81% are Roman Catholic.

2. The southern island of Mindanao escaped Christian conversion. True

Here, the Islamic religion was introduced by Malay settlers and traders during the 14th century. Shortly thereafter Islam became the established religion in the Mindanao.

3. The indigenous religion of the people of the Philippine archipelago was mainly based on a variety of beliefs in nature deities and other spiritual forces. True

Polytheism (worship of more than one god) dominated, and spiritual beliefs varied among different groups of people on the islands.

4. The Spanish colonial government did not become involved in the effort to spread Christianity among the native population. False

From the beginning of the Spanish colonial period, the government was active in attempts to spread Christianity in the Tagalog lowlands and other areas. The Spanish government subsidized missionary activity through the Catholic Church. In exchange, the government gained the right to name church officials, choosing priests and friars who were politically favorable to the Spanish crown.

5. According to the Philippine Constitution, church and state are separate and freedom of religion is protected. True

After the Philippines gained independence, the church remained influential in political and social affairs. It could not, however, sustain the former power that it enjoyed in the colonial state. Church and state became separate. Organized religions are now required to establish their tax-exempt status by registering with the Bureau of Internal Revenue and the Securities and Exchange Commission.

©DLIFLC | 29

Chapter 3: Traditions

Introduction Collectivism is a core concept in Filipino philosophy and culture. Related to this core value is family, which is central to Filipino life. It represents the heart of the country’s social structure. Individuals derive strength and stability from the family. Filipino families often include extended members such as aunt, uncles, grandparents, cousins, godparents, and close family friends in addition to the nuclear family.130, 131

Another key value includes the concept of hiya, or shame. This principle guides behavior in the country. Individuals believe that they must conform to standards of behavior in order to avoid bringing shame upon themselves and other members of the family.132 Other core values include politeness, respect for elders, hospitality (tuloy po kayo), gratitude (utang na loob), social acceptance (pakikisama, or amor propio), and trust in God (paniniwala sa Diyos, or Maykapal).133, 134

Traditional Economy For centuries, farming and fishing have been traditional sources of income or trade for the Tagalog Filipinos. Both activities stem from the island’s plentiful natural resources, including abundant rainfall and the rich soil of Luzon’s central plain. In the 15th century, people practiced shifting cultivation in the plains and coastal areas of the Philippines. Sedentary agriculture based on rice growing had already developed (around 2,000 years ago) in the highlands of northern Luzon, and it was confined to that area. It was not until later that people in the central and southern lowlands of the island adopted the practice of settled agriculture.135

130 Rolando M. Gripaldo, Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change, Series IIID, , 4 (Washington D. C.: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2005). 131 Kwintessential, “Philippines: Filipino Society and Culture,” n.d., http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/philippines-country-profile.html 132 Kwintessential, “Philippines: Filipino Society and Culture,” n.d., http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/philippines-country-profile.html 133 S. J. Gorospe, “Understanding the Filipino Value System,” ed. Manuel B. Dy, Jr., Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change Series III, Asia 7 (Washington D.C.: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 1994), 63–71, http://www.crvp.org/book/Series03/III-7/contents.htm 134 Forkpress.com, “Culture and Values,” 27 April 2011, http://www.forkpress.com/culture-and-values/ 135 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: History,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines

©DLIFLC | 30 During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Spanish colonists changed the norms of economic interaction in the Philippines. They did not systematically exploit the island’s natural resources. Instead, they conducted business with Chinese intermediaries who acquired goods from China and sold them to the Spanish to use in their monopolistic “galleon trade” with Acapulco, Mexico. This trade was disrupted by the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) between the French and British empires, in which Spain sided with . By 1815, the galleon trade between Mexico and the Philippines had ceased to exist.136

The Spanish colonists left a lasting legacy in traditional economic and work practices in the Philippines. They replaced the “Filipino idea of communal use and ownership of land” with the “concept of private, individual ownership.” One means they used to reorganize land ownership concepts was “conferring… titles on members of the principalía” (upper class), thus redrawing the class lines in society.137, 138

By the late 1800s, sugar (from sugarcane), tobacco, and hemp (for making rope) were the main products exported from Manila, the Philippines’ main port.139 These agricultural products, as well as rice, coconuts, corn (maize), tropical fruits, and coffee remain the main crops that are grown today. Rice cultivation alone takes up approximately one- fourth of the country’s agricultural land. Much of it is concentrated in Luzon’s central plain, the heart of the Tagalog region.140

136 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Philippines,” March 2006, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Philippines.pdf 137 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, “Chapter 1–Historical Setting: The Early Spanish Period, 1521–1762,” in A Country Study: Philippines, June 1991, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html 138 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: History,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 139 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Philippines,” March 2006, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Philippines.pdf 140 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: Economy–Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines

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Tagalog Social Traditions Tagalogs have maintained independent traditions in the Philippines. They were early opponents of Spanish colonization and supporters of Philippine independence. In Manila, they served as mediators between their own culture and that of the Chinese, Spanish, and Americans. From these foreign cultures, they selected what was useful and meaningful and adapted it to their basic Indo- Malayan social pattern. In this process, Tagalogs have “thus led in the modernization and Westernization that has passed in varying degrees from Luzon to all parts of the Philippine archipelago.”141

Greetings When greeting a local person, it is important to speak in a friendly and polite way, communicating respect for the culture. This attitude is likely to lead to the most cooperative response.142, 143, 144, 145

Exchange 5: Good morning!

Soldier: Good morning! maagaandang oomaagaa

Local: Good morning! maagaandang oomaagaa

Visitors who are introduced to family members should greet the eldest first, and they should inquire about the health of the family.

141 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Tagalog,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/580258/Tagalog 142 Associated Content, “Business Etiquette for Philippine Travelers: Proper Behavior When in the Philippines,” 2008, http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/7979/business_etiquette_for_philippine_travelers.html 143 Travel Etiquette, “The Philippines and Travel Etiquette,” 2008, http://www.traveletiquette.co.uk/philippines-and-travel-etiquette.html 144 Kwintessential Cross Cultural Solutions, “Philippines–Language, Culture, Customs, and Etiquette,” n.d., http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/philippines-country-profile.html 145 Santaferelo.com, “Cross Cultural Awareness–Social Customs,” n.d., http://www.santaferelo.com/ecs/data/sfguide/PH/SocialCustoms.htm

©DLIFLC | 32

Exchange 6: Hi, Mr. Santos.

Soldier: Hi, Mr. Santos. haay, geeno-ong saantos

Local: Hello! heylo!

Soldier: Are you doing well? maabootee baa aang laagaay ninyo?

Local: Yes. opo

Filipinos often have multiple names, taking both their mother’s and father’s last names. When speaking to them, it is best to err on the side of formality, addressing people by their formal title or using “Mr.,” “Mrs.,” or “Miss,” followed by their father’s surname. It is also a good idea to ask people how they wish to be addressed.

When meeting and greeting someone, it is customary to shake hands. If greeting a woman, however, let her offer her hand first, indicating that she wishes to shake hands. Also, if women are present, be sure to acknowledge them as part of the group.

Exchange 7: Is this your wife?

Soldier: Is this your wife? eeto baa aang aasaawaa ninyo?

Local: Yes. opo

People in the Philippines are non-confrontational and typically do not respond “no” to a direct question. Instead, they tend to give a more subtle and nuanced, less direct response. It is characteristic for them to speak in a low, calm of voice and avoid public expressions of anger. Conversational exchanges with local people should not be overly direct, but simply friendly and polite. If it is necessary to criticize, the one delivering the message should do so privately and tactfully. Doing otherwise could cause the recipient to “lose face,” or suffer a loss in status. Causing someone to lose face is a social insult in the Philippines and within Asian culture.

Exchange 8: How are you?

Soldier: How are you? kaamoostaa kaayo?

©DLIFLC | 33 Local: Fine, very well. maabootee, maabootee

While most Americans consider eye contact a positive indicator of good intent or character, this custom is not followed in other parts of the world. In Philippine culture, it is considered rude to stare directly into somebody’s eyes for extended periods. During an introduction, it is acceptable to hold brief eye contact. When conversing, however, visitors should refrain from being overly direct with their eye contact, as well as with their comments.

When saying goodbye at a particular time of day, a visitor can use conventional English expressions, and most local people will understand.

Exchange 9: Good evening!

Soldier: Good evening! maagaandang gaabee!

Local: Good evening! maagaandang gaabee!

If it is late at night, departing guests can also use commonly understood English phrases such as “good night.”

Exchange 10: Good night!

Soldier: Good night! maagaandang gaabee!

Local: Good night! maagaandang gaabee!

Muslim men who are relatives or close friends commonly hold hands or hug each other. In Filipino Muslim tradition, such close gestures between men imply kinship or friendship and nothing more. Filipino women also are emotionally expressive with each other, holding hands or kissing each other on the cheek. Again, such gestures indicate friendship or kinship. They are also reserved for close friends and relatives, not to be used as forms of greeting by visitors.

©DLIFLC | 34

Hospitality and Gift-Giving When entering a Filipino’s home, visitors should be observant of the customs and behavior of the host and of other guests. It is also wise to know certain customs in advance. For instance, guests must remove their shoes before entering the house.146 Furthermore, guests should be aware of some language intricacies, such as avoiding reference to “the hostess,” which in the Philippines is equivalent to calling her a “prostitute.”147, 148

Visitors should not forget to acknowledge the hospitality of their host in a friendly and polite manner.

Exchange 11: I really appreciate your hospitality.

toonaay naa naagpaapaasaalaamaat aako I really appreciate your Soldier: saa eenyong maabooteeng paagtaang- hospitality. gaap saa aakin

Local: It is nothing. waalaa po eeyaan

It is customary to bring a gift when invited into a local person’s home. It can be a small article from one’s home country, such as an interesting souvenir, wrapped in paper of any color. Flowers are well received, but the guest should avoid giving white lilies or chrysanthemums, both usually seen at funerals. Candy or wine is also an acceptable gift. However, guests in a Muslim person’s home should be aware that since Muslims do not drink alcohol, alcoholic beverages should never be offered as gifts. Similarly, pork products should not be taken to the homes of Filipino Muslims.

When attending a private dinner, a guest should of course wear clean, conservative clothing. Appearance and dress are seen as indicators of good manners, and clothing that is sheer, revealing, sleeveless, tight, or short reflects poor judgment.

When a host offers coffee or tea, one should politely accept this hospitality. This is true even if a guest does not normally drink the kind of tea or coffee being offered. Rejecting

146 Asia Rooms, “Philippines Etiquette,” 19 December 2008, http://www.asiarooms.com/travel- guide/philippines/culture-of-philippines/philippines-etiquette.html 147 Associated Content, “Business Etiquette for Philippine Travelers: Proper Behavior When in the Philippines,” 2008, http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/7979/business_etiquette_for_philippine_travelers.html 148 Kwintessential Cross Cultural Solutions, “Philippines – Language, Culture, Customs, and Etiquette,” n.d., http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/philippines-country-profile.html

©DLIFLC | 35 the host’s hospitality conveys poor manners and could be seen as a personal rejection, causing him to feel uncomfortable and lose face.

When dinner begins, guests should wait until the host begins eating before they commence to eat. Filipinos eat by holding a spoon in the right hand, and a fork in the left. They use the fork to manipulate food onto the spoon, which is used for eating. Leaving a small amount of food on the plate after eating indicates satisfaction with the amount of food provided.

Exchange 12: The food tastes so good.

Soldier: The food tastes so good. naapaakaasaaraap nang paagkaa-een

Local: Thank you. saalaamaat po

During conversation at the dinner table, a guest might wish to ask if the person seated nearby is married. It is acceptable in the Philippines to ask these kinds of personal questions. Filipinos like to get to know each other by learning about each other’s backgrounds and individual qualities.

Exchange 13: Are you married?

Soldier: Are you married? maay aasaawaa baa kaayo?

Local: No. waalaa po

A few days or a week after attending a social event at someone’s home, it is a very good idea to send a personally written thank-you note to the host. This reflects good manners and class.

Dress Codes In the Philippines, local people dress casually for everyday activities, adapting their clothing choices to the hot, humid climate. Women wear western- style skirts and brightly colored blouses or dresses with the hem length reaching the knee or below the knee. Shorts are loosely fitted and knee-length. Low necklines are unacceptable. Women who visit should avoid wearing clothing that is sheer, provocative, or tight. Everyday wear for women is

©DLIFLC | 36 conservative, casual, and comfortable. When attending a social event, it is better to be dressed too formally rather than too casually.149, 150, 151

If a visitor needs to know whether his or her clothing is acceptable to wear in public, simply ask someone local for feedback.

Exchange 15: Is this acceptable to wear?

Soldier: Is this acceptable to wear? pooweydey baa eetong eesoo-ot?

Local: Yes. opo

At festivals or special events, women in Luzon may dress in traditional styles of clothing that predated the Spanish presence. The clothing may include a long, loose skirt, called a saya by Tagalogs. On the upper part of their bodies, women traditionally wear a long- sleeved jacket called a baro or camisa. They complement the outfit with a tapis, a piece of cloth worn around the waist. Such styles can still be seen today in rural, remote areas that have resisted the habits of modern civilization.

If you are uncertain about the dress code for a formal planned event, ask the advice of someone local in advance of the occasion.

Exchange 16: How should I dress?

Soldier: How should I dress? paa-aano aako maagdaadaameet?

Wear loose fitting clothes maagsoo-ot kaayo nang maaloowaag Local: that cover your body. naa daameet naa naataataakpaan aang kaataawaan ninyo

Traditional dress for men in the pre-Spanish Philippines included a jacket (kanggan) that had short sleeves and no collar. It is believed that the wearer’s status was determined by the jacket’s color. A chief wore red, and those with lesser power wore a or blue

149 notpen.com, “Barong Tagalog is Traditional Clothing Culture of the Philippines,” 27 January 2011, http://www.notpen.com/2011/01/barong-tagalog-is-traditional-clothing.html 150 Rebecca Ramilo Ongsotto and Reena R. Ongsotto, “Philippine History Module-Based Learning (Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc., 2002). 151 Associated Content, “Business Etiquette for Philippine Travelers: Proper Behavior When in the Philippines,” 2008, http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/7979/business_etiquette_for_philippine_travelers.html

©DLIFLC | 37 jacket, again depending on status. From the waist down, men wore a wrapped cloth called a bahag, which left the legs exposed. On their heads they wore various kinds of headgear, with the color and embroidery designating valor in battle. Men, women, and children all went barefoot until the Spanish arrived and introduced shoes and sandals.

Another garment that Tagalog men on Luzon wore centuries ago and is still seen in modified style today is the . Originally, it consisted of a long-sleeved shirt made of thin cloth. It reached below the waist and was worn over long pants, not tucked in. Men today wear it in the same fashion, usually for more formal events. The shirt is usually finely embroidered on the front.152

Types of Food and Eating Habits Spanish, Chinese, and indigenous Malay influences are all present in Filipino food today. In the Tagalog region and throughout the islands, prepared foods have milder flavors than those of surrounding Asian countries, where cooks rely on hot peppers and spices to flavor their dishes. The favored grain in the Philippines is rice, which is usually served with all main meals, while fresh seafood cooked in different ways is the most popular source of protein. Sometimes the fish is marinated in a mixture and served uncooked.

A wide variety of ingredients is used in Filipino cooking. Favorite spices and flavoring agents include garlic, vinegar, and peanut sauce. One popular Filipino dish, adobo, is made by cooking pork or chicken in , garlic, and vinegar. Some main dishes are made with coconut, a style originating from Malay cooking traditions. The flesh and milk from coconuts are used to prepare everything from vegetables and meat to rich desserts.153, 154, 155

Exchange 17: What is the name of this dish?

What is the name of this aanong paangaalaan nang paagkaa-eeng Soldier: dish? eeto?

Local: This is . seeneegaang eeto

152 The Faculty of Education, “The Philippines: Brong Tagalog,” n.d., http://www.philippines.hvu.nl/clothes1.htm 153 MariMari.com, “Filipino Food,” 2004, http://www.marimari.com/content/philippines/food/main.html 154 Everyculture.com, “The Philippines: Food and Economy,” 2011, http://www.everyculture.com/No- Sa/The-Philippines.html 155 Balitapinoy.net, “Philippine Cuisine,” n.d., http://www.balitapinoy.net/philippine_cuisine.html

©DLIFLC | 38 Meat is a major part of the Filipino diet. Chicken is popular, as is an entire stuffed pig cooked on a spit over a charcoal fire for special occasions. Pork is widely eaten in the Philippines except by Muslims, whose religion restricts them from eating this particular meat.

Inquiring about how a dish was prepared is a good way to compliment the cook.

Exchange 18: What ingredients are used to make nilaga?

What ingredients are used aanong mangaa saangkaap saa Soldier: to make nilaga? neelaagaa?

Beef or pork, vegetables, kaarneyng baakaa o baaboy, goolaay, Local: onions, fish sauce, garlic. seebooyaas, paatees, baawaang

Non-Religious Public Holidays EDSA Revolution Day This holiday on 24 February is also referred to as People Power Anniversary. It celebrates the peaceful revolution in February 1986, which culminated in President Marcos’ forced resignation and departure from the country. The acronym EDSA stands for a highway that encircles Manila, Epifanio de los Santos Avenue, where many of the demonstrations took place.156, 157, 158

Bataan Day Also called Araw ng Kagitingan, or Day of Valor, is a national holiday that takes place on 9 April, or the nearest Monday. It commemorates 9 April 1942, the date in World War II when Allied forces on the Bataan Peninsula surrendered to the Japanese after running out of food and supplies. Along with thousands of Filipinos, American soldiers became prisoners of war and were forced on the grueling “” to a Japanese prison camp.159

156 World Travel Guide, “Public Holidays: Philippines,” 2008, http://www.worldtravelguide.net/country/225/public_holidays/South-East-Asia/Philippines.html 157 sgholiday.com, Philippines 2011 Holidays Calendar,” 2011, http://sgholiday.com/calendar/philippines- public-holidays-2011-calendar/ 158 Dates for non-religious holidays fluctuate because non-religious holidays are moved to the nearest Monday if they do not fall on a Monday. Source: alxjm.com. “August 21,2010 is Ninoy Aquino Day: Special Non-Working Holiday, 11 August 2010, http://alxjm.com/2010/08/11/august-21-2010-is-ninoy- aquino-day-special-non-working-holiday/ 159 u-s-history.com, “Bataan Death March,” n.d., http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1737.html

©DLIFLC | 39

Labor Day Labor Day is celebrated on 1 May. It honors the national labor movement in the Philippines and was made a holiday by executive order in 1987. The Philippines’ first labor federation, Union Obrera Democratica (UOD), was founded in 1902, marking the beginning of a strong national labor movement.160

National Heroes Day This holiday falls on the last Sunday in August. It officially recognizes the national heroes who fought for Filipino independence and freedom or who have worked significantly to promote democracy in the Philippines.161, 162

Independence Day This national holiday celebrates 12 June 1898, when General Emilio Aguinaldo proclaimed Filipino independence from foreign rule. It was originally recognized on 4 July, after the date in 1946 when the Philippines became independent of U.S. rule. However, the celebration date was changed to 12 June (or the nearest Monday) by then-President in 1962 (signed into law in 1964). The change honors the earlier declaration of Filipino independence, which in reality would only come nearly 50 years later.163

Exchange 19: Will you be celebrating the town fiesta?

Will you be celebrating the maagdeereewaang baa kaayo nang Soldier: town fiesta? peestaa?

Local: Yes! Opo!

160 Sol Jose Vanzi, “DOLE Cites Pay Scale Adjustments During Labor Day,” 28 April 2002, http://www.newsflash.org/2002/04/hl/hl015601.htm 161 Yohan Tenma, “August 30 Holiday, Celebrating National Heroes Day,” 27 August 2010, http://www.bukisa.com/articles/344330_august-30-holiday-celebrating-national-heroes-day 162 Lutong Bahay, “National Heroes Day,” n.d., http://www.lutongbahay.com/index.cfm?pagename=focusregion&opn=0&focusID=43 163 Diosdado Macapagal, “June 12 as Independence Day,” Philippine History Group of Los Angeles, 30 April 1997, http://www.bibingka.com/phg/documents/whyjun12.htm

©DLIFLC | 40

Ninoy Aquino Day This holiday on 21 August (or the nearest Monday) commemorates the anniversary of Senator Benigno (“Ninoy”) Aquino’s death. Following three years of exile, Senator Aquino was assassinated immediately upon his return to the Philippines in 1983. He was an adversary of President Marcos, and Aquino’s death triggered a series of anti-Marcos events that led to the EDSA Revolution in 1986.164, 165

Bonifacio Day (Andres Bonifacio’s Day) Falling on the Monday closest to 30 November, Bonifacio Day honors the birthday of Andres Bonifacio, one of the Philippines’ most revered national leaders. He helped found and led the revolutionary group , whose members fought against Spanish rule. Bonifacio was captured by the Spanish and executed in 1897, shortly before his country won independence from Spain.166

Rizal Day on 30 December commemorates the martyrdom of the national hero of the Philippines, Dr. José Rizal. Founder of the reform organization , Dr. Rizal was one of the Philippines’ most prominent leaders who fought for independence from Spain. His published writings gained a large following in the Philippines, causing the Spanish rulers to fear his influence. They imprisoned him in 1892 and again in 1896. On 30 December 1896, Spanish officials executed Dr. Rizal in Manila for “rebellion, sedition, and… forming illegal associations.”167, 168, 169

164 allphilippines.com, “Ninoy Aquino Day,” 22 August 2009, http://www.allphilippines.com/?p=359 165 Arellano Law Foundation, “Republic of the Philippines: Republic Act No. 9256,” 25 February 2004, http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2004/ra_9256_2004.html 166 Northern Illinois University, “Bonifacio Day,” n.d., http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Cynthia/festivals/bonifacio_day.htm 167 Teofilo H. Montemayor, “Jose Rizal: A Biographical Sketch,” Jose Rizal University, 2004, http://www.joserizal.ph/bg01.html 168 Positivenewsmedia, “PGMA Leads Nationwide Rizal Day Rites Saturday,” 30 December 2007, http://www.positivenewsmedia.net/am2/publish/Events_26/PGMA_leads_nationwide_Rizal_Day_rites_Sat urday_9621.shtml 169 Encyclopædia Britannica, “José Rizal,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/505015/Jose-Rizal-y-Alonso

©DLIFLC | 41

Social Events Weddings After a couple decides to marry, the intended groom and members of his family traditionally ask the bride’s parents if they will give consent to her marriage. If agreed, both families begin planning for the wedding, deciding on budget details and drawing up the guest list. The groom’s family is expected to pay for the wedding ceremony and reception.170, 171

Exchange 20: Congratulations on your wedding!

Congratulations on your maaleegaay-aang baatee saa eenyong Soldier: wedding! kaasaal!

We are honored you could eekeenaaraangaal naameeng Local: attend. naakaadaalo kaayo

According to pre-colonial Filipino tradition, the wedding ceremony took place over a three-day period. Today, some of the old traditions remain, embedded in the Catholic or Protestant ceremony that is usually followed. For instance, many family members or friends participate as sponsors for both the bride and groom. They witness the wedding and assume responsibility for particular functions, such as the lighting of individual candles held by the bride and groom. The couple then uses these lighted candles to light another candle that symbolizes spiritual unity for themselves and their families. Another sponsor may hang a white silk cord around the bride’s and groom’s necks, or drape it on their shoulders, again to symbolize unity and a bond that cannot be broken.

Exchange 21: I wish you both happiness.

loomeegaayaa naawaa kaayong Soldier: I wish you both happiness. daalaawaa

Local: We are honored. eekeenaaraangaal naameen eeyaan

170 AsiaRecipe.com, “Philippine Wedding Culture and Superstitions,” 2000, http://asiarecipe.com/phiwedding.html 171 World Wedding Traditions.com, “Wedding Traditions in the Philippine Islands,” 2004, http://www.worldweddingtraditions.com/locations/pacific_island_traditions/filipino_traditions.html

©DLIFLC | 42 The bride at a formal wedding today in the Philippines usually wears a white dress, and the groom often wears a black tuxedo. In past years, tradition dictated that a bride wear the best dress that she owned, usually made of brightly colored or black cloth. The groom traditionally wore a barong Tagalog, an embroidered shirt of a semi-sheer, silky fabric, and black pants. Sometimes these traditional styles of dress still prevail on formal occasions.

An elaborate wedding feast of several courses follows the wedding ceremony. Guests give money to the newlyweds as gifts, often clipping or pinning it to their clothing. Music, dancing, and celebrating are all part of the wedding festivities.

Funerals At funerals, family members express their grief in openly supportive groups, rather than individually and in private. Women generally grieve in a very public and outgoing manner, while men tend to be more private and reserved. Families of the deceased spend as much money as possible on the casket and on any services associated with mourning as a sign of respect to the dead.172, 173, 174

In the Tagalog region most people follow Catholic traditions. Family members call on a priest to bless the dying person, thus supporting passage to heaven and the afterlife.

Exchange 22: Please be strong.

maangyaareeng maageeng maalaakaas Soldier: Please be strong. kaayo

Local: We will try. soosoobookaan naameen

Burial takes place three to seven days after death. In rural areas, mourners may walk behind the casket and sing prayers in a funeral procession to a cemetery nearby. Family

172 Renald Cacho, “Family Practices on Pre- and Post-Death Phenomenon: Unfolding of a Family Culture in Lopez, Quezon, Philippines,” Articlesbase, 2008, http://www.articlesbase.com/college-and-university- articles/family-practices-on-preandpost-death-phenomenon-unfolding-of-a-family-culture-in-lopez-quezon- philippines-632892.html 173 Sandi Clark, “Death and Loss in the Philippines,” Indiana University, 1998, http://www.indiana.edu/~famlygrf/culture/clark.html 174 Sandi Clark, “Death and Loss in the Philippines,” 1998, Indiana University, http://www.indiana.edu/~famlygrf/culture/clark.html

©DLIFLC | 43 members often grieve for up to a year or more, wearing black clothing or a black ribbon to mark their mourning.175

Exchange 23: I would like to give my condolences.

I would like to give my naakeekeeraamaay aako saa eenyo aat Soldier: condolences to you and saa eenyong paameelyaa your family.

Local: We are grateful. saalaamaat

Dos and Don’ts Do use your entire right hand only to summon a person. Keep your palm down and wave downward.

Do remove your shoes before you enter a person’s home or a mosque.

Do not engage in overt expressions of affection with the opposite sex.

Do not point to anybody with a finger. Use the entire right hand instead.

175 Everyculture.com, “Filipinos: Rites of Passage,” 2011, http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Norway-to- Russia/Filipinos.html

©DLIFLC | 44

Chapter 3: Assessments

1. One way the Spanish colonists reorganize land ownership concepts among the Filipinos was by assigning land titles that gave upper-class status to local people. True

The Spanish colonists left a legacy in traditional land ownership practices in the Philippines. They replaced the Filipino idea of communal land use with the concept of private, individual ownership. They partly accomplished this by assigning land titles to the upper-class, redrawing the class lines in society.

2. Filipinos often have multiple names that combine both their mother’s and father’s last names. True

When speaking to them, it is best to err on the side of formality, addressing people by their formal title, or using “Mr.,” “Mrs.,” or “Miss.” To avoid confusion with names, it is also a good idea to ask people how they wish to be addressed.

3. It is common to see local people in the Philippines engaged public displays of anger. False

Filipino people tend to be non-confrontational. They characteristically speak in low, calm tones of voice and avoid public expressions of anger. In their interactions, they are careful to avoid causing others to “lose face,” or suffer a loss in status.

4. When a visitor is invited into a Filipino person’s home, it is customary for the guest to bring a small gift. True

Traditionally, a guest will bring a gift when invited into a local person’s home. It can be a small article from one’s home country, such as an interesting souvenir, wrapped in paper of any color.

5. The public holiday known as EDSA Revolution Day refers to the day the Philippines gained independence from the Spanish. False

This holiday is also referred to as the first People Power Anniversary. It celebrates the peaceful revolution in February 1986 which culminated in President Marcos’ forced resignation. The acronym EDSA stands for a highway that encircles Manila, Epifanio de los Santos Avenue, where many of the demonstrations took place.

©DLIFLC | 45

Chapter 4: Urban Life

Urbanization Manila, Tagalog’s main city, grew rapidly as a result of rural-to-urban migration in the 1980s and 1990s. Quezon City, just northeast of Manila, also experienced almost uncontrolled growth in the same period. As a result of the heavy migration of rural people searching both for jobs and for a better life in the cities, squatter communities developed. According to a National Housing Authority report, one out of every four residents of metropolitan Manila in the early 1980s was a squatter.176

In Manila, economic circumstances determine whether residents live in luxury, suburban homes, or makeshift housing that lack sewage, water, and electric services. The economic divisions seen so clearly in the city during the 1980s “were not paralleled by racial or linguistic residential patterns.”177 Many who live in Manila have fallen below the poverty line because of rising costs in consumer goods.178

Several of Manila’s districts are sharply marked economically by wealth or poverty. Banks, the stock market, international corporations, and upper- middle-class or exclusive housing are found in Makati, a modern section of the city.179 Slums populated by squatters exist on the city’s edges and throughout older neighborhoods.180 One of Manila’s largest slums, Tondo, is north of the old Spanish section known as Intramuros.181

176 Chester L. Hunt, “The Society and Its Environment: Population – Migration,”A Country Study: Philippines, ed. Ronald E. Dolan, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Studies, 1991, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html 177 Chester L. Hunt, “The Society and Its Environment: Population–Migration,” in A Country Study: Philippines, Ronald E. Dolan ed., (Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Studies, 1991), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html 178 National Statistical Coordination Board, “2009 Official Poverty Statistics,” 8 February 2011, http://www.nscb.gov.ph/poverty/2009/Presentation_RAVirola.pdf 179 Makati.gov.ph, “All About Makati,” 2005, http://www.makati.gov.ph/portal/index.jsp 180Junio M. Ragragio, “Understand Slums: Case Studies for the Global Report 2003: Manila Philippines,” United Nations Habitat, 2003, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dpu-projects/Global_Report/cities/manila.htm 181 Emma Joseph, “In Pictures: Manila Slum Life,” BBC News, n.d., http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/06/world_manila_slum_life/html/2.stm

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Urban Jobs and Workforce Many people in Manila hold jobs in the services sector, providing retail and customer service.182, 183 Manila is also the manufacturing center for the entire country, and a large number of people work in chemical, metalworking, and textile plants.184 Those who have money, university degrees, and connections are more likely to find jobs that pay well or career paths with upward mobility and secure working conditions. A large segment of the urban population, however, does not fall within this category. Depending on the type and place of employment, working conditions are often unregulated.185

People who lack job skills, a college degree, or capital have often ended up working in the informal sector, scavenging for items to use or sell.186 Urban squatters who pay no rent earn a subsistence living by salvaging goods from garbage dumps and trying to sell them.187 A few are able to find temporary, unskilled jobs as laborers.

Bribery and Paternalism Among the middle and upper class, patronage and loyalty to constituents is a way to gain jobs and influence.188, 189 “Patron-client bonds” are inherent in relationships found not only in rural areas but in large cities as well.190 Having connections with wealthy friends and government officials is seen as a reasonable way of gaining influence and advancement. Such social networking occurs when influential people or community leaders are asked to sponsor numerous socially important events yearly, such as baptisms

182 Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Philippines,” October 2008, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm 183 SunSeven, “Philippines and its High Paying Career Options,” 2011, http://hubpages.com/hub/Top- Paying-Hot-Jobs-in-Philippines 184 The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Ed., “Luzon: Economy,” 2008, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Luzon.html 185 Department of Labor and Employment, Republic of the Philippines, Occupational Safety and Health Center, “Working and Health Conditions of Workers in Government Chemical Laboratories in Metro Manila,” 2006, http://oshc.dreamhost.com/page.php?pid=124 186 Gerardo P. Sicat, “The Informal Economy, Employment and Development,” 30 March 2011, http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?publicationSubCategoryId=66&articleId=671067 187 Mark Doyle, “Philippines Suffers Poverty Divide,” BBC News, 14 September 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4245422.stm 188 Patricio N. Abinales and Donna J. Amoroso, State and Society in the Philippines, (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2005). 189 Transparency and Accountability Network for GTZ Philippines, “Corruption and Anti-Corruption in the Philippines,” March 2011, http://www.scribd.com/doc/51272375/TAN-Paper-on-Corruption-and- Anticorruption-in-the-Philippines-March-2011 190 Chester L. Hunt, “The Society and Its Environment: Population–Migration,” in A Country Study: Philippines, Ronald E. Dolan ed. (Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Studies, 1991), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html

©DLIFLC | 47 and weddings.191 When many landowners moved to the cities from the countryside, personal bonds of loyalty between landlords and tenants became weaker.192

At a more institutional level, graft and bribery exist within all of Philippine society. If a government bureaucrat who is poorly paid controls the access to residential or business permits or to large contracts, for instance, he is in a position to accept bribes in exchange for access. Bribery is a fundamental part of the operations of police departments, the judiciary, and powerful commercial interests.193 Business corruption has penetrated every level of government in the Philippines.194

Daily Urban Life and Living Conditions People who live in cities, and especially those in the suburbs or barrios, spend much of their free time socializing with family and friends.195 Often they congregate in a public square or central neighborhood area. In large cities, visiting tends to be less frequent and more formal than in rural areas since the pace of life is busier and faster in the city. Urban residents typically call before they visit other people’s homes, rather than just dropping by.196

Exchange 24: What is your telephone number?

What is your telephone aanong beelaamg nang teyleypono ninyo? Soldier: number?

508-1498 is my seengko sero osto oono kwaatro Local: telephone number. noowebey osto aang teyleypono ko

191 Everyculture.com, Culture of The Philippines, 4 April 2011, http://www.everyculture.com/No-Sa/The- Philippines.html 192 Chester L. Hunt, “The Society and Its Environment: Population–Migration,” in A Country Study: Philippines, Ronald E. Dolan ed. (Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Studies, 1991), http://countrystudies.us/philippines/42.htm 193 UNCHR, “Philippines: Reports of Corruption and Bribery within the Police Force; Government Response; Frequency of Convictions of Members of the Police Force Accused of Criminal Activity (2004- 2006),” 24 August 2006, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,IRBC,,PHL,45f147971a,0.html 194 Carlos H. Conde, “Philippines Most Corrupt, Survey Says,” International Herald Tribune, 13 March 2007, http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/03/13/business/peso.php 195 Culture Grams World Edition, “Republic of the Philippines,” 2011, http://wf2dnvr2.webfeat.org/KrcHQ113197/url=http://online.culturegrams.com/secure/world/world_countr y_sections.php?contid=3&wmn=Asia&cid=126&cn=Philippines&sname=General_Attitudes&snid=6 196 Colorfulphillipines.com, “Philippine (Filipino) Customs and Traditions,” 2009, http://www.colorfulphilippines.com/philcustoms.html

©DLIFLC | 48 The extensive telephone network in Manila and other large cities allows easy communication.197

Exchange 25: May I use your phone?

poowydeyng goomaameet nang Soldier: May I use your phone? teyleypono?

Local: Sure. aabaa, opo

Besides socializing, urban dwellers have many other pastimes. They spend time after work watching TV or attending movies. The Philippines is one of the world’s largest film producers, and Tagalog movies with religious themes are popular, as are American films. Young urbanites go to gyms, shopping malls, and bars or jazz clubs in Manila, and on Sundays, sports fans attend baseball, basketball, and soccer games.198 Many in Manila attend cultural performances, such as ballet, plays, and classical music concerts.199 They also visit libraries and museums.200

Gambling is commonplace throughout the Philippines.201 Locals gamble at public events such as horseraces and cockfights. A popular competition that involves gambling is the Chinese game known as mahjong, played while seated and using a board with tiles.

City dwellers who have regular jobs use public transportation to get around. If they are wealthy, they might own vehicles and use them to commute to work. Urban residents seldom walk, because public transportation is efficient and accessible, supported through government subsidies.202

197 Central Intelligence Agency, , “Philippines: Communication,” in The World Factbook, 25 April 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rp.html 198 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Philippines: Sports and Recreation,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines/272987/Sports-and-recreation 199 MariMari.com, “Entertainment: Cinemas,” 2004, http://www.marimari.com/content/philippines/entertainment/entertainment.html 200 Ustmuseum.ust.edu.ph, “University of Santo Tomas,” 2011, http://ustmuseum.ust.edu.ph/ 201 Steven Stradbrooke, “Philippines Gambling Survey Says Cockfighting More Popular than Bingo,” 2 October 2010, http://calvinayre.com/2010/10/02/business/philippines-gambling-survey/ 202 Neal Cruz, “All Mass Transit Systems Are Subsidized by Gov’t,” Philippine Daily Inquirer, 3 August 2010, http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/columns/view/20100803-284772/All-mass-transit- systems-are-subsidized-by-govt

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Education Both in public and private schools, education in the Philippines is modeled after the U.S. educational system, and English is used in instruction. Until 1898 and the end of the Spanish colonial era, only students from wealthy families were able to attend school. This situation changed during the American occupation when free public education was introduced. It quickly became appreciated in the Philippines as a way to create social mobility and a more democratic society.203

Education begins with either kindergarten or first grade. Kindergarten is mostly offered in private schools in the Philippines. Beyond this level, children in public school attend 6 years of free, mandatory elementary classes followed by 4 years of free, optional secondary school.204, 205 Class sizes in public school may be as high as 65 students.206 These schools often lack equipment such as science supplies and computers.207

College degrees in the Philippines require between 4 and 8 years of education, depending on the level of the degree. Several colleges are located in Manila, including the University of Santo Tomás and one of Asia’s largest universities, the University of the East.208, 209, 210

The national literacy rate for persons over 15 who could read and write was 92.6% for the 2000 census, with the rate being approximately equal between the sexes.211

203 Republic of the Philippines, Department of Education, “Historical Perspective of the Philippine Educational System, 2011, http://www.deped.gov.ph/about_deped/history.asp http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761558570_4/Philippines.html 204 Seomeo-innotech.org, “Philippines,” May 2003, http://www.seameo- innotech.org/resources/seameo_country/educ_data/philippines/philippines_ibe.htm 205 Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Philippines,” October 2008, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm 206 Candice Montenegro, “Woeful Average Size is 65 Pupils Per Teacher,” GMA News, 7 June 2010, http://www.gmanews.tv/story/192849/woeful-average-class-size-is-65-pupils-per-teacher 207 Everyculture.com, “Culture of the Philippines: Socialization,” c. 2007, http://www.everyculture.com/No-Sa/The-Philippines.html 208 M.M. Del Rosario, “List of Universities and Colleges in Manila, Philippines,” 2011, http://hubpages.com/hub/list-of-colleges-and-university-in-manila 209 ust.edu., “University of Santo Tomas,” 2011, http://www.ust.edu.ph/ 210 ue.edu, “University of the East,” 2011, http://www.ue.edu.ph/manila/index.html 211 CIA World Factbook, Philippines, 11 April 2011, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- factbook/geos/rp.html

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Health Care Nationwide, a shortage of health professionals exists. In 2011, only one physician was available for every 1,000 people.212 Most of the doctors are in urban areas where the nation’s modern health facilities are found.213 The continued emigration of Philippine health care professionals seeking opportunities in other countries has resulted in a shortage of trained staff in the Philippines.214 Many Filipinos who need medical help turn to alternative cures or unlicensed practitioners.215

Exchange 26: Is Dr. Reyes in, sir?

Soldier: Is Dr. Reyes in, sir? naareereeto po baa see doctor reyes?

Local: No. waalaa po

Many of the nurses who emigrate from the Philippines have gone to the U.S., which for decades has been recruiting foreign nurses to address its own nursing shortage. In the Philippines, many students, including those studying to be doctors, are changing their majors to nursing because of high international demand for nurses. In private practice in the Philippines, doctors earn around $800 per month, and nurses may earn only a maximum of $200.216 However, in countries in or in the U.S., nurses can earn over $4,000 per month.217 A study by a former Secretary of Health in the Philippines concluded that “close to 80% of all government doctors have become nurses or are in nursing schools.”218 The World Health Organization estimates that 70% of nursing graduates choose to go overseas to work.219 The former health minister of the country

212 Nationmaster.com, “Health Statistics: Physicians per 1000 People (Most Recent) by Country,” 2011, http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/hea_phy_per_1000_peo-physicians-per-1-000-people 213 UNICEF, “Philippines: Health and Nutrition,” n.d., http://www.unicef.org/philippines/8899.html 214 Clifford Coonan, “Western Demand Drains Philippines of 85 Per Cent of Its Trained Nurses,” 25 January 2008, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/western-demand-drains-philippines-of-85- per-cent-of-its-trained-nurses-773889.html 215 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: Government and Society–Health and Welfare,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 216 Payscale.com, “Salary for Hospital Setting: Physician’s Office/Private Practice,” 1 May 2011, http://www.payscale.com/research/PH/Hospital_Setting=Physician%27s_Office_%2F_Private_Practice/Sal ary/by_Job 217 Heda Bayron, “Philippine Medical Brain Drain Leaves Public Health System in Crisis,” , 3 May 2006, http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2006-05-03-voa38.html 218 Barnaby Lo, “Philippines: Have Degree, Will Travel. Where Have All the Nurses Gone?,” Frontline World, 18 December 2007, http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/rough/2007/12/philippines_hav.html 219 Noel Barcelona, “Philippine Health Sector Dying, Says Doctors’ Alliance,” 15 March 2010, http://pilipinasreporter.wordpress.com/2010/03/15/philippine-healthcare-system-dying%E2%80%94head/

©DLIFLC | 51 stated that at least 200 hospitals had closed and more than 800 are partially closed due to personnel shortages.220

Exchange 27: Doctor, can you help me?

My arm is broken, doctor, naabaalee-aan aako, pooeweydey baa Soldier: can you help me? ninyo aakong tooloongaan?

Local: Yes, I can help you. opo, maatootooloongaan ko po kaayo

The majority of hospitals in the country are privately owned and operated. The number is even higher in metropolitan Manila where about 72% of all hospitals are privately owned.221 In the cities, the public hospitals (specialized, general, and research) are run by the Department of Health (DOH). Within the DOH, the Department of Social Welfare and Development and its related agencies provide services for patients who are disabled.222

Exchange 28: Is there a hospital nearby?

Soldier: Is there a hospital nearby? maay ospeetaal bang maalaapeet deeto?

Local: Yes, in the center of town. opo, saa kaabaayaanaan

The quality of medical training in the Philippines for both doctors and nurses is high. In general, the expensive private hospitals have more advanced technology and equipment than the government hospitals. Medical staff are trained equally well in both places, however. In the cities, ambulances are available for emergencies, and pharmacies follow strict guidelines in dispensing medicines.223

220 Noel Barcelona, “Philippine Health Sector Dying, Says Doctors’ Alliance,” 15 March 2010, http://pilipinasreporter.wordpress.com/2010/03/15/philippine-healthcare-system-dying%E2%80%94head/ 221 Rouselle F. Lavado, et al., “Profile of Private Hospitals in the Philippines,” Philippine Institute for Development Studies, March 2011, http://dirp4.pids.gov.ph/ris/dps/pidsdps1105.pdf 222 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Philippines: Government and Society–Health and Welfare,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456399/Philippines 223 Allianz International Health Insurance, “Healthcare in the Philippines,” 2008, http://www.allianzworldwidecare.com/healthcare-in-the-philippines

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Transportation and Traffic Although the city lacks a unified bus network, bus service is available to carry passengers on Manila’s main thoroughfares. Several private operators maintain a variety of routes, many leading to destinations outside the city. The buses are usually crowded, but fares are inexpensive. The World Bank recently agreed to loan money for the Metro Manila Transport Integration Project. With traffic moving at an average speed of 15 kph in some areas of the city, the project is expected to improve travel time for commuters, 75% of whom come from lower income groups. The project is also aimed at improving pedestrian facilities, improving lanes and advancing transportation services in the cities.224, 225, 226, 227

Exchange 29: Will the bus be here soon?

maalaapeet naa baang doomaateeng aang Soldier: Will the bus be here soon? boos?

Local: Yes. opo

Jeepneys are the main form of public transportation in Manila. The service is similar to bus or taxi service, with each vehicle seating 14–24 people. They operate 24 hours a day, and passengers simply flag them down for a ride. Jeepneys are similar to an expanded version of the Jeeps used by U.S. armed forces in World War II, and in fact they came into service for public transportation immediately after the war.228 Some may travel long routes into the countryside.

Light rail (or Metrorail) operates on elevated tracks, thus bypassing street traffic and providing an efficient and fast way to travel around the city. It began operating in Manila

224 HotelTravel.com, “Welcome to Manila: Manila Transport,” 2008, http://www.hoteltravel.com/philippines/manila/guides/transport.htm 225 Trip Advisor, “Manila Public Transportation,” 2008, http://www.tripadvisor.com/Travel-g298573- s303/Manila:Luzon:Public.Transportation.html 226 AsiaRooms.com, “Transportation in Manila,” 2008, http://www.asiarooms.com/travel- guide/philippines/manila/getting-to-manila/transportation-in-manila/index.html 227 World Bank, “Improving Traffic Problems in the Philippines,” 2011, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/EXTEAPREG TOPTRANSPORT/0,,contentMDK:20018096~menuPK:574085~pagePK:2865114~piPK:2865167~theSite PK:574066,00.html 228 Kriyayoga.com, “Transportation in the Philippines–by Sea, by Air, Bus, , Tricycle, or Taxi,” 2004, http://www.kriyayoga.com/philippines/expert_forum/posts/10.html

©DLIFLC | 53 in 1985.229 Because the service is so popular, lines are long at ticket booths, and trains are crowded. Regular train service is also available on Philippine National Railways. The train station in Manila is called “Tutuban.”

Exchange 30: Is there a train station nearby?

Is there a train station maay maalaapeet baang eestaashyon Soldier: nearby? nang treyn?

Local: No. waalaa ho

Regular taxis operate throughout Manila. To control costs, it is advisable to use only the ones that charge by meter and are registered with the Department of Tourism.230 When using a cab travelers should ask in advance if the cab driver will go to the desired destination, and how much the fare is. Travelers should also have exact change ready.231 Although tipping is optional, most taxi drivers in Manila expect a small tip. Taxis are the preferred form of public transportation. Travel by light rail, buses, and jeepneys should be avoided because of safety and security concerns.232

It is easy to rent a car in Manila. Vehicle rental agencies are located near the airport and major hotels. Drivers can rent not only a wide range of automobiles but also trucks, motorbikes, and chauffeur-driven limousines.233, 234

229 Asiatour.com, “Philippines / Metro Manila / Transport / Light Rail Transit,” 1 August 2007, http://www.asiatour.com/philippines/e-03mani/ep-man13_e.htm 230 HotelTravel.com, “Welcome to Manila: Manila Transport,” 2008, http://www.hoteltravel.com/philippines/manila/guides/transport.htm 231 Asiatour.com, “Philippines / Metro Manila / Transport / Taxis,” 1 August 2007, http://www.asiatour.com/philippines/e-03mani/ep-man13_b.htm 232 U.S. Department of State, “Philippines: Country Specific Information,” 25 April 2011, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_999.html#safety 233 Asiatour.com, “Philippines / Metro Manila / Transport / Car Rentals,” 1 August 2007, http://www.asiatour.com/philippines/e-03mani/ep-man13_i.htm 234 U.S. Department of State, “Philippines: Country Specific Information,” 25 April 2011, http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_999.html#safety

©DLIFLC | 54

Exchange 31: Where can I rent a car?

saa-aan aako pweydeyng oomaarkeelaa Soldier: Where can I rent a car? nang kochey?

Local: Downtown. saa daawntaawn ho

Drivers should thoroughly plan their trips by studying maps and knowing which roads to take. A driver visiting the country should plan ahead for the possibility of a mechanical breakdown and know how to locate assistance or a mechanic.

Exchange 32: Is there a good auto mechanic nearby?

Is there a good auto maay maahoosaay naa meykaaneeko baa Soldier: mechanic nearby? reetong maalaapeet?

Local: Yes. opo

Roads in the Philippines are used not only for vehicles, but also for pedestrians, food carts, and non-vehicular traffic. There is a continual, crowded mix of vehicles, speeds, and unpredictable activity on the roadways. For these reasons, driving is dangerous and leads to many accidents.235

In 1990, ferryboats began offering public transportation on the Pasig River that runs through Manila. Larger ferries (or commuter boats) can carry 50–60 people, and the smaller ones seat around 20–30 passengers. The small ferries are used to transport people from Batangas to the Tagalog island of Mindoro. Safety standards can be low on passenger transport boats in the Philippines, and many accidents have occurred.236, 237, 238

235 John Miele, “Driving in the Philippines is Like Swimming in a School of Fish,” 25 January 2011, http://liveinthephilippines.com/content/2011/01/driving-in-the-philippines-is-like-swimming-in-a-school- of-fish/ 236 Asiatour.com, “Philippines / Metro Manila / Transport / Ferry Boats,” 1 August 2007, http://www.asiatour.com/philippines/e-03mani/ep-man13_f.htm 237 Travel-Images.com, “File: Phil10 – Philippines – Manila: Public Transportation – Commuter Boats” n.d., http://www.travel-images.com/photo-phil10.html 238 Kriyayoga.com, “Transportation in the Philippines – by Sea, by Air, Bus, Jeepney, Tricycle, or Taxi,” 2004, http://www.kriyayoga.com/philippines/expert_forum/posts/10.html

©DLIFLC | 55 Other forms of public transportation in the city include tricycles (motorized bikes with sidecars that carry up to five people) and pedicabs (bicycles with sidecars). Both offer inexpensive service and are used for short trips.239 Pedicabs are illegal in parts of the country and are used mainly by locals, not tourists.240 Traveling by tricycles can be dangerous, because the drivers may be inexperienced and their driving habits in the heavy traffic are often unpredictable.241

Restaurants and Marketplaces Restaurant In cities such as Manila, restaurants appeal to a wide range of dining preferences. Many restaurants began to appear in Manila in the 1970s as the pace of urbanization accelerated, and people often found that they had less time to prepare meals. Home-style cooking was very popular in restaurants at that time, but now a more diverse menu is available. Everything from local Filipino favorites to foods of cultures from all around the world can be found.242, 243, 244

Exchange 33: What type of meat is this?

What type of meat is aanong klaaseyng kaarney eeto? Soldier: this?

Local: Lamb. toopaa ho

American is quite popular in Manila. Most restaurants offer table service in an informal environment, but upscale restaurants are also popular in Manila.

239 Kriyayoga.com, “Transportation in the Philippines – by Sea, by Air, Bus, Jeepney, Tricycle, or Taxi,” 2004, http://www.kriyayoga.com/philippines/expert_forum/posts/10.html 240 TripAdvisor.com, “Manila: Public Transportation,” n.d., http://www.tripadvisor.com/Travel-g298573- s303/Manila:Luzon:Public.Transportation.html 241 OSAC, “Philippines 2011 OSAC Crime and Safety Report: Manila,” 4 April 2011, https://www.osac.gov/Pages/ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=10769 242 Executive Planet, “Philippines: Prosperous Entertaining,” 6 February 2008, http://www.executiveplanet.com/index.php?title=Philippines:_Prosperous_Entertaining 243 MariMari.com, Philippines, “Restaurants,” c. 1999–2004, http://www.marimari.com/content/philippines/restaurants/main.html 244 World Travel Guide, “Going Out: Philippines,” c. 2008, http://www.worldtravelguide.net/country/225/entertainment/South-East-Asia/Philippines.html

©DLIFLC | 56

Exchange 34: Are you still serving breakfast?

Are you still serving maay aalmoosaal paa baa? Soldier: breakfast?

Local: Yes. opo

Filipinos usually eat communal style. That is, they gather in a large group and socialize while they are eating. Whether the occasion is formal or informal, it often takes on an air of celebration when food is involved. Diners use knives, forks, and spoons, or they may resort to the traditional method of eating food with their hands. Chopsticks are used mainly in Japanese or Chinese restaurants.

National drinks include beer that is locally brewed, and Philippine rum. Nonalcoholic drinks such as soda, coffee, and tea are offered in most restaurants.

Exchange 35: I would like coffee or tea.

Soldier: I would like coffee or tea. goosto ko saanaa nang kaapey o cha-aa

Local: Sure. opo

If visitors to the country receive an invitation to dine out with friends or business associates, they should not refuse the invitation. Generally, the host will pay.245 However, a group of people dining at a restaurant may wish to either pay their bills separately or to put it all on one tab and split the costs. Find out in advance which payment methods are accepted. At most restaurants in Manila and large cities, diners can pay by using credit cards.

Exchange 36: Can I have the total of my bill, please?

Can I have the total of paakeebeegaay naa ngaa aang boo-ong Soldier: my bill, please? kweyntaa?

Local: Yes sir! opo, sheyemprey

245 AsiaRooms.com, “Philippines Etiquette,” 2008, http://www.asiarooms.com/travel- guide/philippines/culture-of-philippines/philippines-etiquette.html

©DLIFLC | 57

It is customary in the Philippines for diners to tip, usually 10% of the total bill. A service charge may already be included in the bill, but leaving a small tip is still appreciated as a simple gesture of generosity.246

Marketplaces Open-air bazaars and flea markets in the cities sell a myriad of handicrafts, cloth, wood carvings, brassware, jewelry, and other goods. When buying such items from vendors, bargaining is customary, especially in the flea markets. Advertised prices are usually higher than the seller expects to receive for the product, and vendors anticipate that clients will bargain for an agreed-upon price.

When bargaining, success in achieving the desired discounts depends upon “charm and good bargaining skills.”247 It benefits from patience and a willingness to be friendly and sociable while attempting to achieve a price lower than the original. Possessing some understanding of the local economy is likely to help the customer achieve the know-how to bargain more effectively.248, 249, 250, 251

It is advisable for a buyer to examine an item closely to be sure that the quality matches the price he or she is willing to pay.

Exchange 37: May I examine this close up?

May I examine this close pooweydey ko baang teengnaan eeto Soldier: up? nang maasoosee?

Local: Sure. aabaa, opo

246 Associated Content, “Business Etiquette for Philippine Travelers,” 3 September 2005, http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/7979/business_etiquette_for_philippine_travelers.html?page=3& cat=3 247 e-phillipines.com, “10 Things to Do in the Philippines: Shop,” 2011, http://www.e- philippines.com.ph/philippines/ten-things-to-do-in-the-philippines/ 248 e-phillipines.com, “10 Things to Do in the Philippines: Shop,” 2011, http://www.e- philippines.com.ph/philippines/ten-things-to-do-in-the-philippines/ 249 World Travel Guide, “Going Out: Philippines,” c. 2008, http://www.worldtravelguide.net/country/225/entertainment/South-East-Asia/Philippines.html 250 World Travel Guide, “Shopping in Philippines,” 2011, http://www.worldtravelguide.net/philippines/shopping 251 PBS.org, “Hitchhiking Vietnam: Letters from the Trail, Travel Tips,” n.d., http://www.pbs.org/hitchhikingvietnam/travel/bargain.html

©DLIFLC | 58 The customer should begin by asking the seller’s price rather than offering a sum of money. When negotiations have concluded and a seller’s offer has been accepted, the buyer should then complete the purchase, not reconsider.

On the other hand, a buyer can reject an unfavorable price in order to shop around and return to a certain store later, after comparing prices.

Exchange 38: How much longer will you be here?

How much longer will you hang-gaang kaa-eelaan kaayo Soldier: be here? naareereeto?

Local: Three more hours. taatlong oraas paa ho

If a street merchant or vendor is insistent on making an unwanted sale, politely and firmly decline the offer.

Exchange 39: Please, buy something from me.

Please, buy something boomeelee ngaa po kaayo saa aakeen Local: from me.

Sorry, I have no money paaseyncheeyaa naa, waalaa naa aakong Soldier: left. naateeraang peyraa

Food is available at street stalls and from food carts in Manila and other cities. Customers can buy snacks, tea, coffee, iced drinks, and meals from these outdoor eateries. The price is generally fixed. Cash is required, and it is a good idea to ask in advance the type of currency a seller will accept.

Exchange 40: Do you accept U.S. currency?

Do you accept U.S. toomaataang-gaap baa kaayo nang Soldier: currency? peyraang aameyreekaano?

hindee po, peysos laang po aang Local: No, we only accept pesos. teenaataang-gaap naameen

Also, a buyer may have a currency denomination that is too large for the cost of the item being purchased. In that case, ask whether the seller is prepared to give change.

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Exchange 41: Can you give me change?

Can you give me change maay eesoosooklee baa kaayo reeto? Soldier: for this?

Local: No. waalaa po

In the large cities, ATMs and banks are available to change money for purchases. Retail outlets and hotels in the cities can also be a source for changing money.252

Beggars Poverty is widespread in Manila, and many people who live on the streets earn money by begging. These beggars often gather around restaurants and clubs frequented by foreigners, forming groups that may follow tourists to solicit money. They can be quite aggressive, and it is best to ignore them.253, 254

Exchange 42: Give me money.

Local: Give me money. beegyaan ninyo aako nang peyraa

Soldier: I don’t have any. waalaa aakong peyraa

The Philippine government has in the past tried to clear the streets of homeless people and beggars. Government funding subsidizes temporary shelters for people in such circumstances, providing food and shelter for up to a week for each family. At the centers, social workers and counselors are available to assist in arrange schooling for children and health care for the sick and elderly. However, these efforts have been inadequate. There are not enough facilities or services for all who need them.255

252 World Travel Guide, “Money: Philippines,” 2008, http://www.worldtravelguide.net/country/225/money/South-East-Asia/Philippines.html 253 Claire Delfin, “Life on the Streets of Still Beats Life Back Home,” Philippine Human Rights Reporting Project, 23 September 2008, http://www.rightsreporting.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1458&Itemid=130 254 Anytimenews, “Group of Beggars in Manila Getting Bolder, Nastier,” 10 December 2010, http://www.anytimesnews.com/2010/12/10/group-of-beggars-in-manila-getting-bolder-nastier 255 UNCHR, Institute for War and Peace Reporting, “Manila Faces Street-Dwellers Dilemma,” 3 October 2008, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,IWPR,,PHL,496467608,0.html

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Urban Crime In Manila and other urban areas, pick pocketing and credit card fraud are common. Theft frequently takes place on the public transportation system, including buses and the light rail train system. Kidnapping and violent crimes are often perpetrated in Manila, but in the southern island of Mindanao and the surrounding region, political violence is more prevalent.256

Gang violence is a problem in large cities such as Manila, where separate gangs may have informal jurisdiction over a certain territory. Armed gangs sometimes commit robberies on commuter buses or at large, heavily-populated business establishments during daylight hours. It is also a common practice for individuals or gang members to pose as city officials to extort money from street vendors.257, 258, 259

256 OSAC, Overseas Security Advisory Council, “Philippines 2011 Crime & Safety Report,” 4 April 2011, https://www.osac.gov/Pages/ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=10769 257 Rommel C. Lontayao, “Lim Fires Own Son from ,” The Manila Times, 5 January 2008, http://article.wn.com/view/2008/01/05/Lim_fires_own_son_from_Manila_city_hall/ 258 Cecille Suerte Felipe, “Metro Told: Crack Down on Your Gangs,” 16 January 2009, http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?ArticleId=432096&publicationSubCategoryId=65 259 Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “Travel Advice: Philippines,” 4 May 2011, http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/Advice/philippines

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Chapter 4: Assessments

1. Patronage and loyalty is a way to gain jobs and influence in the Philippines. True

“Patron-client bonds” are inherent in relationship networks found not only in rural areas, but in the large cities as well. Having connections with wealthy friends and government officials is seen as a reasonable way of gaining influence and advancement.

2. An estimated one out of every four residents of metropolitan Manila is a squatter. True

As a result of the heavy migration of rural people searching both for jobs and for a better life in the cities, squatter communities developed. According to a National Housing Authority report, one out of every four residents of metropolitan Manila in the early 1980s was a squatter.

3. Public and private schools in the Philippines use English as the primary language of instruction. True

Until 1898 and the end of the Spanish colonial era, only students from wealthy families were able to attend school. This situation changed during the American occupation when free public education was introduced.

4. There is no shortage of healthcare professionals in the Philippines. False

The continued emigration of Philippine healthcare professionals seeking opportunities in other countries has resulted in a shortage of trained staff in the Philippines.

5. Buses are the main form of public transportation in Manila. False

Jeepneys are the main form of public transportation in Manila. The service is similar to bus or taxi service, with each vehicle seating 14–24 people. They operate 24 hours a day, and passengers simply flag them down for a ride. Jeepneys are similar to an expanded version of the Jeeps used by U.S. armed forces in World War II, and in fact came into service for public transportation right after the war.

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Chapter 5: Rural Life

Rural Economy The rural economy of Luzon is rooted strongly in traditions. When indigenous people settled in central Luzon, they lived by subsistence farming. Early inhabitants lived in isolated groups but worked together to clear and farm the land. This pattern prevailed for centuries in the central lowland plains. Its organization, which predated the Spanish, followed that of a kasama (sharecropper system) in which peasants worked on an owner’s land and kept part of the harvest.260 The Spanish later used this system on their own large estates and plantations.

In the early and mid 20th century, the sharecropper system was still in effect. Farmers traded their labor and equipment in exchange for funding and seed from the landowners. The farmers then planted and cultivated the crops, and divided the harvest between farmers and owners. Under this system, farmers usually owed money to the landowners and had to pay high interest rates. It was virtually impossible for them to get out of debt. Children inherited their fathers’ debts, and the system continued from generation to generation.261

Under the U.S. occupation and beyond, the tenancy system continued in modified form. The areas most affected by this sharecropping system were in central Luzon.262 Revolts against the system eventually led to independence and a series of land reforms that continued well into the 20th century. Land reforms, however, were largely ineffective and were nullified by practices that favored wealthy landowners. Monopolies developed in the cash-crop sector, where rural Filipinos worked. During the Marcos regime, the “distribution and marketing monopolies for sugar and coconuts” limited farmers to selling their crops only to the monopolies, at suppressed prices.263 Around the same time, the government was providing credit to farmers and giving them access to storage facilities and equipment in an effort to stimulate the agricultural sector. Rural banks

260 George L. Beckford, Persistent Poverty: Underdevelopment in Plantation Economies of the Third World (Kingston, Jamaica: The University of the West Indies Press,1999), 280. 261 Donald M. Seekins, “Historical Setting. Economic and Social Development: The Tenancy Problem” in A Country Study: Philippines, ed. Ronald E. Dolan, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html 262 Donald M. Seekins, “Historical Setting. Economic and Social Development: Resistance Movements,” in A Country Study: Philippines, ed. Ronald E. Dolan, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html 263 Donald M. Seekins, “Historical Setting. Economic and Social Development: Resistance Movements,” in A Country Study: Philippines, ed. Ronald E. Dolan, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html

©DLIFLC | 63 developed, providing loans to farmers. Overall, the policies were not successful in bringing about reform.264 In the 1980s and 1990s, thousands of landless agricultural workers migrated to the cities, trying to find jobs that would support them.

For decades, agriculture has remained the economic foundation of the rural Tagalog region. Luzon’s central plain is the most productive rice-growing region in the entire country. Most people who live in rural areas today work on small farms.265

Exchange 43: Where do you work, sir?

Soldier: Where do you work, sir? saa-aan po kaayo naagtaatraabaaho?

Local: I am a farmer, sir. maagsaasaakaa po aako

Under the Arroyo government, a four-year strategic plan was drawn up to reduce poverty between 2001 and 2004. One of the administration’s main strategies to reduce rural poverty was to modernize agricultural practices. To meet this objective, the government continued to make land reforms and strengthen the rural infrastructure. In spite of all attempts, however, poverty has remained “acute and widespread” in rural areas.266, 267

Some farmers own the land that they farm, but most have no land and they work for large landowners.268 They may be employed in agricultural jobs or as tenant farmers.

264 Charles W. Lindsley, “The Economy. Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing: Rice and the Green Revolution.” in A Country Study: Philippines, ed. Ronald E. Dolan, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html 265 Lolita Y. Poliquit, “Accessibility of Rural Credit Among Small Farmers in the Philippines,” Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, 2006, http://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10179/1687/02_whole.pdf?sequence=1 266 Clarence Henderson, “Notes on Poverty in the Philippines, 2002 Edition,” Asia Pacific Management Forum, 20 August 2002, http://www.apmforum.com/columns/orientseas49.htm 267 Australian Government, “Philippines,” 14 Feb 2011, http://www.ausaid.gov.au/country/country.cfm?CountryID=31 268 Philippine Network of Food Security Programmes, “The Feudal State of Farming in the Philippines,” 2 June 2010, http://pnfsp.org/?q=databank/feudal/farming/10

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Exchange 44: Do you own this land?

paagaa-aaree baa ninyo aang loopaeeng Soldier: Do you own this land? eeto?

Local: Yes. opo

Besides cultivating rice, farmers on small farms in the lowlands typically grow coffee, sugarcane, corn, and tobacco. The central plain is one of the nation’s principle sugarcane growing areas. Farmers also grow fruits such as coconuts, mangoes, and bananas for sale and local consumption.269, 270 More than a million people in rural Luzon also fish, using small boats to fish along the coast. Problems with overfishing degraded habitats and greater resource use competition, among other factors, are threatening the fishing industry in the area.271 Mackerel, sardines, anchovies, and other fish are found in the shallow waters of the inland seas and bays. Aquaculture is another source of income, yielding seaweed, oysters, shrimp, and different fish from the aqua farms that employ rural workers. In order to sustain the aquaculture industry in the country, it is imperative that new markets be developed. New development plans to foster industry growth are currently underway.272

269 The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed., “Luzon,” 2008, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1- Luzon.html 270 Encyclopædia Britannica Online, “Luzon,” 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/352414/Luzon 271 National Association of Science and Technology: Philippines, “NAST Leads Discussion on Marine Fisheries Sector Key Issues,” 16 March 2010, http://www.nast.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=254:nast-leads-discussion-on- marine-fisheries-sector-key-issues- 272 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), “National Aquaculture Sector Overview: Philippines,” 2011, http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_philippines/en

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Rural Transportation Rural residents must rely on both land and sea transportation. Because of the heavy reliance on agriculture, improved transportation has been identified as a key element in reducing poverty in the area. Since 2004, transportation by sea has opened trade and cut time and costs.273, 274, 275, 276

People living in the countryside have access to buses that operate on regional routes, managed by independent bus lines.277 They also travel by tricycle (a motorbike with a small sidecar that is sometimes fixed above a third wheel) and bicycles. Farmers use motorbikes that they own or rent to transport small crop deliveries to market. For traveling between towns or from towns into rural areas, passengers often use Jeepneys that seat a small number of people. These vehicles follow standard routes, stopping anywhere requested to let people and their belongings off the bus. Other rural vehicles used for short distances include multicabs (similar to minivans) and motorcycle-taxis that carry up to four people.

People who live in the rural Philippines are connected to cities by a network of highways and roads, although many of the roads are only two lanes and are in disrepair.278 There are several large and medium-size towns in Luzon where people can rent a taxi to drive them to rural areas. However, from the countryside, very few taxis are available to drive to the cities.

Roads in remote rural areas are typically characterized by potholes, narrow lanes, and an absence of road signs. As in the cities, it is also dangerous to drive in rural areas, because the roads are used by people walking, leading animals, or riding bicycles or other vehicles. Horse-drawn carts use the roads, and animals frequently cross in front of traffic. Much of the traffic is slow-moving, while some is very fast. Driving a private car is risky and requires full concentration to avoid accidents.279

273 World Travel Guide, “Getting Around Philippines,” 2008, http://www.worldtravelguide.net/country/225/internal_travel/South-East-Asia/Philippines.html 274 The Utrecht Faculty of Education, “The Philippines: Means of Transportation.” n.d., http://www.philippines.hvu.nl/transport1.htm 275 Cockatoo.com, Asia Travel Guide, “Transport in Manila.” n.d., http://www.cockatoo.com/english/philippines/philippines_transport_manila4.htm 276 IFRTD, “The Philippines,” 2009, http://www.ifrtd.org/en/regions/country_pages/Philippines.php 277 Visayan Silent Gardens,“Philippines Bus,” 7 April 2011, http://www.silent-gardens.com/bus.php 278 International Labour Organization, “Maintenance Study in the Philippines,” March 2006, http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro- bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_bk_pb_224_en.pdf 279 KeithLane.com, “Driving in the Philippines,” 2009, http://www.keithlane.com/page25.htm

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Rural Health The Department of Health has decentralized health services in the country leading the development of rural health units (RHUs) and barangay (village) health stations. Nevertheless, although large numbers of midwives and village health workers are present in the countryside, a serious shortage of other health professionals exists there.280 Rural areas of the country do not receive the level of investment in medical services that urban areas do. There are fewer well-equipped hospitals and clinics in rural Luzon, and fewer physicians and nurses.281 Consequently, mortality rates are higher in those parts of the country.282 The rural poor who cannot afford to travel to the city for specialized care when they are sick mostly go untreated or rely on traditional healers and midwives, and herbal medicines. They may not be able to count on professional medical and preventive services even for maternal and baby visits, inoculations, or family planning.283

The exodus in doctors and nurses from the country has taken an especially high toll in the countryside.284 Because professional nurses can command much higher salaries in Europe or the U.S., thousands have immigrated to those areas for jobs.285 Philippine doctors have also turned to the nursing profession because of the international demand for nursing jobs and the lucrative salaries. In 2006, approximately 12,000 trained medical practitioners relocated from the Philippines to find jobs overseas.286 The Philippine government operates medical clinics in rural areas of the country. However, many of the people living in the countryside remain underserved because the need for health care exceeds the resources available.287, 288

280 Kenneth Ronquillo, Fely Marilyn Elegado-Lorenzo, and Rodel Nodora, “Human Resources for Health Migration in the Philippines: A Case Study and Policy Directions,” August 2005, http://www.aaahrh.org/reviewal/Philippines%20-%20draft.pdf 281 Blaine Harden, “In Rural Philippines, a Dearth of Doctors,” The Washington Post, 20 September 2008, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/19/AR2008091903678.html 282 Department of Health, Philippine Government, “Philippines 2005-2010.” n.d., http://www.doh.gov.ph/files/table4_23.pdf 283 Maternal and Neonatal Program Effort Index, “Philippines,” 2 June 2008, http://www.docstoc.com/docs/675596/Maternal-Health-in-the-Philippines 284 Glaxo Smith Kline, “Project NARS (Nurses Assigned in Rural Service), Philippines.” 2 February 2010, http://www.gsk.com/community/row-philippines.htm 285 AsiaViews, “Philippines in Shock from Heavy Loss of Doctors and Nurses,” 21 December 2010, http://www.asiaviews.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=26678:reportalias7853&catid =2:regional-news-a-special-reports&Itemid=9 286 Barnaby Lo, “Philippines: Have Degree, Will Travel. Where Have All the Nurses Gone?,” Frontline, 18 December 2007, http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/rough/2007/12/philippines_hav.html 287 Kenneth Ronquillo, Marilyn Elegado-Lorenzo Fely, and Rodel Nodora, “Human Resources for Health Migration in the Philippines: A Case Study and Policy Directions,” August 2005, http://www.aaahrh.org/reviewal/Philippines%20-%20draft.pdf

©DLIFLC | 67 The nation’s leading health sciences institution, the University of the Philippines, has tried to address the shortfall of medical personnel in the country. It established a placement program in 2004 that would link its graduates to employers who are hiring, especially in underserved regions. Another program, the Regionalization Program of the College of Medicine, was set up to admit students from various provinces with the understanding that they would return to those provinces to practice medicine. For the 2005–2006 school year, applicants in this program had to sign a contract before the college would accept them. Under its terms, the students were required to work in “underserved regions of the Philippines for a minimum of 5 years.”289

Rural Education Education, once the privilege of the elite under Spanish rule, became publicly available to all Filipinos after the U.S. educational system was introduced.290 When the Philippines achieved independence in 1946, the government built schools throughout the country, including remote, rural areas. Still, the quality of education has remained higher in the cities.291

Rural schools suffer from a number of problems in the Philippines. There are not enough schools for the number of children, and children may have to get up very early to walk a considerable distance to get to school. Whereas overcrowded classrooms are the norm in urban schools, such is not the case in the rural Philippines. Here, attendance is poor because children usually have to work on their parents’ farms.292 They are frequently hired for jobs that require dangerous agricultural work. To meet their work schedules, children are compelled to drop out of school at early ages. In addition to these problems, it is difficult to recruit teachers for rural areas, and the standards of education may be low compared to those found in urban schools. Rural classrooms often lack books, equipment, and basic supplies.293, 294

288 Barnaby Lo,“Philippines: Have Degree, Will Travel. Where Have All the Nurses Gone?,” Frontline, 18 December 2007, http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/rough/2007/12/philippines_hav.html 289 Arlyn VCD Romualdo, “Preventing the Exodus,” University of the Philippines, 2007, http://www.up.edu.ph/upforum.php?i=98&archive=yes&yr=2005&mn=7 290 Republic of the Philippines, Department of Education, “Historical Perspective of the Philippine Educational System,” 2011, http://www.deped.gov.ph/about_deped/history.asp 291 Chester L. Hunt, “Philippines: Education,” in Philippines: A Country Study,” ed. Ronald E Dolan Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi- bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+ph0075%29 292 Josh Weinstein, “The Problem of Rural Education in the Philippines,” 2 March 2010, http://joshweinstein.wordpress.com/2010/03/02/the-problem-of-education-in-the-philippines/ 293 Kathleen Hayes, “Key Issue: Recruiting Teachers for Urban and Rural Schools,” June 2009, http://www.tqsource.org/publications/KeyIssue_RecruitingUrbanRural.pdf 294 International Labour Organization, “Feature Story from the Philippines: Making Future Harvests Without Child Labour,” 11 June 2007, http://www.ilo.org/global/About_the_ILO/Media_and_public_information/Press_releases/lang-- en/WCMS_082995/index.htm

©DLIFLC | 68 Public and private colleges are located in the cities.295 Teenagers who want to attend college must find the means to leave their rural homes and their family support networks behind. It is difficult for them to find a way to provide for themselves financially and live in the city while attending college.296

Village Life and Gender Roles Kinship ties are very close and important in the Philippines, and extended families often live in one household in rural parts of the country. It is common for entire families to work together doing farm labor, especially when harvesting and planting crops. Traditionally it is men who cultivate the fields, but the entire family assists with other chores. Women tend gardens and care for their children and the household. They also take care of any farm animals.297

Although women fare better here than in other countries in the region, Filipinas still suffer from inequality with men. They are victims of domestic violence, economic disadvantage outside the home, and exploitation in a number of arenas. Today, many women expect to work outside of the home although their rate of participation in the labor force is still lower than that of men. Their educational attainmentis often higher than for men who may drop out of school to work and support families. The ability to earn money outside the home has given women more power in the family and made them participatemore in the decision-making process of the family.298, 299

Daily life in the countryside revolves around the market, where people go to buy and sell food products. Markets are typically crowded because people come here to socialize, as well as conduct business. The variety of foods for sale includes fish and fish products, vegetables, fruits and fruit drinks, spices, and other goods that people use or consume on a regular basis.300

Traditional older homes in the countryside may be built out of bamboo, with roofs of corrugated metal or palm leaves. Many are raised above the ground on large bamboo poles. The most common construction material is either wood or cinder blocks that are sometimes covered with plaster and painted. Older traditional rural homes have open-air kitchen areas for food preparation , but newer homes simply divide the indoor kitchen

295 India Education, “Colleges in Philippines,” 2011, http://colleges.indiaedu.com/asia/philippines/colleges/ 296 Carl Marc Ramota, “College Education in Crisis,” Bulatlat, no. 5 (March 6–12, 2005). 297 Everyculture.com, “Culture of the Philippines: Gender Roles and Statuses,” 2007, http://www.everyculture.com/No-Sa/The-Philippines.html 298 Japan International Cooperation Agency, “Gender Profile of the Philippines.” n.d., http://www.jica.go.jp/activities/issues/gender/pdf/j03phi_summary.pdf 299 James F. Eder, “Gender Relations and Household Economic Planning in the Rural Philippines,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies,vol. 37 no. 3 (2006): 397–413. 300 The Utrecht Faculty of Education, “The Philippines: The ‘Daily Life’ on Local Markets and Other Outlets,” n.d., http://www.philippines.hvu.nl/markets1.htm

©DLIFLC | 69 into two sections.301 One section is for food preparation and the other is the eating area.302 Rural homes are equipped with indoor plumbing and electricity unless they are in very remote areas.303

Who’s in Charge Villages in the Philippines are traditionally named barangays. Named after, balangays, the sailboats that carried early Malay settlers from Borneo to the Philippines, barangays were the “basic unit of local administration.”304 Today, they are named in the constitution of the Philippines as governing village units.305 Each barangay has an official leader who organizes community events and village activities, signs payments, and approves contracts. He oversees village life and assumes responsibility for the exercise of government power in the village.306

Checkpoints Security checkpoints are commonplace in the Philippines. The Department of Justice recently issued a 10-point guideline on motorist rights at such checkpoints. The checkpoints must be well-lit. Motorists are to stay in the car and lock all doors. Only visual searches are permitted and motorists do not have to open glove boxes, trunks, or luggage. Drivers may be expected to answer certain questions and must have licenses and registration at the ready.307, 308

301 Culture Grams World Edition, “Republic of the Philippines,” 2011, http://wf2dnvr2.webfeat.org/KrcHQ113197/url=http://online.culturegrams.com/secure/world/world_countr y_sections.php?contid=3&wmn=Asia&cid=126&cn=Philippines&sname=General_Attitudes&snid=6 302 Everyculture.com, “Culture of the Philippines: Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space,” 2007, http://www.everyculture.com/No-Sa/The-Philippines.html 303 Culture Grams World Edition, “Republic of the Philippines,” 2011, http://wf2dnvr2.webfeat.org/KrcHQ113197/url=http://online.culturegrams.com/secure/world/world_countr y_sections.php?contid=3&wmn=Asia&cid=126&cn=Philippines&sname=General_Attitudes&snid=6 304 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Barangay,” 2008, http://www.britannica.com/bps/search?query=barangay 305 Lawph.com, “Republic Act No. 7160: An Act Providing for a Local Government Code of 1991,” n.d., http://lawph.com/statutes/ra7160bk3t1-local-government-code-of-the-philippines---the-barangay.html 306 PHNet, “Philippines – Local Government: Barangays,” 1997, http://expo.edu.ph/government/phil/loc- gov/index.html 307 Nikko Dizon, “DoJ Lists Rules Governing Checkpoints,” Philippine Daily Inquirer, 28 March 2011, http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/nation/view/20110328-328021/DoJ-lists-rules-governing- checkpoints 308 Aljazeera, “Dozens Held in Philippines Gun Ban,” 12 January 2010, http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia-pacific/2010/01/201011291725951208.html

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Land Mines The Republic of the Philippines signed the Mine Ban Treaty on 3 December 1997, but domestic legislation has yet to be enacted that would make the treaty effective. The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) has denied using land mines in its fight against insurgents trying to topple the Philippine government. The AFP has, however, accused the New People’s Army (NPA, the armed wing of the Philippine Communist Party) of using landmines, including some in Luzon. The NPA in turn denies that it has used any “victim-activated mines,” although limited evidence of their use has been found.309

In recent years, landmines have continued to be a threat to safety. The New People’s Army has triggered a number of attacks involving landmines that have killed and wounded numerous military and other personnel.310, 311, 312, 313

309 Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor, “Philippines: Mine Ban Policy,” 29 September 2010, http://www.the-monitor.org/custom/index.php/region_profiles/print_profile/145 310 Associated Press, “Communist Rebel Attack Kills 12 in Philippines,” 13 November 2009. 311 The Straits Times, “Land Mine Blast Kills 2 Soldiers in Philippines,” 24 March 2011, http://www.straitstimes.com/BreakingNews/SEAsia/Story/STIStory_648750.html 312 The Guardian, “Two US Soldiers Killed in Philippines Landmine Explosion,” 29 September 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/sep/29/us-soldiers-philippines-landmine 313 ABS-CBN News, “Landmines Kill Soldier, Hurt 5 Others,” 5 May 2011, http://www.abs- cbnnews.com/nation/regions/05/05/11/landmines-kill-soldier-hurt-5-others

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Chapter 5: Assessment

1. The sharecropper system was still in effect in the early 20th century in the rural Philippines. True

Under this system, farmers traded their labor and equipment in exchange for funding and seeds from landowners. The farmers then planted and cultivated crops and divided the harvest with the owners. Farmers had to pay high interest to the owners and seldom got out of debt. Children inherited their fathers’ debts, and the bondage continued from generation to generation.

2. The quality of medical services is much lower in rural parts of the country, compared to the cities. True

There are fewer well-equipped hospitals and clinics in rural Luzon and fewer physicians and nurses. The exodus in doctors and nurses from the country has taken an especially high toll in the countryside. Because professional nurses can command much higher salaries in Europe or the U.S., thousands have immigrated out of the country for jobs.

3. It was not until decades after the Philippines achieved independence that the government made any investment in rural schools. False

Education, once the privilege of the elite under Spanish rule, became publicly available to all Filipinos after the U.S. educational system was introduced. After the Philippines achieved independence (1946), the government built schools throughout the country, including remote, rural areas. Still, the quality of education has remained higher in the cities.

4. Barangays are villages in the rural Philippines. True

They are named in the constitution of the Philippines as governing village units. Each barangay has an official leader who organizes community events, signs payments, and approves contracts. He oversees village life and assumes responsibility for the exercise of government power in the village.

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5. The Republic of the Philippines has refused to sign a mine ban treaty. False

The Philippine government signed the Mine Ban Treaty on 3 December 1997. However, domestic legislation has yet to be enacted that would make the treaty effective. The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) has denied using land mines in its fight against insurgents trying to topple the Philippine government. The AFP has accused the insurgent New People’s Army of using landmines, including on Luzon.

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Chapter 6: Family Life

Family Roles and Responsibilities Traditionally, families are large in the Philippines.314, 315 In recent years, the number of children in a typical family has dropped to about 3.4 children. In rural areas, the numbers are higher at around six children.316 Families traditionally have a patriarchal structure where the father is the breadwinner and the mother has responsibility for taking care of the home and the children.317

Family values based on strong kinship ties and interdependence have endured for centuries in the Philippine culture.318 Both the nuclear and extended families are the center of life not only for the Tagalog people, but also for other ethnic groups in the Philippines. It is a “social imperative” that close family members extend their loyalty and support to each other.319

An extended family in the Philippines includes those considered part of the family as godparents or sponsors, as well as those who share kinship ties. Extended family members are expected to lend each other their support, perhaps by providing the connections that will help someone in the family get a job or move to a new region. Family bonds are continually reinforced through social networking and through ceremonial events such as marriage, baptisms, and confirmations.

314 Chester L. Hunt., “Social Values and Organization,” in A Country Study: Philippines, ed. Ronald E. Dolan (Washington DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi- bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+ph0062%29 315 Yen Makabenta, . “The Elemental Filipino Family,” Living in the Philippines, 2008, http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philculture/philippine_articles/elemental_family.html 316 Romeo B. Lee, Lourdes P. Nacionales, and Luis Pedroso, “The Influence of Local Policy on Contraceptive Provision and Use in Three Locales in the Philippines,” Reproductive Health Matters, 17 (May 2009): 99–107. 317 Philippinecountry.com, “Philippine Culture-Common Family Traits,” 2006, http://www.philippinecountry.com/philippine_culture/common_family_traits.html 318 Chester L. Hunt, “Urban Social Patterns,” in A Country Study: Philippines, ed. Ronald E. Dolan (Washington DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi- bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+ph0064%29 319 Chester L. Hunt, “Social Values and Organization,” in A Country Study: Philippines, ed. Ronald E. Dolan (Washington DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi- bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+ph0062%29

©DLIFLC | 74 Parents, children (including unmarried adult sons and daughters), grandparents, uncles, aunts, and in-laws often live together in the same household. They provide care and companionship for each other. Extended families are becoming more common in cities than in the rural areas. In rural areas, families can build relatively inexpensive housing near family members, reducing the need for everyone to live in a single dwelling.320

Exchange 45: Is this your entire family?

Soldier: Is this your entire family? eeto baa aang boo-ong paameelyaa ninyo?

Local: Yes. opo

Even when Filipino families have been separated by circumstance, their families have remained strongly linked. It has often been the case that the head of the household or other family member has to move to a different region or overseas to find a job to support the family. Thousands of Filipino migrant workers who have been separated for years from their families in the Philippines have continued to send their earned income home to them. Overseas remittances have in fact been a “major source of foreign exchange” for the country.321

Economic realities are quickly changing the face of the traditional Filipino family. Most women now work outside the home. In some cases, they are the primary or sole breadwinner for the family. More husbands are becoming “stay-at-home dads.” More families are single parent families due to the large number of Filipinos who migrate overseas to work. With 70% of the overseas migrants being women, this has lead to an increase in other family types, including blended families and families headed by fathers. If both parents work overseas, some children are regarded as “seasonal orphans.” This phenomenon has led to a change in the definition of family in the Philippines.322, 323

320 Marriage and Family Encyclopedia, “Marriage: Cultural Aspects: The Philippines,” 2011, http://family.jrank.org/pages/1277/Philippines.html 321 Worldbank.org, Bangko Sentral Pilipinas, “Statistical Management of Overseas Filipino Workers’ Remittances: Present Practices and Future Direction,” 25 January 2005, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/4dGuerrero.ppt#524,3,Slide 3 322 Honey A. Carandang, “What is Happening to the Filipino Family?,” Daily Philippine Inquirer, 30 April 2008, http://showbizandstyle.inquirer.net/lifestyle/lifestyle/view/20080430-133703/What-is-happening-to- the-Filipino-family 323 Remate, “The Filipino Family, Aging and the Changing Society,” 15 December 2010, http://www.remate.ph/2010/12/the-filipino-family-aging-and-the-changing-society/

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Status of Women, Elderly, and Children Women Although Filipino families are patriarchal, women have considerable social power and typically make household decisions without consulting men.324 Women usually manage the family finances and often work fulltime outside the home, even while raising children and running the household. In such circumstances, members of the extended family are often available to help the working mother with childcare. Familial authority is more a function of age than of gender, and decisions that affect the family are based on a consensus of all its members.325

Exchange 46: Are these your children?

Soldier: Are these your children? eeto baa aang mangaa aanaak ninyo?

Local: Yes. opo

Within society in general, hold a relatively high level of status.326 They have equal rights with men under the law. Women have often held important professional positions within Philippine society. In government, they have been employed as cabinet members, senators, Supreme Court justices, and presidents. Even though men are more often the recipients of high-level jobs, women in the Philippines have many opportunities for education and professional careers.327

Elderly The elderly in the Philippines traditionally live in large, extended families where family members care for them.328

324 Everyculture.com, “Republic of the Philippines: Marriage, Family and Kinship,” http://www.everyculture.com/No-Sa/The-Philippines.html 325 Living in the Philippines, “Marital and Parental Roles/Expectations of Culture,” 2008, http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philculture/marital.html 326 Speech, “The Changing Roles and Status of Women in the Philippines.” 32nd Women’s Day at City, Philippines, 8 March 2010, http://www.scribd.com/doc/22552757/The-Changing-Roles-and-Status- of-Women-in-the-Philippines 327 Chester L. Hunt, “The Role and Status of the Filipina,” in A Country Study: Philippines, Ronald E Dolan, ed. (Washington DC Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+ph0065%29 328 Philip Jacobson and Christina Rosales, “Filipinos Turn to Nursing Homes for Elder Care,” 1 June 2010, http://www.immigrantconnect.org/?p=4810

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Exchange 47: Does your family live here?

Does your family live naakaateeraa baa aang paameelyaa Soldier: here? ninyo reeto?

Local: Yes. opo

Grandparents are respected for their age, and parents teach young children to be respectful toward family elders. Within the family home, where all may be living together, parents model respect toward the elderly for their children, because even older adults are expected to show respect to their elderly parents. Even after children marry, at least one of them (perhaps the one in the best financialshape) remains available to care for his or her aging parents.329 Often this role is taken on by one of the daughters. If there are young children in the household, grandparents look after them. This arrangement creates a mutually beneficial network because working parents have family members to provide childcare, and aging parents are enmeshed in family life, not lacking for companionship.330

Filipino families are clearly child-centered. Married couples do not truly become a family until the birth of a child. Because parents are considered to “know best,” their decisions must always be upheld even if they run counter to the wishes of the children. Children are rarely consulted about decisions directly affecting their lives.331

Children are also thought to be the property of their families. While considered to be “gifts from God,” they often represent an additional source of labor or support for the family. As such, children are regarded as important and valuable resources for the Filipino family.332

329 Camperspoint, Philippine Family Culture, “Common Family Traits,” 2005, http://www.camperspoint.com/article.php3?id_article=235 330 Everyculture.com, “Republic of the Philippines: Marriage, Family and Kinship,” http://www.everyculture.com/No-Sa/The-Philippines.html 331 Michelle Ong, “The Role of the Family in Philippine Society and in the Protection of Children’s Rights,” Program on Psychosocial Trauma and Human Rights, Center for Integrative and Development Studies, University of the Philippines, May 2001, http://www.childprotection.org.ph/monthlyfeatures/jun2k1b.doc 332 Michelle Ong, “The Role of the Family in Philippine Society and in the Protection of Children’s Rights,” Program on Psychosocial Trauma and Human Rights, Center for Integrative and Development Studies, University of the Philippines, May 2001, http://www.childprotection.org.ph/monthlyfeatures/jun2k1b.doc

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Children, both boys and girls, are indulged in Filipino families, continually surrounded by family members. Extended families are typically very close, and parents might send their child to stay for extended periods with aunts or grandparents, if those relatives live outside the family home. Within the home, children are in the company of siblings, parents, aunts, uncles, or other members of the family. Babies, seen as vulnerable and in need of protection from any kind of danger or trauma, are seldom left alone. Mothers hold their babies as much as possible and typically breastfeed them whenever the child is hungry, often until2 years of age. If the mother is not holding the infant, it is likely that another family member is taking on this role. When a young child is upset or in discomfort, older siblings, parents, or other relatives will readily console the child and tend to its needs. Few demands, if any, are made on young children.333, 334

As children grow, they absorb the pattern of staying closely connected to other family members.

Exchange 48: Do you have any brothers?

Do you have any maay mangaa kaapaateed baa kaayo? Soldier: brothers?

Local: Yes. opo

Children are believed to be weak, needing protection, born with clean slates, and without morals or goals (tabula rasa). The family has the responsibility of instilling the child with those aspects of the culture that will make him/her a responsible member of society.335 When children are old enough to learn, they are of course taught to show deference and respect to their elders.336 Parents teach them to show respect to older siblings and to refrain from fighting or speaking arrogantly to them. Children also learn to ask for permission when they want something, or before they can do things such as leave the home. Older siblings learn to care for younger ones and assume responsibility over their

333 Everyculture.com, “Republic of the Philippines: Socialization,” http://www.everyculture.com/No- Sa/The-Philippines.html 334 Living in the Philippines, “Infancy/Toddlerhood and Harmony,” 2008, http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philculture/infancy_harmony.html 335 Michelle Ong, “The Role of the Family in Philippine Society and in the Protection of Children’s Rights,” Program on Psychosocial Trauma and Human Rights, Center for Integrative and Development Studies, University of the Philippines, May 2001. 336 Living in the Philippines, “Marital and Parental Roles/Expectations of Culture,” 2008, http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philculture/marital.html

©DLIFLC | 78 well-being in the parents’ absence. As children grow up, tight bonds with their family remain in place, and traditional parents neither expect nor require them to move out of the family home before they marry.337

Marriage, Divorce, and Birth Marriage Young Tagalog people and Filipinos in general, marry in their 20s. It is considered preferable to acquire education or job training before marrying, to prepare a foundation for supporting a family. Many couples remain engaged for a few years before they marry in order to become established financially, and to create support for the marriage and associated family members.338 Most Filipinos who marry begin having children around a year later. The presence of children in the marriage establishes a stronger tie between the families of the newly married couple. Children also represent good fortune in a marriage and are treated accordingly.339

Through marriage, the Filipino extended family branches into a much larger network. relatives of the new relations by marriage are automatically included, and the family just keeps growing. Marriage creates new kinship ties for several generations.340 Loyalty becomes the foundation prized by the extended family created through marriage. The existence and predictability of such a base means that family members can rely on each other for help and support.

Divorce For centuries, divorce laws have fluctuated in the Philippines. Before the Spanish arrived, divorce and remarriage were legal. After the Spanish colonization, the laws of Spain, influenced by the Catholic Church, took effect. It was impossible to divorce and remarry, although a marriage could be annulled on certain grounds. Since that time, divorce laws have either been liberalized or toughened, depending on who ruled the country.341, 342

In modern times, Catholicism has remained the prevailing religion in the Tagalog area of the Philippines and throughout most of the country. Its influence on marriage and divorce

337 Camperspoint, Philippine Family Culture, “Common Family Traits,” 2005, http://www.camperspoint.com/article.php3?id_article=235 338 Everyculture.com, “Culture of the Philippines: Marriage, Family and Kinship,” 2007, http://www.everyculture.com/No-Sa/The-Philippines.html 339 Living in the Philippines, “Marital and Parental Roles/Expectations of Culture,” 2008, http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philculture/marital.html 340 Living in the Philippines, “The Elemental Philippine Family,” 2008, http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philculture/philippine_articles/elemental_family.html 341 Chester L. Hunt, “The Role and Status of the Filipina,” in A Country Study: Philippines, ed. Ronald E. Dolan (Washington D.C: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1991), http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi- bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+ph0065%29 342 Asiatour.com, “Philippines/Travel, Information/Travel, Formalities/Divorce,” 1 August 2007, http://www.asiatour.com/philippines/e-02trav/ep-tra10_e.htm

©DLIFLC | 79 is strong, and the Church’s prohibition on divorce is upheld by the Philippine government. Some changes have been made in this area by the 1987 Family Code, which became effective in 1988. According to this new Family Code, divorce is not legal in the Philippines between Filipinos. In 2010, House Bill 1799 was introduced which would allow divorce. A decision on that bill has not yet been made.343 If, however, a Filipino is married to a foreign person whose country allows divorce, the alien spouse may get divorced abroad, and such a divorce is legally binding for both parties in the Philippines.344, 345

Under certain circumstances, annulment or legal separation is legal in the Philippines. The difference between the two categories is that a couple in an annulled marriage may remarry, whereas a legally separated couple may not.346

Annulment increased by 40% between 2001 and 2010.347 The Office of the Solicitor General has also reported that 40% of young people in the Philippines now favor legal divorce.348 The popularity of marriage as an institution has been declining among women as well as men. More young people are now willing to live together in a relationship without marrying.349

Birth and Birth Ceremonies After a child is born, the mother typically keeps the child in the home and does not take them outside until 3–4 weeks have passed. The child’s first outing is usually to the doctor’s office. The second is to see a priest, who will informally baptize or simply bless the child. A formal baptism may be postponed until the child is between 1 and 3 months of age. By this time, the parents will be ready for a large baptism party, which nearly as important in the culture as the traditional feast provided to celebrate a wedding.350

343 Newsdesk.org, “Proposed Divorce Bill Stirs Controversy in Philippines,” 13 August 2010, http://newsdesk.org/2010/08/proposed-divorce-bill-stirs-controversy-in-philippines/ 344 Asiatour.com, “Philippines/Travel, Information/Travel, Formalities/Divorce,” 1 August 2007, http://www.asiatour.com/philippines/e-02trav/ep-tra10_e.htm 345 Living in the Philippines, “Philippine Family Code,” 2008, http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philippine_family_code1.html 346 Olivia H. Tripon, “Women’s Rights in the Philippines Today,” Philippine Human Rights Reporting Project, 11 January 2008, http://www.peacewomen.org/assets/file/Resources/Academic/HR_WomenRightsPI_Tripon_2008.pdf 347 The China Post, “Filipino Marriage Annulments Increase by 40 percent: Report,” 28 March 2011, http://www.chinapost.com.tw/asia/philippines/2011/03/28/296330/Filipino-marriage.htm 348 The Manila Times, “Annulments Rising in Catholic Philippines – Government Survey,” 14 February 2008, http://archives.manilatimes.net/national/2008/feb/14/yehey/top_stories/20080214top6.html 349 Lindy Williams, Midea Kabamalan, and Nimfa Ogena, “Cohabitation in the Philippines: Attitudes and Behaviors among Young Women and Men,” Journal of Marriage and Family, 69, no. 5 (December 2007): 1244–1256. 350 Living in the Philippines, “Infancy/Toddlerhood and Harmony,” 2008, http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philculture/infancy_harmony.html

©DLIFLC | 80 Before the baby goes through the baptism ceremony, he or she receives a Christian name that the parents have decided on. The parents also choose the baby’s godparents before the baptism. Godparents assist with the expenses for the baptism celebration, and help to care for the child as he or she grows up.351 They become part of the family, an extension of the social network that surrounds and indulges the child.

Exchange 49: Did you grow up here?

Soldier: Did you grow up here? deeto baa kaayo loomaakee?

Local: Yes. opo

For Filipino families, whether a newborn child is male or female generally does not matter. Girls as well as boys are cherished and loved.352, 353

Naming Conventions In the ancient Malay culture, the lineage of both the father and mother were equally important. This cultural base influences the “bilateral extended kinship system” that exists in the Philippines today, and it is reflected in names.354 Among Filipinos, a newborn child’s name may include a family name from both the mother’s and father’s side of the family. Children at birth receive a first name, a middle name, and a last name (the family name). Often, it is the mother’s maiden name that becomes the middle name assigned to the child.355 Children can also have lifelong nicknames used by family and friends.356

351 Lily Rose R. Tope, Cultures of the World: Philippines, (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Publishers, 2005). 352 Kua Wongboonsin and Vipan Prachuabmoh Ruffolo, “Sex Preference for Children in Thailand and Some Other South-East Asian Countries,” Asia-Pacific Population Journal, 10 no. 3 (1995): 43–62. http://www.un.org/Depts/escap/pop/journal/v10n3a3.htm 353 Kana Fuse. “Variations in Attitudinal Gender Preferences for Children Across 50 Less-Developed Countries. Demographic Research, 23 (November 2010): 1031–1048, http://www.demographic- research.org/Volumes/Vol23/36/23-36.pdf 354 Living in the Philippines, “Family Structure,” 2008, http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philculture/family.html 355 Living in the Philippines, “Family Structure,” 2008, http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philculture/family.html 356 Barbara Mercedes Posadas, The , (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 48.

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Chapter 6: Assessments

1. The extended family that forms the core of Tagalog family life does not reflect the family model of other ethnic groups in the Philippines. False

The extended family is the center of life, not only for the Tagalog people, but also for other ethnic groups in the Philippines. It is a “social imperative” that family members within different ethnic groups in the Philippines extend their loyalty and support to each other.

2. Women in the Philippines typically make household decisions without consulting men. True

Although Filipino families are patriarchal, women have considerable social power. Women usually manage the family finances and often work fulltime outside the home, even while raising children and running the household.

3. In the Philippines, the role of being available to care for one’s aging parents is typically taken on by one of the sons. False

Within the family home where all may be living together, parents model respect for their children, because even older adults are expected to show respect to elderly parents. Even after children marry, at least one of them remains available to care for his or her aging parents. Often this role is taken on by one of the daughters.

4. For financial reasons, many couples remain engaged for a few years before they marry. True

It is considered preferable to acquire education or job training before marrying, to prepare a foundation for supporting a family. Many couples remain engaged for a few years before they marry in order to become established financially and create a support for the marriage and associated family members.

5. When a Filipino child is born, only the father’s name becomes part of the child’s name. False

In the ancient Malay culture, the lineage of both the father and mother were equally important. Often, the mother’s maiden family name becomes the middle name assigned to the child.

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Final Assessment

1. The ethnic Tagalogs are descendents of the Malay people. 2. Mount Pinatubo is an extinct volcano. 3. The Sulu Sea is famous as a former pirate stronghold. 4. The U.S. government helped the Filipinos gain their independence from Spain. 5. The culture of the Ifugao people developed economically around growing tobacco. 6. Many Filipinos have quit the Catholic Church because of its policies against birth control. 7. Before the Spanish arrived, Islam was the unifying religion of the island chain later known as the Philippines. 8. The establishment of Christianity in the Philippines did not signal a clean break with their religious past. 9. Speaking local languages to gain the people’s confidence was one method the Catholic clergy used to convert the local population. 10. In schools, children are required to participate in a limited amount of religious education. 11. The Tagalog people were early opponents of Spanish colonization and supporters of Philippine independence. 12. Visitors new to Philippine culture should bow when they meet local women, practicing the standard way to greet. 13. In the Philippines, making strong eye contact with people you meet is considered good manners. 14. In the Philippines, local people typically eat by using a spoon in the right hand, and a fork in the left. 15. The national holiday known as Bataan Day commemorates the World War II surrender of Allied forces to the Japanese on the Bataan Peninsula. 16. At an institutional level, graft and bribery exist within all of Philippine society. 17. Classical music concerts are not popular entertainment in Manila. 18. In the Philippines, public schools are often considered better sources of education than private schools. 19. In the Philippines, many medical students are changing their majors to nursing because of high international demand for nurses. 20. Traveling by motorized bikes with sidecars is a reliable way to get around in Manila. 21. The area of the country where land tenancy (sharecropping) was most strongly implemented was in northern Luzon. 22. One of the nation’s medical schools is addressing the shortfall of medical staff in the countryside by requiring its students to practice in rural areas. 23. Overcrowded classrooms are the norm in rural Philippine schools. 24. In times of social unrest, the military deploys to the cities while armed village leaders are charged with keeping the countryside calm. 25. Authorities have blamed anti-government insurgents for illegal logging that has destabilized the environment in some areas.

©DLIFLC | 83 26. To be a member of an extended family in the Philippines, one must share ties based on blood, marriage, or adoption by the family. 27. Women have equal rights with men under the law in the Philippines. 28. According to Filipino family tradition, children are indulged and continually surrounded by family members. 29. After the Spanish arrived, laws concerning marriage and divorce in the Philippines became more liberal and tolerant. 30. Spanish custom in the past influenced the Filipino tradition of combining both mother’s and father’s family name into a combined surname.

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Further Resources

Colin-Jones, Graham, and Yvonne Colin-Jones. Philippines-Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs and Culture. Minneapolis: Kuperard, 2008.

Roces, Alfredo, and Grace Roces. Culture Shock! Philippines: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2009.

Kerkvliet, Benedict J. Tria. Everyday Politics in the Philippines: Class and Status Relations in a Central Luzon Village. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2002.

Northern Illinois University. “Philippine Festivals.” n.d. http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/Cynthia/festivals/philippine_festivals_fs.htm

Apostol, Virgil J. . “The Healing Arts of the Philippines.” n.d. http://www.metamind.net/apostol.html

PhilippineFiestas.com. “Luzon Festivals-The Best Festivals in Luzon!” 18 March 2009. http://www.philippinefiestas.com/best-festivals/luzon-festivals-the-best-festivals-in- luzon/

Tagaloglang.com. “Learn Tagalog Online with Tagolog Lang.” n.d. http://tagaloglang.com/

Tagaloglang.com. “Filipino Music.” n.d. http://tagaloglang.com/Filipino-Music/

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