This article was downloaded by: 10.3.98.104 On: 25 Sep 2021 Access details: subscription number Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: 5 Howick Place, London SW1P 1WG, UK

The Babylonian World

Gwendolyn Leick

Land And Land Use

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 Lucia Mori Published online on: 08 Aug 2007

How to cite :- Lucia Mori. 08 Aug 2007, Land And Land Use from: The Babylonian World Routledge Accessed on: 25 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203946237.ch3

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR DOCUMENT

Full terms and conditions of use: https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/legal-notices/terms

This Document PDF may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproductions, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 U Holocene, boundingthelower alluvialterraceataheightofuptotwometres.The Descending towardsthevalleybottomaretwolevelsof terracingdatingtotheearly presence ofgypsumcrustscoveringlargeareas(Geyerand Monchambert is scarce,dueontheonehandtodistancefrom riverandontheotherto These arecoveredmainlybythegrassysteppealsopresent ontheplateau;cultivation Pleistocene terracesdevelopfromeighttotenmetresabove thewatersofEuphrates. unsuited toagriculture(Geyer between thesteppeplateau,withitslimestoneandespeciallymarlygypsumsoils, area alongsidetheEuphratesitself.Thelandscapeischaracterizedbyacleardistinction more orlessindependent‘cells’(Sanlaville Deir ez-Zor.Floodplainsopenupinsomesectionsofthevalley,formingaseries relatively narrow,fromfivetoeightkilometres,increasinginwidththesouth depth rangingfromafewtensofmetrestooverhundredmetres.Itsvalleyis to theIraqitownsofHitandRamadinsouth,cutsintoaridplateaua diverse potentialfortheexploitationofnaturalresources. fertile andproductiveifsuitablyirrigateddrained.Thesetwocontextsoffervery the BalikhandKhabur(Sanlaville settlement andagricultureisdependentonthewatersofriveritstributaries, middle Euphratesvalleywindsthoughanaridplateau,wherethepotentialfor in recentyearsfortheconstructionofdams,andHalabiya) (Sanlaville where thevalleytakesformofagorge(QaraQozak,Tabqa, unsurprisinglyselected Ashara andHariri(Geyer1990: at AbuLeil,neartheconfluencewithKhabur,and thenfurtherdownstreamat found, fromnorthtosouth,nearRaqqa,attheconfluenceofEuphratesandBalikh and Monchambert The middlestretchoftheEuphrates,fromTurkish–Syrianborderinnorth A seriesofalluvialterracesmakeupthecomplexgeomorphology ofthisarea(Geyer the landallowsforexploitationofsubstantialruralareas,alargepart nlike Mesopotamia’sloweralluvialplainwhere,ifsuitablyirrigatedandmanaged, LAND ANDUSE 1987: The middleEuphratesvalley 293 THE ENVIRONMENT CHAPTER THREE ; Margueron 1985 68). Alternatingwiththesearenarrowersections Lucia Mori 1985: ᇹᇺᇹ : 296 39 ), andtherivervalleyswiththeirsiltysoils, 20), theonlyperennialwatercoursesin 1988: 1985: 21 49 –22). Themainfloodplainsare ): inproximitytotheplateau, 2000: 1987: 101 297 ). ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 Mediterranean climatetoacontinentaldesert(Wirth As thedistancefromMediterraneanincreases, there isatransitionfrom and semi-sedentary,wholived intheregion;however,alsoplateauareas, valley representedthemainpoleofattractionfor communities, bothsedentary of theriverusingirrigationsystemstocultivatefertile valleylands.Theriver this entailstheneedinmoderntimes–andancient times–toexploitthewaters 88 factor determiningthepotentialforagriculturewithout irrigation(Wilkinson that allowsfordryfarming.Theannualvariabilityofprecipitation, anotherimportant is locatedsouthoftheisohyet settlements (GeyerandMonchambert is resolved;thisareais,infact,thatwiththehighestconcentrationofancient for settlementandagriculturalexploitationaslongtheproblemofwatersupply only marginallyaffectedbyriverfloods(Sanlaville zone forbothagricultureandsettlement.TheHoloceneterrace,ontheotherhand, is subjecttofloodingwhentheEuphratesinspate,andthereforeahazardous Monchambert water tendstostagnateand,dueevaporation,salinizethesoil(Geyerand lying zones(suchaswaterbasinsornichesnearancientmeandersoftheriver),where These areasaregenerallysuitableforagriculture,withtheexceptionoflowest- latter datestohistoricaltimesandcloselyfollowsthepathtakenbyriverbed. Climate conditionsarecharacterizedbythearidcontinental climateoftheplateau. –89), isextremelyhigh,andthenumberofrainydaysper yearisfairlylow.All Figure 3.1 1987: The middleEuphratesvalleytoday,fromtheruinsofDouraEuropos 298 ). Theterracebelongingtothehistoricalperiod,however, — LuciaMori (photo: LuciaMori). 200 mm ofannualrainfall,theminimumamount 1987: 40 304 –305 1985: ) (Figure3.1). 22), istheareamostsuited 1971: 104 ). Thisregion 1990 : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 at thebeginningofsecondmillennium and onhowthelandwasexploitedbymixedpopulationthatinhabitedthisarea substantial sourceofinformationontheenvironmentmiddleEuphratesvalley the kingdomwasdivided,andothermembersofroyalfamily.Theserepresenta correspondence betweenthecity’srulersandgovernorsofdistrictsintowhich of Babylon. be sustained,‘thebanksoftheEuphrates’(ah plateau, whereasthelatterrelatedtoonlyregionwhere stablesettlementcould closely linkedgeographicallytothe‘highcountry’,inotherwordssteppeland palace. Thisistheonlyarea whereplannedagricultureispossible.Theprimary are determinedbythepresenceofwells. control islessstable,thoughessentialforpastoralism, thepathsfollowedbywhich its areasofpasture,andisconceivedasaterritoryexternal totheurbansphere,whose tion oflandismadepossiblebyirrigation.The Palace atMari,datingtotheeighteenthcentury number ofdocumentsarethetabletsfoundinarchivesZimri-Lim’sRoyal the mostimportantfortheirrelevance,textualtypology,wealthofinformationand exploitation foragriculturecomesfromcuneiformdocumentarysources.Amongthese, Direct evidenceontheancientterritoryofmiddleEuphratesvalleyandits were usedforcomplexlong-termexploitation(Bernbeck past consideredmarginalintermsoftheirpotentialforsettlementandagriculture, The Tell Hariri,wasanimportanturbancentrealreadyduringthethirdmillennium na were definedaccordingtothegeneralcategoriesof‘beduinssteppe’(LÚ populations which,together,formedthesocialsystemofkingdomMari.These The textsindicateaprofoundinterrelationshipbetweenthesemi-nomadicandsedentary area withconstraininggeographicalconditions,survivingfarlongerthantheformer. use ofthesteppesand,overlongterm,provedtobebettersuitedlifeinan the landdifferently,hadgreatermobilitylinkedtopastoralismandmademoreintense historical periods,andatribalcommunity.Thelattersettledinvillages,exploited different communities:anurbanone,whichdetainedpoliticalpoweronlyinsome settlement patternsintheEuphratesvalleywerecharacterizedbycoexistenceof socio-political andterritorialorganizationofMesopotamia’sloweralluvialplains, temple andpalace‘organizations’remainedfromtheoutsetmainpolesof second millennium became therulingcapitalofmiddleEuphratesregionatbeginning as acommercialjunctionbetweenLowerMesopotamiaandWesternSyria.Mari The tabletsfoundinthearchiveshere,over The valley(h Unlike Babylon,thecradleofurbanrevolutioninwhichcitywithits MES ah ˘ ˇ na¯rim, theriverbank,isareawheresettlementandagricultural exploita- THE EVIDENCEFROMANCIENTTEXTS ˇa na-wi-i-im ˇa s ˘ amqum BC ) isthevitalterritoryforsedentarypopulationand forthe ) and‘menofthetowns’(LÚ.MES , andwaseventuallydefeateddestroyedbyHammurabi THE RURALLANDSCAPE — Landandlanduse 41 BC ˘ Purattim . 20,000, BC nawûm . Theancientsite,nearthemodern ). is theplateau,andespecially mainly consistoflettersand 2 1993). ˇ ˇa a-la-ni). ˇa s 1 The former BC ˘ h a- , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 ˇupa to thefields. of theriverwiththeirstagnantwaters( for cultivation(usallum Secondary channels(PA allowing watertoflowtheagriculturaldistrictsbygravity (Durand respect tothevalley,withbanksconstructedbyheaping uplargequantitiesofearth, term channelled. ThesewereindicatedbytheSumerogramÍD = Euphrates, intowhichpartofthewatersEuphrates andtheKhaburwere different types.Thefirstlevelconsistedofthemainchannels runningparalleltothe structures andonthefields(dykes,sluices,barrages). onthese were abletocontain,channelormitigatetheimpact of spatesandfloods through whichtotransportwaterfields,orstoreitas muchaspossible),andwhich structures tomakeupfortheshortageofrainfall(channelsandcollectionbasins becomes dangerous. summer drought;inspring,bycontrast,whenthecropshavegerminated,flooding prepare fieldsforcultivation,whereasatthistimetheriversstillsuffereffectsof unsuited tothefarmingcyclesincewaterisneededatbeginningofautumn damage cropsonthelowerterracesofrivervalleys.Thisperiodicfloodingis sometimes sufficienttocauseviolentflashfloodswhich,ifnotadequatelycontrolled, cause anincreaseintheamountofwaterriversandwadisthisarea.Theseare winter andspring)themeltingofsnowsinTaurusmountains(spring), especially inthesummer,arefollowedbyperiodswhichrains(lateautumn– of waterinthearea.InmiddleEuphratesvalley,periodsintensedrought, ability toexploitassuccessfullypossiblethelow,andaboveallvariable,availability and concernfortherulers,whoseagriculturalproductiondependedessentiallyon possible inthekingdomofMari.Thisrepresentedonemainsourcescare The irrigationnetworkplayedavitalroleinmakingstableagriculturalexploitation s context inwhichtheywerelocated(Figure into differentcultivatedzones,definedterminologicallyaccordingtothegeographical describe thevariousgeographicalcontexts.Thetextsindicatethatitwassubdivided interest inthisareaisreflectedthegreaterspecificityofterminologyusedto ( areas wherethelesssaltygroundwaterallowedthistobeexploitedbydiggingwells and mostofthecultivatedfields,organizedintoirrigationdistricts( farming, andarableareascouldbecultivatedintheirvicinity. by wadis( there werefruitorchardsandvegetablegardens,wateredbyhand( This wasalsothemostdenselypopulatedzone,where,inareasclosetotowns, daluwa The irrigationnetworkdocumentedintheMaritexts consistedofchannels Water management,therefore,involveddesigningandconstructinghydraulic The Holoceneterraceswerecharacterizedbythepresenceofirrigationchannels Climbing towardstheedgeofplateau,cropscouldbesowninareascrossed ¯lûm ra ¯kibum ¯tum in Akkadian)alongtheriverwereexploitedforpastureand,suitableareas, nib’um lands) (Durand , literally‘rider’,probablyreferringtotheirphysicalaspect, raisedwith fields, wateredintermittentlybyseasonalrivers),especiallyinthose THE IRRIGATIONSYSTEM fields). Thesecouldbecharacterizedbyabandonedmeanders 5 atappum) 1990 — LuciaMori ). 3 led offthelargechannels,takingwaterdirectly 42 balı ) thatweresometimesusedforfish ¯tum 3. 2). Thehistoricalterraces(‘low’area, na¯rum, andbytheAkkadian salh 1998: eqlum uga ˘ um area). 580– ¯rum 581). ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 the areaofirrigationdistricts,while,aroundancienttown, orchardswerecultivated(redrawn the riverdarkgreyregionismeadowandpastureland area;thelightgreyregionis Figure 3.2 A mapofthemiddleEuphratesvalleyshowingdifferentcultivated zones:along from anoriginalpublishedinFlorilegiumMarianum — Landandlanduse 43 III: 538 ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 found, correspondingroughly totheperiodbetweenmid-Septemberand mid- receipts datedtheseventh,eighthandninthmonthof thelocalcalendarhavebeen overseers ofthe‘ploughs’atbeginningsowing season(ARMXXVII individuals makingupeachfarmingteammaytherefore havebeenlower. other letters,thelackofmanpowerisfrequentlylamented, andthenumberof as asuitablenumberforeach‘plough’,however,inthis sametext,andinaseriesof to theindicationsgiveninaletter( milling foodrationsforthefarmingteamitself.These numberscorrespondroughly GU.ZA.LÁ (LÚ ( plough. Acatalogueofrationsspecifyingthefunctionmembersaplough technical tasks,linkedtothevarioustypesofploughingandsowingwithseeder- rations justlikeothermembersoftheteam.Thefarmingteamscarriedoutmore animals. Eachteamhadoxentopulltheplough;theseanimalswereassignedfood The fieldsinirrigationdistricts,uga (Kupper who closes’,asortofspecializedtechnicianwhoseskillsweresoughtafterandprized network wascarriedoutbyaparticularofficer,named water todrainaway,loweringitslevel.Thetechnicalsupervisionoftheirrigation ( The pressureexertedbyfloodsonthebankswasloweredwithasystemofsluices maintenance wasthereforeneeded,togetherwithdevelopedhydraulictechnology. and carriedlargeamountsofsedimentwhichmightobstructthechannels.Constant undermine thesestructures.Seasonalfloodscausedbreachesinthechannels’banks, of waterreachedthefieldsandtowithstandanynaturalcalamitiesthatmight (lit. ‘hewhogoestothefield’),eachofwhomhadaspecificrole, term ‘ploughs’(GIS preparation ofthefieldstobesownatbeginningautumn. of theharvest,butmostimportantfarmingcycle,thatbarley,beganwith calendar beganinthemonthof ence ofacentralizedpowerbasedonaneconomyredistributivetype.Theofficial around thecerealcultivationcycle.Cerealproductionwasfundamentalforsubsist- within theroyaladministration,executionofagriculturallabourwasorganized to threshinggrounds. took placeduringthesummer,afterwintercrophadbeenharvestedandtransported water flowedproperly.Thiscouldinvolvealargenumberofworkers,andusually beds ofthechannels(describedintextswithverb erretum) (Klengel1980 ARM The palaceadministrationassignedquantitiesofland to besownandseedthe The waterflowwascontrolledandmanaged,bothtoensurethatthecorrectamount The cultivationofroyallandswasmanagedbyfarmingteamsdesignatedwiththe Among themostfrequentmaintenanceoperationsisseasonalclearanceof mus ˇaqqû) IX 1988: 26) listsfourleadersofoxen(LÚ.MES guzalûm); twomillers(MÍ ; fiveweeders(LÚ 98; Finet AGRICULTURAL EXPLOITATION ˇ .APIN); theseweremadeupofindividualsdefinedas : 82, fn.32;Durand1990: 1990: Cereal cultivation — LuciaMori ura ka 147 ¯simu ¯h ˘ ARM ¯rum –150 um ¯ te’ina ); oneoverseer,lit.‘carrierofthethrone’(LÚ , March–April,coincidingwiththeripening , werecerealcultivationlands 44 ). XXVII ¯tum ); thelatterprobablyhadtaskof 1), whichmentionsfifteenworkers ˇ 132 kullizu ), whichallowedpartofthe se ¯kerum ¯kerum ˘ h at ¯ . ); twowaterersofoxen at . um in thetexts,lit.‘he ) toensurethatthe 4 and ofworking par excellence; a ¯lik eqlim ¯lik 2); Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 mainly includedriverfloods,foraysbywildanimals( had tobeprotectedfrompotentialthreatsuntilitcouldharvested;thesehazards later thanthenormalsowingseason( a sicklecouldharvestanareaequivalentto first halfofthepastcentury,accordingtowhichalabourerreapingwithhelp the administration.TakingasareferencepointfigurecalculatedforIraqin 37, thesurfaceareaofone ‘ploughs’ toavailablemanpower.However,accordingevidencefrom reaped byeachindividuallabourerdependedontheratiooflandworked the populationcontributedtoharvestingroyalfields.Theamountoflandbe origins, dependingonavailabilityandrequirements.Certainly,alongsidepalacestaff, order toavoidtheproblemsdescribedabove.Themanpoweremployedwasofvarying them. and thebeatingofgroundbypopulationanyavailablelivestocktofrighten the raisingofwaterlevelsinsecondarychannelshopecreatingabarrier, the expedientsadoptedinanattempttostoptheirspread,textsdocument 54), andassumingthe Der, southofMari),basicallyalongtheentirecoursemiddleEuphrates. district ontheKhabur,butalsoforDur-Yahdun-Lim,TerqaandDer(thesouthern tration, thecultivationofsesame(S Although wintercerealsrepresentedtheagriculturalstaple forthepalaceadminis- established anddocumentedinthetextsbyeighteenth century not knowwhensesamewasintroducedtoMari,butitscultivation wascertainlywell- as threshing. in previousmonthsweresettled.Thecultivationofsesamebeganatthesametime of transportingtheharvesttothreshingfloors,andforthreshing. in thepalaceland.Tothisweshouldaddtimeneededforsubsequenttasks labourer wouldhaveneededabouteighteendaystocompletehispartoftheharvest contrast totheMediterraneanareawherethiscultivation iswellattested. valley, likelowerMesopotamia,isunsuitableforthe cultivation ofolivetrees,in a stablevegetableoil,suitableforstorageandredistribution, asthemiddleEuphrates of semi-nomadicpopulations tousetheselandsforpastureandadhoccultivation. cultivation ofvalleylandsduringthesummermonthsinterfered withtheopportunity of differenttypescereal,emmer-wheatand and locusts. Thedangerrepresentedbylocusts(definedinthetextswithterms the needtoprotectcropsfromwilddonkeys,gazellesandbuffalo)and,aboveall, at least20 ant. Thistookplaceinthehotseason,sinceplant requires asoiltemperatureof Particular circumstances,suchasabundantrainfall,couldallowforcultivation The taskofharvestingwasheavy,andhadtobecarriedoutfairlypromptlyin December. Once theharvesthadbeenaccumulatedonthreshingfloors, thedebtscontracted . s ars . ar) ismentionedfrequentlyintheletters,particularforQattunan ° C inordertogerminate(Powell1991: 8 5 Alongside barley,thesealsodocumentthecultivationofsmalleramounts ikû The cultivationofsesame to beequivalenttheBabylonian ikû — Landandlanduse seems torepresentaconventionalreferencepointfor ˇ E.GIS ARM ˇ .Ì =s 45 0.05 XXVII ˇamas ˇah s ˘ ha (200 162 ˇs la ˇammu ¯tum ARM 2). Aftergermination,thecrop ). Sesamewasgrowntoproduce ¯ ( ) wasalsoextremelyimport- ARM m XXVII 2 ) perday(Charles ikû XXIII of 6 BC and 3 . However,the 123 ,600 ARM 44 ). 9 7 m mention Among XXVII We do 2 1990: , each erbum 6 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 the smallgrovesoftrees,especially poplars,furtherawayfromtownsneartheirrigation the area,oftenpresentedtorulerasgifts. Euphrates andKhaburupstream;theseareasortofwhitish tubers,stillfoundin Saggaratum seeds (kikkire to theplantsgrownintheseplotswerecarriedoutby‘gardeners’(NU.GIS included inthegenericcategoryof‘specialists’LÚ.MES cultivation, andwerecountedindependentlyofthemembersfarmingteams nukaribbum). Thesedidnotbelongtothepalacefarmingteamresponsibleforcereal with thetermkirûm destined forgrowingvegetables;theareasdevotedtoarboricultureweredescribed The areasaroundlargersettlements,definedas transhumance oftheflocks. of thevalleylandsevenduringsummer,andthuscameintoconflictwith establishment ofthistypecultivationbyacentralizedpowerinvolvedtheoccupation the stubbleofwintercereals,assummerpasturehadaneconomicimportance.The agricultural andpastoraleconomy,thepossibilityofusingthesefieldsfilledwith For thepopulationsofvillagesinmiddleEuphrates,dependentonamixed the beginningofanewagriculturalcycle. in autumn,beforethefieldswerepreparedforsowingofbarley,thusmarking coriander, current Meskene(Guichard near settlements,inasimilarwaytothatdocumentedlatertextsfromEmar,the areas destinedforhorticulturewereseparatefromcerealgrowingareas,andlocated [?], and givesanideaofwhatwasusedforcooking:‘ from thetimeofZimri-Limlistsvegetables,herbs and spicestobesenthim, black cumin,7 (S which mentionsowingandharvestingbyuprootingdrying( withbroadbeans,lentilsandchick-peas(Stol which canprobablybeidentified species oflegumesarepresent:GÚ.GAL( arriving atthepalace,andwhichwereaccountedforas‘theking’smeal’.Various information onthevegetablesgrowningardensprincipallyfromlistsoffoods saffron (azupı 733 and thesetwoplantsareoftenlistedtogether( ARM ( kars ˇ E.LÚ.SAR = As farasfruittreesareconcerned,orchardsdifferentiated inthetextsfrom ‘Desert truffles’(kam’atum)werenotcultivated,butcollectedinthesteppe The cultivationofsesameendedwithitsharvest,byuprootingtheplant( We alsohaveevidenceforthecultivationofgarlic( ˇum , 7 734 X litres ofleeks,120 ) arementionedalongsideaseriesoftypicalherbsusedatthepalace,including 16 Vegetable gardens,vineyards,fruitorchardsandwoods , 60 728 11 (= ¯nu) ), whitecumin(kamu ¯rum and Qattunandistrict( litres of“beerbread”( ; XXI103 DEPM kisibirrum litres of and (GIS ballukkum 1158). Onions(SUM.KI.SIKIL ) andthyme( ˇ samı¯ ,104 .KIRI litres ofonions, 10 1997: dum ; XXIII 6 ln’(MII plant’ (FM — LuciaMori ) (Durand1990: plant, 181 bappirum), ARM satarum) (ARM 367 , forEmar:Mori ) andblackcumin( ¯num 46 5 , hallu 120 litres of XXVII 368 4). ¯rum 10 litres ofmustard(kasu , ARM 15 salh 465 128 litres ofwhitecumin, ), GÚ.TUR( 54 ninûm ˘ litres ofgarlicwiththeirskins um ). Thetechnicaltasksrelating XXIII ˇamasˇkillum) werealsogrown, s and and IX ˇ ˘ h ummênu 2003: azannum) indifferenttexts in thetexts,werepart 238 plant, FM 370 368 ; XII241 ) (Stol II 134 kakku ( ARM 5 and 62), followingthe ARM zı¯bum), coriander –146 litres ofjuniper ¯ ¯ 1987a). Leeks 371 ), ) and IX XXVI , 60 ). Wehave 729 3 ). Aletter nasahum 27 litres of litres of 1987 ˇ appa .KIRI , ). The 731 446 ¯nu b). 6 ) , , ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 (kamas slopes oftheJebelSinjar(Finet Mediterranean Syria(Yamkhad),theupperEuphrates(Carchemish)andsouthern at thetimeofkingdomMari;vinesandproductionwinearetypical poplar. ThecultivationofvinesinthemiddleEuphratesvalleywasarecentintroduction and notthenumberofplants.Theonlyplantmentionedalongsidevineis plots; sensibly,theseareaccountedforaccordingtothesurfaceareaoflandcultivated, furniture (Soubeyran bı¯num) andanunidentifiedtypeoftree,thebas poplars (GIS at thetimeofUrIII(Postgate the associationbetweenfigandappletreesisalsodocumentedinLowerMesopotamia other fruittrees,especiallyappletrees(GIS present. Themostcommonplantisthefig(GIS areas oflandusedasfruitorchardsarelisted,namingthenumberandtypestrees of theJebelSinjarwherethesenutsarestillproducedtoday. as comingfromthenorth-easternareaandmountMurdi,probablywesternpart the Khabur;turpentinetreesorpistachios,onotherhand,arefrequentlymentioned district (Lion local vineyards,andaletterprovidesinformationontheworkingofvineyardsinthat various drink fromtheseareas.However,onetext( districts (Durand in detail. of agriculturallandsmakesitimpossibletodescribethe organizationoffarmingzones The absenceoflegalandadministrativetextsfromMari referringtothemanagement the river(Lafont the palaceadministrationingenuine‘nurseries’,probablylocatednearbanksof under thecareofsingleindividuals,probablypalace‘gardeners’( opposite sides,twolongupperandlower( texts fromallthreearchives,characteristicallymakesa distinctionbetweenpairsof access towaterfromtheirrigationnetwork.Theterminology usedforfieldsides,in and presumablyresultfromawayoforganizinglanddictated bytheneedtooptimize Emar. Thenamesgiventothesidesoffieldsinsideug¡rum arebasicallyidentical, continues intime,andiswelldocumentedlatertexts fromTerqaandespecially to adoptanidentifiableshapeandlayout–amiddle-Euphrates traditionwhich used todescribethesidesoffields–andthustendency ofplotscultivatedland short sides(SAG 122 present intheZurubbanarea,southofTerqafloodplain,accordingto( planted forbuildingtimber(Postgate Vines (GIS The tamarisk,mentionedinthecontextoffruitorchards = ˇs ˇarum DEPM kirûm 13 However, somesporadicevidenceallowsustoassimilate theterminology ˇ ) (Postgate ˇ .A.AM .GES 1992). at Hishamta,intheTerqadistrict,foratotalof 153 1997 ˇ 1 1990: TIN ). and SAG SHAPE ANDSIZEOFFIELDS 12 ada ARM : The presenceofcorneltreesisdocumentedonthebanks ¯rum 266 1987: kara¯num 128 – / XXIII: — Landandlanduse 267 ildakkum ). Inthewoods(GIS 2 138 ) ( ) areaccountedforseparately,andplantedinspecial ). Inasortofinventorymainlyconcerningfruittrees 1987: ARM 1974 fn. 442 ) (Postgate 1987 4), pomegranates(GIS – 122 ). VIII 77: 47 ARM : fn. 122 ˇ 115 3), indicatingthatthebasic shape was .HAS , whosewoodwasusedtomake ˇtum 31). Alsodocumentedarepeartrees ˇ ), andMariimportedthealcoholic ), whereasfruittreesweregrownby XXI 1992: .PÈS ˇ ˇ itûm elûm .TIR.RA UR) (Postgate1987: ˇ 99) mentionsjarsofwinefrom tittum), plantedtogetherwith 179 ), tamarisks(GIS , ˇ qis itûm saplûm .NU.ÚR.MA ), treescouldbe ˇtum 212 ARM ARM jars producedby XXII ) XXII 14 ARM 117 nurmûm), ˇ and two .S 329 ˇ –118 INIG 329 XIII , is ); ), Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 area oflandcultivateddirectlybythepalaceadministration. to diminishorincreasetheworkquotasof‘ploughs’, andthustheactualsurface being plannedinastableandlastingmanner.Unexpected problemsforcegovernors of workquotastotheteamssuggestamorecomplex situation, whichwasfarfrom However, thefrequentmentionsinlettersofproblems relatingtotheallocation This factimpliesthatroyallandsweredividedinto plots managedbythelatter. was assigneda‘task’(ÉS belonging tothepalace,sincetheyareassignedhis farming teams.Each‘plough’ royal administration,andwhichplayanimportantroleinlandmanagement. in themiddleEuphratesvalleyofcommunityinstitutionsextraneoustolarge etndt upr h oa aiyadplc fcas(Joannès destined tosupporttheroyalfamilyandpalaceofficials ( be delivered(Talon1983: amount oflandtobeworkedandtheproductionquota of‘finishedproducts’to safeguard thepurchase(Zaccagnini declaring formallyalienamemberofthefamilywhoacquiresclanlandsinorderto from Emarinthepracticeofdescribinganoutsidepurchaserasa‘brother’,and level (Liverani1983: making thealienationoflandsfromfamily‘acceptable’onaformalandideological was acknowledgedasaclanmember,through‘false’adoptions( documents fromTellHaririuseformulaicexpressionswhichimplythatthepurchaser of ‘collective’typeseemstopersist(cfr. on theterritoryisimpossibletodetermine.Alongside‘individual’property,property is documentedbysporadicdeedsofsaleorpurchaseforfields,butitspreciseimpact services ofadministrativeormilitarynature.Privatepropertymusthaveexisted,as farming teams,andinpartallocatedonausufructuarybasis,usuallyexchangefor (defined inthetextsasA.S portion oftheagriculturallandwasmanaged–andprobablyownedbypalace fairly complexanddifficulttodetermine(Durand must mainlybeextrapolatedfromletters.Thestateofthevalleylandsappearsto flow oftheriver. Euphrates, andwiththelongsidesupstreamdownstreamrespectto water ononeoftheshortsides,paralleltoirrigationchannelandprobably made upofplotsrectangularfields,adjacenttooneanotherandwithaccess the organizationoffarmingareas.Itisthusplausibletoimagineanirrigationdistrict to theEuphrates.Thedirectionfollowedbyriverwasfundamentalfactorin lower partofthevalley,andideas‘upstream’‘downstream’withreference The maindirectionalconceptsused, orientation wasofprimarysignificance,sincethislinkedtotheflowriver. sides remainslinkedtoafixed terminologyisevidencethat,forthesesides,geographical they arespecifiedasforlongsides.Thefactthatthewayofreferringto at MariandEmarbyacardinalnumber(firstsidesecondside),whereasTerqa defined as‘upper’and‘lower’atMari,TerqaEmar;theshortsidesareidentified rectangular. Theidentificationofthesesidesremainsidenticalfor‘long’sides,always Evidence fortheamountof landallocatedtoeachteamprovidesdifferentfigures; To returntothesizeoffields,sometextstellusexpansesfarmingland For thesizeoffields,too,givensmallnumberlegaltextsfound,information 158 ˇ .GÀR/ÁS –159 48). Theteamsgenerallybelongto‘ruraldomains’( ˇ À e-kál-lim ). Theselegalformulasfindcounterpartsinlatertexts — LuciaMori ˇ .GÀR GIS 1992: elûm ). Inpart,thislandwasexploiteddirectlyby 48 ARM 36); theseareevidenceforthepersistence and ˇ .APIN), quantifiedbothintermsofthe saplûm VIII 1998: 11). Thesmallnumberoflegal , indicateboththehigherand 513 –535 ); however,alarge ah 1984: ˘ ˘ h u ¯tu ), aimedat 113 –115 bı¯tum) ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 was between however, thesurfaceareaconsideredareasonableamountofworkforfarmingteam by thepalaceadministration. properties andlargeareasofland,probablyexploitedusingfarmingteamsprovided sider one deficit. precisely becausethereisanuntenablesituationtoberesolved,eitherbyexcessor significantly. However,thesegenerallyrefertoextremecaseswhicharereported to therulers’expectations,inpracticeareasdocumentedlettersdiffer land tobeworked(from50 the workquotaofaroyalfarmingteam,moreorlessnumerousdependingon though thesizeofareasallottedmayvary,theseseemtocoincideroughlywith ikû the largerofplotsbelongedtoa‘familygroup’and wasdivided,andthatthe (although alsofoursellersforaplotsmallerthanhalfan is namedasthevendor,foronelargerplotoffive same orientation.Itissignificantthat,whereasforplots ofone individual plotsseemstobemoreorlessidentical;presumably theyalsohadthe irrigation district,‘theuga up ofsmallerplots,generallymeasuringone ‘inhabitants ofthevillage’( five for sustenance;thesehoweverweresignificantlysmallerinarea.Alettertellsusthat local populationsbetakenforgranted. XIII they thereforeappealtothekingstoptheseconcessions(see,forexample, the allocationconflictswithneedsoflocalgovernorstousepalacefarmingteams; family oranotableofthekingdom(cfr. when afunctionaryisassignedpieceoflandalreadygiventomembertheroyal istration wasoftenproblematicandacauseforcomplaints:therearefrequentcases single individual,Warad-Sin,foratotalof tively as‘sonsoftheKhabur’(Villard These wereprobablylocatedalongtheKhabur,since the sellersaredefinedcollec- field plotswithinagriculturalareas( by theruralfamilies. sold whichdonotprovideinformationontheactualextentoflandactuallyowned similar tothesubsistencefieldsassignedbyrulers.Theseareplotsboughtand sizes documentedgenerallyconcernsmallsurfaceareasintheorderofafew Among theraredeedsofsaleandpurchaseforfieldsbetweenprivateindividuals, as dependentstobeallocatedrations(ARM those withoutthemeanstoexploitland(toolsandworkinganimals)aredescribed the rulerstoallocatefieldsforgrowingfoodthoseablecultivatethem,whereas Governors andhighofficials,likemembersoftheroyalfamily,couldowngreat In additiontonotables,somecategoriesofpalace‘staff’werealsoallottedfields The textrichestininformationfromthepointofviewreconstructingindividual Little informationisavailableonthesizeoffieldsnotbelongingtoroyallands. represents asortofbasicunit, the‘minimum’cultivableplot. ikû 39 16 of landwereallottedtosomecategoriessoldiers,andthree = ikû DEPM equivalent to 70 and 781 100 ). Norshouldcollaborationbetweenroyalfarmingteamsand ikû 3,600 ¯rum to — Landandlanduse ARM 17 (ARM 100 District governorsreceivedfieldsupontheirnomination; of Il-aba’.Withintheirrigationdistrictsize m XXVII ikû). 2 XXVI/176 . Althoughthiswasthesurfaceareacorresponding ARM 18 2001: ARM 49 The allocationoffieldsbythepalaceadmin- 107 16 XXII IV ikû ). Thetextsdocumentthetendencyof 99–100 ikû ), XIV 15 86 each, andmainlylocatedinasingle 328 (S between ˇ = U.NIGIN 81 ) listssmallplotsboughtbya ). Thetotalof DEPM = ikû). Itthereforeseemsthat DEPM ikû 25.2 772 there areeightsellers ikû 2 and ÉS 752 ). a singleindividual ˇ E 36 16 ). Alternatively 4 GÁN A.S ha ifwecon- ikû ikû is made to the ARM ˇ ikû, À). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 ARM DEPM 5100 15 16 10 FM 11 13 12 18 17 14 2 1 3 5 6 4 7 8 9 Orient, III – Fleury; II–1994 la mémoired’AndréParrot amorrite: éssaid’histoirepolitique le HaremdeZimri-Lim Barrélet Cf. four maindistrictsoftheMarireign:Mari,Terqa,SaggaratumandQattunan,(Lafont 114, ‘Aus dem 218–219). ARM for menandworkinganimals. quantities ofgraindefinedasS referring tothesame‘ruraldomain’:ARM of alocustinvasioninthedistrictQattunan(ARM Birot in Rations toa 346). ikû; 17; Liverani ‘plough’ alsoinlowerMesopotamianeo-Sumeriantimes(Liverani (Durand The followingtextsmentionasurfaceoflandassignedtotheMariploughs: Cfr. See texts Cf. 109). (ARM ARM Alalakh, seeDurand2002: For thecultivationofolivetreesatEbla,seeArchi A sporadiccaseis It waspresentalsoalongtheKhaburbanks(MorandiBonacossi II Cf. See text XXVII ARM + – In thepoliticalterminology,Euphratesbank Florilegium Marianum – ARM 34 ARM – J.M.Durand, DEPM, ARM Archives RoyalesdeMari ARM ARM ikû 1997 115, VIII 16–18 XXIII II ; IV– XXVII ABBREVIATIONS RELATEDTOTHE MAIN 36, ARM XXVII DEPM seems tobethesurfaceofa‘standardfield’given‘farmer’responsibleforone 104 1982 ARM I atappum XXVII 117 XIII 56 XIII 6, similarlytowhatisattestedinatextdatingthe D. CharpinandJ.M.Durand(eds) ¯lik eqlim ¯lik 166.66 297. 1998 1999 121, ( = = 3 : , XXVII, pp.10–11,commentsonthesixlettersentirelydevotedtosubject 32–35, II 81). DEPM 39 EDITIONS OFTHEMARITEXTS DEPM 119, vols –TomeI1997;II1998III2000). 6 D. CharpinandJ.M.Durand(eds)Recueild’étudesàlamemoiredeMauriceBirot 39, 100, 107 38. : wird WasserzurbewasserungderFelder( and ARM 122, N. Ziegler, 47). = ikû Les documéntsépistolairesdupalaisdeMari 50 ; V–2003 120; DEPM 150 are listedintext = 38). SeealsoLionandMichelle1997 ARM ; VII– 179, (7 756 (for sixploughs)or 123 ikû; DEPM XXII vols: I– ikû. ARM ; , 82 (28 ARM ARM ARM XXVI. 124, ; VI– 781, andLuke ˇ –84 La populationfemininedespalaisd’aprèslesarchivesroyalesdeMari: 2002 E.BA É(‘barleyrationsfortheruraldomain’)listboth 328. 354; vols). — LuciaMori D. CharpinandN.Ziegler,MarietleProche-Orientàl’époque XXIV 460, XIV 1992 and textsFM XIV XXVI/I 2002 J.M. Durand,Leculted’Addud’Alepetl’affaire d’Alahtum). ARM NOTES 81 461 ARM 35 14 J.M. Durand(ed.)Recueild’étudesenl’honneurdeMichel D. CharpinandJ.M.Durand(eds) = 50 , III 142 , = XXIII 76, 15, DEPM 1972 ARM DEPM IX 62 . 85 70 Recueil d’étudesàlamemoiredeMarie-Thérèse 16. Intexts VII = 1991 . 25 ah –100 106, ikû XXIV ˘ DEPM 752 , andinaseriesofadministrativetexts XXVII 28, Purattim, representstheterritoryof 181, ; fortheregionofAlakhtum,probably (for sevenploughs); 107, and A.450 ikû; 35, 2. ARM ana s 178 . 26–31 , ARM ARM 36 108 Littératures AnciennesduProche- ˇiqı¯tim . and A.3872 sˇ 1996: akkanakku XIV , ) andtheshortermentions 109, (Durand XXII XXIII ) abgeleitet’(Stol1980 1988–89: 36 47). 110, 285 = 37, ARM + (Durand period, M. 1998: 533–534). DEPM Receuil d’étudesà 111, and XXIV20 FM 80 299 XXVIII ikû 112, 1 32, 11, 393 and fn. ; 10556 2001 1990 ARM , 113 FM 36 5 , : : : ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 –––– Geyer, B.1984 Chavalas, M.W.andJ.L.Hayes(eds) Fortin, M.andO.Aurenche Joannès, F. Guichard, M.1997 –––– Geyer, B.andJ.Y.Monchambert –––– –––– Cadelli, D.1994 D’Hont, O. –––– –––– –––– Durand, J.M.1982 Besançon, J.andP.Sanlaville –––– Charles, M.P. Charpin, D.andJ.M.Durand Finet, A.1974 –––– Buccellati, G.1990a‘TheRuralLandscapeoftheAncientZor:TerqaEvidence’,inB.Geyer Archi, A. Bernbeck, R. région deMari’, 13–16. J.-C.), Actesducolloquetenuàl’UniversitéLaval(Qébec) AAAS d’Assyriologie 25, Malibu. du colloquetenuàl’UniversitéLaval(Qébec)5 O. Aurenche(eds) pp. in B.Geyer(ed.) agricoles traditionnellesendomainirrigué,Paris,pp. le textesdeMarietCodeHammurabi’,inB.Geyer(ed.) pp. pp. Hamidiya Middle EuphratesandtheKhabur’,inS.Eichler,M.WäflerP.Warburton(eds)Tallal- in B.Geyer(ed.) vol. II,pp. pp. in B.Geyer(ed.) de Mari’,MARI (ed.) Paléorient 1987 1990 1985 1990 1998 1990 1990 1990b ‘RiverBank,HighCountry,andPastureLand:theGrowthofNomadismon 1998 63–86. 239–247. 211–222. 101–142. Techniques etpratiqueshydro-agricolestraditionnellesendomainirrigué 33: 1991 1990 1984 ‘Prospection delamoyennevalléel’Euphrate:rapportpréliminaire’, ‘Aménagements hydrauliquesetterritoiragricoledanslamoyenne valléedel’Euphrate’, ‘Traditional CropHusbandryinSouthernIraq( ‘Les pratiquesdel’irrigationauXVIIIesiècleavantnotreèreenMésopotamied’après ‘Géographie etpeuplementdessteppesaridesdelaSyrieduNord’, inM.Fortinand ‘Propriété dusoletl’attributiondesterres;Irrigationtravauxchamps’, ‘Problèmes d’eauetd’irrigationauroyaumedeMari:l’apportdestextesanciennes’, ‘Géomorphologie etoccupationdusoldelamoyennevalléel’Euphratedans 7: 2, OrbisBiblicusetOrientalis.SerieArcheologica,pp. 1991 1985 261–265. /77 513 5–18 80: ‘Mari danssoncadre:Environementetcadrenaturel’, ‘Culture del’olivieretproductionl’huileàEbla’,in ‘Evolution récentedansl’utilisationdesespacesdelamoyennevalléel’Euphrate’, ‘Un domaineagricole’, ‘Lieux boisésetboiscoupés’, –676. ‘Le vinàMari’, Steppe alsKulturlandschaft ‘The HusbandryofPulsesandOilCropsinModernIraq’, ‘Sumerien etAkkadienenpaysamorite,I.Undocumentjuridiquearchaique MARI 1, pp. ‘Le selàMari(III).Leslieuxdusel’,FM 141– . Espace naturel,espacehabitéenSyriedunord( Techniques etpratiqueshydro-agricolestraditionnellesendomainirrigué Techniques etpratiqueshydro-agricolestraditionnellesendomainirrigué Techniques etpratiqueshydro-agricolestraditionnellesendomainirrigué 191. 79–89. 4: 1998 27–39. 1981 1986 — Landandlanduse BIBLIOGRAPHY Espace naturel,espacehabitéenSyriedunord( 1983 Archiv fürOrientforschung ‘Aperçu géomorphologiquesurlavalléedel’Euphratesyrien’, ‘Fils deSim’al.LesoriginestribalesdesroisMari’, 1992 ARM ‘Prospection danslabassevalléedel’EuphrateSyrien’, New HorizonsintheStudyofAncientSyria , Berlin. 51 FM XXIII, pp.105–126. au II, pp.159–173 143 7 mai –154. 1900–1960 1997 25: 5 III: au 22–131. 10e–2 , Québec–Lyon,pp. 7 167–200. . mai Techniques etpratiqueshydro- 67 e millénaireav.J.-C.),Actes AD –83. 1997 Histoire etArchéologie , Paris,pp.155–170 )’, Mélanges P.Garelli 10e–2e millénaireav. BSAg , Québec–Lyon. BSAg MARI 5, pp. 2, pp.39–62. , Bib.Mes. 5293 1–8. , Paris, , Paris, , Paris, 47–64. DEPM – Revue 344. 80: . , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 –––– –––– –––– –––– Klengel, H.1980 –––– Kupper, J.R.1957 –––– –––– –––– Liverani, M. Lion, B.1992 Lafont, B.1990 –––– –––– –––– –––– –––– –––– –––– Luke, J.T. Masetti-Rouault, M.G. –––– –––– –––– –––– –––– Margueron, J.Cl. Archiv fürOrientforschung pp. Middle East “Palace” and“Family”Sectors’,inT.Khalidi(ed.) comparative desinstitutions41,Paris,pp.147 rurales –RuralCommunitiesII’:AntiquitéAntiquity,RecueilsdelaSocietéJeanBodinpourl’histoire and SocialHistoryoftheOrient realistico’, Amurru nel mondoantico,pp.447–456 Assyriologique InternationaleVenezia, Territories, FrontiersandHorizonsintheAncientNearEast.Papers PresentedtotheXLIVRencontre l’âge duFer’,inL.Milano,S.deMartino,F.M.FalesandG.B. Lanfranchi(eds) Internationale Venezia, and HorizonsintheAncientNearEast.PapersPresentedtoXLIVRencontreAssyriologique L. Milano,S.deMartino,F.M.FalesandG.B.Lanfranchi(eds) Archiv fürOrientforschung and SocialHistoryoftheOrient Mari’, naturel, espacehabitéenSyriedunord( Bronze: limitesetpossibilitésd’unerecherche’,inM.Fortin and O.Aurenche(eds) (ed.) Laval (Qébec)du5 BSAg 1996 1994 and C.Michelle 1988 1959 1988 1990 1984 1992 2001 1991 2001 2001 1997 1999 1997 1996 1998 1990 1997 393 Techniques etpratiqueshydro-agricolestraditionnellesendomainirrigué 4: FM 1972 –415. 2: –89 –91 ‘Le rôledesnomadesdansl’histoiredelaMésopotamieancienne’, ‘Aménagement delarégionMari:quelquesconsidérationshistoriques’, inB.Geyer ‘Les gouverneursduRoyaumedeMariàl’époqueZimri-Lim’, 49–60. ‘Reconstructing theRuralLandscapeofAncientNearEast’, ‘Routes etvoiesdecomunicationsdanslesarchivesMari’, ‘L’eau etlaglace’, ‘L’irrigation àMari’, ‘Le boisàMari’,BSAg ‘Recenti ricerchesull’agricolturasumerica’, ‘Relations internationales,alliancesetdiplomatieautempsdesroyaumesamorrites’, ‘Techniques arboricolesàl’epoqueamorrite.Transportetacclimatationdefiguiers ‘Agricoltura eirrigazione’,inS.Petruccioli(ed.) ‘Aménagement duterritoireetorganisationdel’espaceenSyrie duNordàl’âge ‘The RoleoftheVillageinShapingAncientNearEasternRuralLandscape’, ‘“Half-nomads” ontheMiddleEuphratesandConceptofDimorphicSociety’, ‘“Half-nomads” ‘Land TenureandInheritanceintheAncientNearEast:TheInteractionbetween 1983 ‘Palmyre etlesroutesdudésertaudébutdeuxièmemillenaire’, 213 Origini III: , Beirut,pp.33–44. ‘Vignes auroyaumedeMari’,FM ‘Il rendimentodeicerealidurantelaIIIdinastiadiUr.Contributoadunapproccio ‘La formadeicampineo-sumerici’,Origini ‘Une nuitdrammatiqueàMari’, ‘Observations onARMTXIII 1988 – ‘Zum BewässerungBodenbauamMittelerenEuphratnachdenTextenausMari’, 263–268. ‘Communautés ruralesdanslaSyrieduIIemillénairea.C.’,in 328. Les nomadesenMésopotamieautempderoisMari XV: au 1997 ‘Espace agricoleetaménagementrégionalàMariaudébutduIIIe millénaire’, 2000 7–11 7 359 mai ‘Criquets etautresinsectesàMari’, 7: 24: ‘Aspects dupaysagesocialetpolitiqueMoyenEuphratesyrien à –368. July, 77–87. FM 1997, Québec–Lyon,pp.167 44–48. . 2: 39: BSAg II, pp.135–141 6: 113–127 1997, vol.I,pp.37–47 — LuciaMori 1–41. 10e–2 163–170 7–11 4: 93–103 e millénaireav.J.-C.),Actesducolloquetenuàl’Université July, . –185. 52 . 139’, I: FM 1997, . . 107–113 Journal ofCuneiformStudies I: Land TenureandSocialTransformationinthe Studi Storici vol. II:129 93–103. XIV: . . –178. Storia dellaScienza,vol.ILascienza MARI 289–327. Landscapes, Territories,Frontiers –138 , Paris. 32: 8: 220– . , Paris,pp.171–192. Amurru, pp.323–362 707–724 Journal oftheEconomic Journal oftheEconomic Amurru 226. 24: Les communautés . 20 2: Landscapes, –23. MARI 141–209 Espace 8 . , . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 05:17 25 Sep 2021; For: 9780203946237, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203946237.ch3 –––– –––– Morandi Bonacossi,D. –––– Postgate, N.1983 Mori, L.2003 Zaccagnini, C. –––– Sanlaville, P.1985 andM.Wafler(eds)2000 –––– –––– Rouault, O.1998 –––– Powell, M.A.1987/90 –––– Stol, M. –––– –––– –––– –––– Wilkinson, T.J.1990 Weulersse, J.1946 Wagstaff, J.M.(ed.) Villard, P.2001 Talon, P.1983 Wirth, E. pp. Levine, Syria fromtheLateThirdMillenniumtoneo-AssyrianPeriod’, inM.HudsonandB.A. av. J.-C.),Actesducolloquetenuàl’UniversitéLaval(Qébec) in M.FortinandO.Aurenche(eds) millenaire av.J.-C.,SubartuVII. pp. La Djeziréetl’EuphratesyriensdelaprotohistoireàfinduIImillenaireav.J.-C. pp. Aula Orientalis 119–126. Akkadica Cornwall. 22: 1999 2001 1987 1992 2000 1991 1987a ‘Garlic,Onion,Leek’,BSAg 2000 1990 1995 1987b ‘Beans,PeasandVetchesinAkkadianTexts’, 33–48. 265–269. 91–198. 87–103. 1985 1971 Urbanisation andLandOwnershipintheAncientNearEast Cultures localesduMoyenEuphrate.Modèlesetévénements ‘Notes onFruitintheCuneiformSources’, ‘Trees andTimberintheAssyrianTexts’, Le moyenOrientarabe.milieuetl’homme ‘Old BabylonianCattle’, ‘Pays etpaysageduTigredel’Euphrate.ReflextionssurlaMesopotamieantique’, ‘Epistemology andSumerianAgriculture.TheStrangeCaseofSesameLinseed’, ‘Economic AspectofLandOwnershipandUseinNorthernMesopotamia ‘Quelques remarquessurlasocietédeTerqa’,inO.RouaultandM.Wafler(eds) 66: Quadernidigeografiastorica6,Rome. Reconstructing theEmarLandscape, ‘Remarks ontheCultivationofSesameandExtractionitsOil’, ‘A proposdupersonnelagricoleàMari’,Iraq 1992 Syrien: einegeographicheLandeskunde 1–12. ‘Les administrateursdel’époqueYasmah-Addu’,inAmurru ‘Villes, villages,campagnesetsteppedanslarégiondeTerqa:donnéesnouvelles’, 9: ‘The “Oil-plant”inAssyria’,BSAg ‘L’espace géographiquedeMari’, 1987 Paysans deSyrieetduProcheOrient 155–164. ‘Soil DevelopmentandEarlyLandUseintheJaziraRegion’, ‘Ceremonial TransfersofRealEstateatEmarandElsewhere’, ‘Masse undGewichte’,ReallexikonderAssyriologie 1996 Landscape andCulture.GeographicalArchaeologicalPerspectives,Padstow, Tra ilfiumeelasteppa,Padua. — Landandlanduse La Djeziréetl’EuphratesyriensdelaprotohistoireàfinduII BSAg Espace naturel,espacehabitéenSyriedunord(10e–2 3: 8: 57 173–223 53 –80. , Darmstadt. , Paris. MARI , Paris. 2: BSAg . BSAg 145 BSAg 4: 6: –152. 45: 3: 15–25. 5 177 115 au , SubartuVIII. 46–55. 3: , Cambridge. –192. 7 –144. 127–139 mai 7. 1997 . , Québec–Lyon, World Archaeology 2: , SubartuVII, 9–140 e millénaire BSAg VO . 8 / 2 2: ,