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KARUS on the FRONTIERS of the NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE I Shigeo

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KARUS ON THE FRONTIERS OF THE NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE I Shigeo YAMADA * The paper discusses the evidence for the harbors, trading posts, and/or administrative centers called karu in Neo-Assyrian documentary sources, especially those constructed on the frontiers of the Assyrian empire during the ninth to seventh centuries Be. New Assyrian cities on the frontiers were often given names that stress the glory and strength of Assyrian kings and gods. Kar-X, i.e., "Quay of X" (X = a royal/divine name), is one of the main types. Names of this sort, given to cities of administrative significance, were probably chosen to show that the Assyrians were ready to enhance the local economy. An exhaustive examination of the evidence relating to cities named Kar-X and those called karu or bit-kar; on the western frontiers illustrates the advance of Assyrian colonization and trade control, which eventually spread over the entire region of the eastern Mediterranean. The Assyrian kiirus on the frontiers served to secure local trading activities according to agreements between the Assyrian king and local rulers and traders, while representing first and foremost the interest of the former party. The official in charge of the kiiru(s), the rab-kari, appears to have worked as a royal deputy, directly responsible for the revenue of the royal house from two main sources: (1) taxes imposed on merchandise and merchants passing through the trade center(s) under his control, and (2) tribute exacted from countries of vassal status. He thus played a significant role in Assyrian exploitation of economic resources from areas beyond the jurisdiction of the Assyrian provincial government. Keywords: Neo-Assyrian Empire, karu, trade, city, East Mediterranean I. Introduction Some fifty years ago, J. Lewy assembled a volume of data about the karu/ karru, the word usually translated as "quay, harbor district, trading station, etc.," from Neo-Assyrian documents, to reinforce his argument about the Old Assyrian * Associate Professor, University ofTsukuba 56 ORIENT KARUS ON THE FRONTIERS OF THE NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE trading colony Karum Kanes (Lewy 1956, 39-53). He discussed the nature of Neo-Assyrian karu and the official rab-kari, "the head of the karu," as well as toponyms that include the word karu in their first element, i.e. Kar-X. Since then new pieces of evidence have appeared and some of the old materials have been reinterpreted. The purpose of this article is to review the evidence about the harbors, trading posts, and/or administrative centers called karu in Neo-Assyrian documentary sources, especially those constructed on frontiers, together with Assyrian territorial expansion from the ninth century Be onward. Abundant data about the karus on the frontiers have survived concerning specific regions: Syria and the Mediterranean coast to the west, and the central Zagros to the east. M. Elat (1978; 1991) contributed a series of articles analysing Neo-Assyrian economic policy in Egypt and Phoenicia. K. Radner (2003) and G. Lanfranchi (2003) have investigated the Neo-Assyrian expansion into the central Zagros, discussing the relations between Assyria and the local "city lords" (bel ali) in the Zagros. These studies dealt with Assyrian centers and outposts in these regions, including those called kiiru. Following their lead, I will examine the evidence relating to Neo-Assyrian karus more closely and in an exhaustive manner, focussing on the western frontiers of Assyria while paying some attention to other areas, including the Zagros. II. Kiir-X Toponyms As J. Lewy and other scholars noted, a number of Assyrian cities constructed or reconstructed in the newly subjugated and/or annexed territories were given names following the pattern of Kar-X, Le. "Quay ofX".2 Examples include Kar-Sulmanu-asared (Shalmaneser) and Kar-Assur-ahu-iddina (Esarhaddon) in Syria and Phoenicia, Kar-Assur on the eastern bank of the Tigris, Kar-Nergal, Kar-Sarru-kin (Sargon), and Kar-Sin-ahhe-eriba (Sennacherib) in the central Zagros. The construction of these cities is described in detail in royal inscriptions (see below, Table 1 for references). I will open my investigation by examining the Kar-X toponyms attested in Neo-Assyrian documents, either on frontiers or in the Assyrian heartland and Babylonia, in order to reach a proper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon. The name-pattern of Kar-X is not unique to the Neo-Assyrian period but is well attested in Sumerian and Akkadian texts of earlier periods too. Sumerian city names that begin with KAR, the equivalent of Akkadian kliru, are known from the Pre-Sargonic period onward.3 A small number of Akkadian city names that include karu as their first element appears in the Old Babylonian documents.4 Assyrian and Babylonian texts from the second half of the second Vol. XL 2005 57 millennium Be refer to a larger number of place names of the Kar-X pattern, most frequently with a divine name as the second element, but also in rare cases with the name of a major city or temple, or that of the king. 5 The documents from the Neo-Assyrian period contain over 30 place names of the Kar-X pattern, as given in Table 1.6 Table 1: Cities of Kiir-X Name Pattern Attested in Neo-Assyrian Documents, in Alphabetical Order Abbreviations: Asn2 = Ashurnasirpal II; SIm3 = Shalmaneser III; SA5 = Samsi-Adad V; AdN3 = Adad-nirari III; TP3 = Tiglath-pileser III; Sg = Sargon II; Esrh = Esarhaddon; Senn = Sennacherib; Asb = Ashurbanipal City name Location Attested period and References (local name) other details 1 Kar-Adad 1 North Syria; Local district capital, ITP, Ann. 19*:6 (Aribua?) in a district of annexed by TP3 in Hamath 738 2 Kar-Adad 2 Zagros; Niirtu Taken and renamed ISK, Annalen: 114; ibid., (Bit-Gabaya by Sg in 715 Prunk: 65 or Anzaria) 3 Kar-Adad(?) 3 = 1 or 2? District capital of an SAA 7, no. 161: r. i 10 unknown place (Asb) 4 Kar(?)-Adad-nerari Lower Habur or Built by Nergal-eres RIMA 3, A.0.104.7: 17 mid-Euphrates in the reign of AdN3 5 Kar-Apladda Assyrian Mentioned in legal SAA 6, no. 259: 2; ibid., heartland? documents from no. 260: 2 Nineveh (Esrh) 6 Kar-Assur I East bank of The ruin was taken, ITP, Ann. 9:3, Summ. (Humut) the middle rebuilt and renamed 1:7, Summ. 7: 11; Parker Tigris; an by TP3 in 745. 1961,42 (NO 2664): 1.; Aramaean An administrative SAA 7, no. 23: r. 7; SAA populated area center (Sg) 5, no. 250; 4, 10 7 Kar-Assur 2 = I? Mentioned in the Borger 1956, Smlt (K fragmentary royal 2711): 23; Bauer 1935, inscriptions (Esrh) pI. 41 (K 4487): 3' 8 Kar-Assur-ahu- Phoenicia; near New city built by Heidel 1956, 12: i 34; iddina Sidon Esrh in 677 Borger 1956, Nin. A: ii Provincial capital 82; ibid., Smlt: 20; SAA (Asb) 11, no. 84: 4'; ibid., no. 38: 2; Thompson 1940, 105, no. 26 (date) 9 Kar-Assur-na~ir-apli Mid-Euphrates; New city built by RIMA 2, A.O.l 0 1.1 :iii Bit-Adini-Laqe Asn2 50; RIMA 3, A.O.I 04.6 border A major city (AdN3) 58 ORIENT KAllUS ON THE FRONTIERS OF THE NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE 10 Kar-balati(TI.LA) Assyrian Town mentioned in a Parker 1961, 38 (NO heartland? town list (TP3 or Sg) 2618): 16' 11 Kar-banapa Assyrian Village mentioned as Parker 1961, 39 (NO heartland? a place of sheep 2638): 4 grazing (TP3 or Sg) 12 Kar-Baniti Nile delta Occupied and Borger 1956, Frt. J: ii 7; renamed by Esrh in Borger 1994, 20, Prism his campaign of 671. A: i 77 Mentioned by Asb 13 Kar-Bel-matate 1 Babylonia; A fortress in the ITP, Summ. 7: 8; Grayson along Tigris; Aramaean-populated 1975, 137 (Religious near Babylon region, incorporated Chronicle): iii 7 and Borsippa byTP3 14 Kar-Bel-matate 2 Nile delta Conquered and Borger 1956, Smlt: 25; (Sais) renamed by Esrh Streck 1916, 162 and Mentioned by Asb 164: obv. 52 and 61 15 Kar-Enlil Babylonia; near Mentioned in a SAA 11, no. 1: ii 2 Nippur geographical list (Asb) 16 Kar-Istar I On the border "Road of Kar-Istar" SAA 6, no. 119: 6; SAA between Assyria is mentioned in a 12, no. 62: 5'; cf. also and Babylonia; legal document of Grayson 1975, 160: i 25' on the bank of 669 (Esrh). Tigris Also in a royal grant schedule (Asb) 17 Kar-Istar 2 Zagros; Nartu Taken and renamed ISK, Annalen: 114; ibid., (Bit-Gabaya by Sg in 715 Prunk: 65 or Anzaria) 18 K[ar]-Kaldayu In a land grant SAA 12, no. 63: obv. 10' schedule (Asb) 19 Kar-Kassi Zagros; Media City of the rebellious SAA4, no. 41: 2', r. 3; border city lord called no. 42: 2; no. 45: 5; no. Kastaritu (Esrh) 48: r. 5; no. 51: 7, r. 5; no. 52: r. 3; no. 56: 2, r. 9; no. 57: 3;n~62:4,~ 11,~ 10,12 20 Kar-Mullissu Assyrian City near Nineveh, Thompson 1940, 90: 19; heartland; mentioned in the Luckenbill 1924, 112: 79; modem building account of SAA 6, no. 216: 2; ABL Keremlis Senn and other late 1009: r. 23; SAA 11, (Parpola-Porter Assyrian texts no. 1: r. i 20; SAA 12, no. 2001, 11) 1: 6; SAA 16, no. 66: T.3' 21 Kar-Nabii 1 Zagros; N artu Taken and renamed ISK, Annalen: 114; ibid., (KiseSlu) by Sg in 715 Prunk: 65 Vol. XL 2005 59 22 Kar-Nabii 2 Babylonia; Bit- Walled fortified city, Luckenbill 1924,53: 48; Yakin, on the conquered by Senn Grayson 1963, 88: 9 shore of the in 703-702 Gulf 23 Kar-Nanay Babylonia; Mentioned in a letter ABL 795: r.
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  • You Will Be Like the Gods”: the Conceptualization of Deity in the Hebrew Bible in Cognitive Perspective

    You Will Be Like the Gods”: the Conceptualization of Deity in the Hebrew Bible in Cognitive Perspective

    “YOU WILL BE LIKE THE GODS”: THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF DEITY IN THE HEBREW BIBLE IN COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE by Daniel O. McClellan A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Master of Arts in Biblical Studies We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard ............................................................................... Dr. Craig Broyles, PhD; Thesis Supervisor ................................................................................ Dr. Martin Abegg, PhD; Second Reader TRINITY WESTERN UNIVERSITY December, 2013 © Daniel O. McClellan Table of Contents Chapter 1 – Introduction 1 1.1 Summary and Outline 1 1.2 Cognitive Linguistics 3 1.2.1 Profiles and Bases 8 1.2.2 Domains and Matrices 10 1.2.3 Prototype Theory 13 1.2.4 Metaphor 16 1.3 Cognitive Linguistics in Biblical Studies 19 1.3.1 Introduction 19 1.3.2 Conceptualizing Words for “God” within the Pentateuch 21 1.4 The Method and Goals of This Study 23 Chapter 2 – Cognitive Origins of Deity Concepts 30 2.1 Intuitive Conceptualizations of Deity 31 2.1.1 Anthropomorphism 32 2.1.2 Agency Detection 34 2.1.3 The Next Step 36 2.2. Universal Image-Schemas 38 2.2.1 The UP-DOWN Image-Schema 39 2.2.2 The CENTER-PERIPHERY Image-Schema 42 2.3 Lexical Considerations 48 48 אלהים 2.3.1 56 אל 2.3.2 60 אלוה 2.3.3 2.4 Summary 61 Chapter 3 – The Conceptualization of YHWH 62 3.1 The Portrayals of Deity in the Patriarchal and Exodus Traditions 64 3.1.1 The Portrayal of the God of the Patriarchs