A FRET Based High Content Screen Identifies DMPK As a Novel Tether of ER and Mitochondria

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A FRET Based High Content Screen Identifies DMPK As a Novel Tether of ER and Mitochondria Universita degli Studi di Padova Dipartimento di Biologia SCUOLA DI DOTTORATO DI RICERCA in BIOSCIENZE E BIOTECHNOLOGIE INDIRIZZO: BIOLOGIA CELLULARE CICLO XXVIII A FRET based high content screen identifies DMPK as a novel tether of ER and mitochondria Direttore: Ch.mo Prof. Paolo Bernardi Coordinatore: Ch.mo Prof. Paolo Bernardi Supervisore: Ch.mo Prof.sse Vera Bianchi Co-supervisore: Ch.mo Prof. Luca Scorrano Dottoranda: Sowmya Lakshminarayanan 31 Gennaio 2016 Table of Contents 1. Riassunto dell'attività svolta 3 2. Summary 7 3. Introduction 9 3.1. Mitochondria – the dynamic organelle 10 3.2. Mitochondrial dynamics and morphology 11 3.2.1. Mitochondrial shaping proteins: fusion 12 3.2.2. Mitochondrial shaping proteins: fission 15 3.3. ER dynamics and morphology 19 3.4. ER shape and function 20 3.4.1 Mechanism of ER membrane fusion 21 3.4.2. ER-organelle contacts 23 3.5. ER-mitochondria connection 25 3.6. ER-mitochondria tether proteins in organisms 26 3.6.1. ERMES complex in yeast 28 3.6.2. ER-mitochondria connection in mammals 29 3.7. Functional role of ER-mitochondria connection 31 3.7.1. ER-mitochondria connection in organelle dynamics 31 3.7.2. ER-mitochondria and calcium connection 33 3.7.3. ER-mitochondria connection in autophagy and ER stress 34 3.7.4. ER-mitochondria connection and inflamasomes 36 3.8. How to measure ER-mitochondria connections 43 3.8.1. Light and electron microscopy to assess organelle juxtaposition 43 1 3.8.2. Biochemical fractionation of the MAMs 46 3.8.3. In-vitro ER-mitochondria interaction assay 47 3.8.4. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assessment of ER- mitochondria tether 48 3.9. High content screening in biology 52 3.9.1. Genome wide screening in using targeted shRNA libraries 53 3.9.2. High content imaging and analysis to perform genome wide screen 54 3.9.3. Statistical analysis methods for high content screening data 56 3.10. DMPK and myotonic dystrophy type 1 60 3.10.1. Structure and function of DMPK and isoforms 61 3.10.2. Molecular features of myotonic dystrophy 1(DM1) 63 3.10.3. Molecular interactors of DMPK 65 4. Results 67 5. Conclusions and Perspective 181 6. References 183 2 1. Riassunto dell'attività svolta La comunicazione tra organelli cellulari è una delle principali funzioni delle cellule eucariotiche e di numerosi processi di segnalazione (Bravo-Sagua et al., 2014). Uno dei cross-talk intracellulari maggiormente caratterizzati è quello tra reticolo endoplasmatico (ER) e mitocondri (Lopez-Crisosto et al., 2015). Definiti anche come “Membrane ER Associate ai Mitocondri” (MAMs), l’esistenza dei contatti tra mitocondri ed ER è stata scoperta più di 50 anni fa tramite studi di microscopia elettronica (Copeland and Dalton, 1959). Gli anni 90 videro poi il primo punto di svolta per la comprensione del significato funzionale dei MAMs quando Vance e Rizzuto et al., dimostrarono che lo scambio di fosfolipidi ed il trasferimento di ioni calcio avviene proprio nei punti di giunzione tra questi due organelli. Malgrado l’importanza di questi contatti nei processi metabolici e patologici, finora solo per poche proteine è stata descritta la funzione di mantenimentodell’integrità strutturale dei MAMsnei mammiferi (Lopez-Crisosto et al., 2015). MFN2 è stato il primo componente strutturale dei MAMs ad essere identificato. La componente di Mfn2localizzata sulla membrana dell’ER è in grado di formare interazioni omo- ed eterotipiche con molecole di MFN2 e MFN1 presenti nella membrana mitocondriale, formando così un ponte tra i due organelli. Poiché una residua giustapposizione tra mitocondri ed ER è stata osservata anche in cellule Mfn2-/-, ne consegue che devono esistere altre molecoleancora da scoprire coinvolte nella modulazione dei contatti tra i due organelli. Abbiamo quindi voluto eseguire uno screening genomico su larga scala per identificare i componenti strutturali delle giunzioni tra mitocondri ed ER in fibroblasti embrionali murini (MEF). Per fare ciò, abbiamo sfruttato al meglio un biosensore basato sulla FRET sviluppato da Csordas et al., in cui la proteina CFP è fusa con il dominio funzionale FRB, e la proteina YFP con il dominio funzionale FKBP. Queste proteine andranno a legarsi rispettivamente all’ER (tramite la sequenza di localizzazione Sac1) ed ai mitocondri (tramite la sequenza di localizzazione Akap) (Csordas et al., 2010). Abbiamo modificato questo biosensore affinchéentrambe le molecole fluorescenti si trovassero su unico 3 mRNA e la loro espressione fosse guidata da un singolo promotore, tramitel’introduzione tra i loro cDNA del peptide auto-catalitico Tav2a (Luke et al., 2008). Grazie ai domini di legame FKBP e FRB, che interagiscono dopo l’aggiunta di rapamicina, siamo stati in grado di misurare sia il livello basale sia il massimo livello di giustapposizione tra i due organelli. Abbiamo poi utilizzato questo biosensore così modificato per seguire uno screening genetico su larga scala in modo da identificare le molecole che avvicinano o allontanano ER e mitocondri, definite rispettivamente come “tethers” e “spacers”. Abbiamo analizzato le immagini non processate ottenute tramite lo screening e calcolato per ogni gene il numero massimo di contatti possibili. A seguito dell’analisi automatizzata delle immagini e successivamente dell’analisi statistica, effettuata utilizzando il pacchetto cellHTS2 tramite la programmazione in R,dei dati dello screening primario effettuato su ~10000 geni, abbiamo classificato il 14.4% dei geni come tethers tra ER e mitocondri (i.e., geni che una volta rimossi aumentano la distanza tra i due organelli) e il 5.3% come spacers (i.e., geni che una volta rimossi diminuiscono la distanza tra i due organelli). L’analisi dei processi cellulari in cui questi geni risultano coinvolti tramite i programmi Reactome ePanther ha evidenziato sia pathways già noti sia altri che devono ancora essere esplorati in termini di comunicazione tra mitocondri ed ER. L’analisi della localizzazione subcellulare delle proteine classificate come “tethers” ha rivelato otto proteine per cui è stata predetta la localizzazione sia all’ER sia nella membrana mitocondriale esterna (OMM). Una di queste otto proteine è DMPK (myotonicdystrophyproteinkinase), abbiamo quindi ulteriormente caratterizzato come DMPK tether tra ER e mitocondri. DMPK risulta mutata nella distrofia miotonica 1 (DM1) (Cho and Tapscott, 2007). Questa proteina presenta sei isoforme note dovute asplicing alternativo sia nell’uomo sia nel topo (Wansink et al., 2003). Il ruolo di DMPK nella distrofia miotonica non è ancora completamente chiarito, in quanto il modello animale KO per questo gene sviluppa tardivamente miopatia e disfunzioni cardiache contrattili (Reddy et al., 1996). La localizzazione subcellulare delle varie isoformeè stata riportata ai mitocondri o all’ER, tuttavia molta meno enfasi è stata data alla sua rilevanza funzionale. 4 In conclusione, abbiamo sviluppato un nuovo metodo per determinare la prossimità tra ER e mitocondri ed abbiamo utilizzato questa tecnologia in uno screening genetico su larga scala per identificare nuovi componenti strutturali che regolano i contatti tra i due organelli. I dati ricavati da questo screening mettono in evidenza anche molti processi cellulari in cui le giunzioni tra mitocondri ed ER erano state implicate, ma il loro ruolo non è stato ancora completamente compreso. Le molecole identificate tramite il nostro screen aiuteranno quindi a svelare i componenti molecolari in questi pathways cellulari. 5 6 2. Summary Inter-organelle communication is a key feature of basic eukaryotic cells functions and of numerous cell signaling events(Bravo-Sagua et al., 2014). One of the best-characterized inter- organelle cross talk is that between Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and mitochondria(Lopez- Crisosto et al., 2015). Also referred to as mitochondria associated ER-membranes (MAMs), the existence of mitochondria-ER contacts was uncovered 50 years ago through electron microscopic studies(Copeland and Dalton, 1959). The 90s saw the first break-through in functional significance of the MAMs, when Vance and Rizzuto et al., showed that exchange of phospholipids and calcium transfer occurs between the two organelles(Rizzuto et al., 1998; Vance, 1990). Despite the importance of the tether in metabolism and disease(Cali et al., 2013; Giorgi et al., 2015; Vance, 2014), only few proteins have so far been described to maintain the structural integrity of the tether in mammals (Lopez-Crisosto et al., 2015). MFN2was the firststructural tether to be identified. ER localized MFN2 forms homo and heterotypic interactions with mitochondrialMFN2 and MFN1, thus tethering the two organelles. As residual juxtapositionexist in Mfn2-/-cells, yet to be discovered tethersmust exist (de Brito and Scorrano, 2008). Hence, we set out to perform a genome wide screening to identify the structural components of the tether in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). In order to perform the genome wide screening, we capitalized on the FRET based biosensor developed by Csordaset al., where CFP fused with FRB domain and YFP fused with FKBP domain were targeted to ER (by a Sac 1 signaling sequence) and mitochondria (by an Akap signaling sequence) respectively (Csordas et al., 2010). We modified this biosensor by driving expression of both fluorescent molecules from a single mRNA, introducing between their cDNAs a self-cleaving Tav2A peptide(Luke et al., 2008). This modification allows expressing equimolar level of the proteins. Thanks to FKBP and FRB binding domain, which interacts upon addition
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