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The Great Indo-European Horse Sacrifice OCCASIONAL PAPERS IN ARCHAEOLOGY 72 Anders Kaliff & Terje Oestigaard The Great Indo-European Horse Sacrifice 4000 Years of Cosmological Continuity from Sintashta and the Steppe to Scandinavian Skeid Distribution: eddy.se, https://arkeologi.bokorder.se/shop © Anders Kaliff & Terje Oestigaard 2020 Cover photo (front): Horse sacrifice. Artwork by Svein Bringsdal Cover photo (back): Picture stone from Väskinde cemetery, Gotland, Sweden, 5-7th century. Photo: Terje Oestigaard Layout cover: Martin Högvall, Grafisk service, Uppsala University Layout: Terje Oestigaard ISSN: 1100-6358 ISBN: 978-91-506-2832-6 Printed in Sweden by by DanagårdLiTHO AB, Ödeshög 2020 Published with financial contributions from: LAMP-Project: Languages and Myths of Prehistory (Unravelling the speech and beliefs of the unwritten past). Funded by Riksbankens Jubileumsfond Vilhelm Ekmans universitetsfond, Uppsala University Kungl. Gustav Adolfs Akademien för svensk folkkultur, Uppsala The great Indo-European horse sacrifice is one of the most enduring and widespread traditions in world history. This study presents a historic overview of Indo-European studies and shows the cosmological continuity of the horse-sacrificial tradition based on specific cultural innovations and ecological adaptations over time. It also sheds new light on cultural history through in-depth analysis of horse sacrifice in culture and cosmology. From Sintashta in Russia and the steppes to the legendary ashwamedha ritual in India and horse sacrifices in Roman, Greek and Irish traditions, the analysis finds that horse sacrifice appears to have been most successful in Scandinavia, with classic sites and funerals such as Sagaholm, Kivik and Håga in the Bronze Age and Old Uppsala, Rakne and Oseberg in the Iron Age. The horse-sacrifice tradition shows that these cosmological rituals were closely related to the region’s ecology, the weather and the availability of water that was required for a successful harvest. In the cold north, the sun was important for cultivation, but it was the relation between water and winter that defined the seasons and called for horse rituals, as recent skeid traditions show. Understanding horse sacrifice as an institution therefore provides new insights into prehistoric religion from the Bronze Age to recent folklore in rural Scandinavia. Contents Preface 1. Traditions through time 15 2. Creation of cosmos and world history 39 3. Ideal-types, theory and method 67 4. The meaning of the concept Indo-European: Use and misuse 99 5. The spread of Indo-Europeans: The clues of genetics – 125 a return to the classical 6. Ashwamedha 155 7. Skeid, well-water and fertility 183 8. Iron-Age horse sacrifices 215 9. Bronze-Age horse sacrifices 247 10. The sun and its relation to water, weather and winter 271 11. Cultural history and cosmology – Indo-European and 303 Scandinavian traditions 12. Epilogue 329 Literature 333 Occasional Papers in Archaeology 396 Skeid ritual. Litsleby 2 Tanum, Bohuslän, Sweden. Photo: Milstreu Gerhard. Source: www.shfa.se Preface The history behind this book is long, but we will keep it short. Covering 4000 years of history from Ireland to India and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean is a massive task. Certain aspects and sacrifices are discussed in more depth, while others are not covered at all. We have aimed to write a continuous narrative from the first to the last chapter, but at the same time, each chapter can also be read separately. A number of people have helped and inspired us over the years and we would like to thank all of them collectively. Those who have contributed most know who they are. Still, we would like to thank in particular Francesca de Châtel for her comments on language. Also, we would like to thank Svein Bringsdal for letting us use one of his artworks on the cover, Hans Eriksson – the owner of Flistad Well – for his hospitality, and Martin Högvall (Graphic Services, Uppsala University) for the cover layout. Importantly, we will also thank Prof. Jenny Larsson, Stockholm University, and the other members of the LAMP-project, and we are sincerely grateful for valuable financial support from: • LAMP-Project: Languages and Myths of Prehistory (Unravelling the speech and beliefs of the unwritten past, funded by Riksbankens Jubileumsfond) • Vilhelm Ekmans universitetsfond, Uppsala University • Kungl. Gustav Adolfs Akademien för svensk folkkultur, Uppsala Lastly, we would like to thank the Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University for support. All photos featured in the book are ours, unless otherwise stated (figures 11, 15, 17, 18, 23 & 55, and map p. xiii, are from Wikipedia/Wikimedia Commons. We have referred to the artist/origin when he/she/it is known and there are no other copyrights). The horse-ship (p. iv) is from Boglösa, Enköping, Sweden, drawing by E. Kjellén, 1925, www.shfa.se. Pictures of horses (without captions p. 38, 66, 124, 182 and 302) are from Håga, Sweden. Needless to say, we are responsible for the interpretations presented in this book, as well as for any errors. Anders Kaliff & Terje Oestigaard Uppsala, 15 June 2020 Present-day distribution of Indo-European languages. Man/god with horse-sized penis participating in royal/fertility ritual? Massleberg Skee, Bohuslän, Sweden. Photo: Torsten Högberg, www.shfa.se 1. Traditions through time ‘Ultimately, I will consider these myths of creation as one of the world’s most successful systems of ideology, given that they provided the mystifications and legitimations that sustained an extremely widespread, stable, and durable but also extremely rigid, hierarchic, and exploitative social system.’ Bruce Lincoln Myth, Cosmos, and Society: Indo-European Themes of Creation and Destruction (1986:4-5). Quest and questions Interest in the Indo-European question is greater than ever. This is in large part due to major breakthroughs in the analysis of ancient DNA (aDNA), which has resulted in new data and evidence, but which has also raised new questions (Kaliff 2018). Indo-European horse-sacrifice is one of the world’s most ancient and widespread traditions. We trace parts of the practice across large parts of Europe and Central Asia in the period ca. 2100BC-1900AD, albeit in culturally specific and changing forms. Moreover, the tradition also impacted social developments in many spheres, because this cosmogonic ritual embodied world views that affected most other spheres of lives and living. This interdisciplinary and cultural-historic study with an emphasis on religion and comparative cosmologies in contexts will: 1) analyse the great Indo-European tradition of horse sacrifice in a 4000-year historic context, from the Sintashta culture in Russia in the east to historical Scandinavia in the west, 2) develop a theoretical and methodological approach to the study of the Indo-European questions, long time-spans and material culture in relation to language, ideology and ritual practice, and with this new understanding and perspective, 3) interpret major Scandinavian funerals and mortuary practices, which will include but not be limited to famous Iron-Age graves 15 and cult places like Old Uppsala, Rakne and Oseberg and the Bronze-Age graves Kivik, Sagaholm and Håga, and finally, 4) discuss archaeological sources, discourses and resources from an ecological perspective, with a focus on water and winter, in order to understand prehistoric cosmology and continuities and change of the cosmology over millennia. Given that this is an immense task, this study will proceed methodologically by addressing successive themes, providing analysis and discussion before applying the findings to the interpretation of horse-sacrificial traditions and practices in prehistoric Scandinavia. The study addresses the following themes: First, traditions through time and the horse sacrifice as ‘ideal-type’. In a brief history of Indo-European studies on the great horse sacrifices, we will present Indian, Irish, Greek and Roman sacrificial traditions and discuss how similarities across time and space have, for over a century, led different scholars to retrace these traditions to a common ‘proto- Indo-European’ origin. This touches directly upon the many fundamental research challenges involved in analysing such grand rituals. Second, creation of cosmos and world history. The great horse sacrifice was an act of cosmogony or the creation and maintenance of cosmos, which implies that, archaeologically, one has to address the relationship between myths and cosmology, on the one hand, and rituals and sacrifices, on the other hand. Apart from the fact that the creation of the cosmos is part of world history from a religious point of view, given the broad geographical and chronological spans, Indo- European studies are part of world history and global comparative archaeology. While there are many ways to write world history, this study places particular emphasis on Scandinavian archaeology and how Indo-European studies have been conducted and criticised until recently, as this is the region with the longest historic trajectories and continuity of the ancient horse rituals. Third, ideal-types, theory and method. Cross-cultural comparison in time and space has been widely criticised and has often been seen as a formal analogy. This brings us to current theoretical developments in archaeology: this study is situated in the broader field of inter- disciplinary studies, combining ethnography and ethnology as the basis for developing ‘ideal-types’ for interpretative purposes. It also addresses
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