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Bulletin of Portuguese - ISSN: 0874-8438 [email protected] Universidade Nova de Lisboa

Colla, Elisabetta AND DESCRIBED BY FRANCESCO CARLETTI (1573?-1636) Bulletin of Portuguese - Japanese Studies, vol. 17, 2008, pp. 113-144 Universidade Nova de Lisboa Lisboa, Portugal

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16th Century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti (1573?-1636)

Elisabetta Colla * Centro Científico e Cultural de Macau,

Abstract

This paper will give a brief account on Macau and at the end of as described by the Florentine Merchant Francesco Carletti in his Codex 1331 (T.3.22) preserved in the Biblioteca Angelica in Rome is a XVIIth Century , also known as Ragionamenti del mio viaggio intorno al mondo, is the relate about the first private .

Resumo

Este ensaio visa a fornecer a descrição de Macau e Nagasaki nos finais dos anos Noventa do século XVI assim emerge no Codex 1331 (T.3.22) do mercador florentino Francesco Carletti, conservado na Biblioteca Angelica de Roma. Este manus- crito do século XVII é também conhecido por Ragionamenti del mio viaggio intorno al mondo, e apresenta a história da primeira circumnavegação efectuada com meios particulares.

要約

本稿は、ローマのアンジェリカ図書館所蔵(Codex 1331 (T.3.22))の、 フィレンツェ商人フランチェスコ・カルレッティの記録のうち、1590年 代のマカオと長崎に、焦点を当てるものである。17世紀に記された同記 録は、「世界周遊記」として知られ、それははじめての個人による（国 家事業ではないという意味）世界周遊に関する記録である。

Keywords:

XVIth century Macau and Nagasaki – Relations between Nagasaki and Macau – Chris- tian Mission in Macau and Nagasaki – the Italian Model

* Centro Científico e Cultural de Macau/Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia scholarship holder. 114 Elisabetta Colla

Macau e Nagasaki no século XVI – Relações entre Nagasaki e Macau – Missão Cristã em Macau e Nagasaki – O “modelo italiano”

16世紀のマカオと長崎,長崎＝マカオ関係－イタリア人から見たマカオと長崎 のカトリック宣教師－

Preface

Francesco Carletti left us a brief account of 16th century Nagasaki and Macau in his Codex 13311 where he provided a clear picture of the two , people, customs, architecture, food, dressing, habits, society, etc. Carletti reached Macau from Japan, where he remained between 1597 and March 1598. The Florentine merchant left us a quite detailed description of the time of Toyotomy Hideyoshi and of the of Wanli’s Reign (萬曆 1572-1620). Just a frame of the whole movie: Carletti circumnavigated the by private means between 1591-1606, his account is also a global picture of the principal route and commercial entrepôt of the beginning of the age of discoveries. The Codex 1331 is a manuscript written around 1615 and is preserved in the Biblioteca Angelica in Rome. Since the original would have been in the form of a notebook and – as Francesco Carletti declared – it was lost, we that the Codex 1331 could also be a transcription of an oral transmis- sion. This work, commonly known as Ragionamenti del mio viaggio intorno al mondo,2 is divided into two Discourses (West and ) and twelve

1 To date, we know that the original manuscript of the Chronicle has been lost lost. To the best of our knowledge, there is a corrupted printed (1701) and 4 manuscript versions. The Codex 1331 (T.3.22) preserved in the Biblioteca Angelica (Rome), is considered to be closer to the original version. I also believe the Codex 47, preserved in the Biblioteca Moreniana (Florence), would be trustworthy because there is an introductory note by Borgherini, son of Francesco Carletti’s cousin, and Manni, to whom this manuscript belonged, wrongly supposed him to be Antonio Carletti’s brother-in-law. Another manuscript is the so-called Gi n o r i -Ve n t u r i , a direct copy of the Mo r e n i a n o , and presents several transcriptions errors. The last manuscript is the Ma g l i a b e c h i a n o , which is the precise copy of the Gi n o r i -Ve n t u r i and corresponds to the Maga- ’s edition. Gemma Sgrilli assumed that the original Carletti’s version of the Chronicles was probably written between 1609/10-1615. (Sgrilli, 1905: 232-258; Colla, 2007). 2 Ragionamenti, i.e. a kind of discussion or dialogue between Francesco Carletti and a selected public from amongst the Florentine aristocracy. Many titles refers to the same work: Ragio- namenti di Francesco Carletti fiorentino sopra le cose da vedute ne’ suoi viaggi si dell’Indie Occidentali, e Orientali come d’altri paesi .Ragionamenti del mio viaggio intorno al mondo, Giro del mondo del buon negriero : Ragionamenti sopra le Cose vedute ne’viaggi dell’Indie occidentali e d’altri paesi 1594-1606. 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 115

Chronicles (quoted in ascending order from 1 to 12).3 In the seventh Chron- icle Carletti narrated the voyage from the Philippine to those of Japan and the account of Hideyoshi’s Second Invasion of , (1597-1598). In the eighth Chronicle, Nel quale si racconta il viaggio fatto dal Giappone alla Cina, e delle cose di quel Regno, the author recounted the voyage made from Japan to and about the things of that Kingdom ndt. and described a location that he identified as the 4 Amacao (fl. 105v) or città del Nome di Dio (fl.105v). In the Atlas Sinicus 5 which he brought with him to Flor-

3 This chapter order of the Codex 1331 does not appear in most of the various transcriptions and translations, or in the first edition of 1701. 4 The question of whether Macau was an Island or a Peninsula or both is not clear but Carletti defines Macau as an Island. Barreto summarizes the categorization of Macau as an Island or Peninsula in his work, quoting various authors: Jean Baptiste Du Halde, Edmonds, among others. Ce don’t les Portugais sont en possession depuis plus d’un Siècle, est célébre par le grand Commerce ’ils y faisoient, lorsqu’ils étoient les Maîtres d’une partie considerable des Indes. Ils y on tune Forteresse avec une très-petite Garnison, parce qu’ils ne sont pas en état d’y entretenir beaucoupe de troupes. La Ville est bâtie dans une petite Peninsule, où si l’on veut, dans une petite Isle, parce qu’elle est séparée de la terre par une Riviére, que le flux & le reflux grossit. Cette Langue de terre ne tient au reste de l’Isle que par une Gorge fort étroite où l’on a bâti une muraille de sépa- ration. Jean Baptiste Du Halde – Description Geographique, Historique, Chronologique Politique et Physique de L’ de la Chine, A La Haye: Chez Henri Scheurleer, 1736, vol. I, p. 241. Martino Martini S.J. speaks of Jacet haec civitas in exigua peninsula insulae majoris, a peninsula in a island. Macau is described in the (Quangtung) in the chapter about Quangcheu (), the of this has about 15 loca- tions, in which Macau is described apart.: Macaum haud dubie inter nobilissima totius Indiae emporia jam pridem est numeratum, de quo tacere hic fere praestat, quam nimis pauca dicere; quia tamen ab aliis haec fusius deducta sunt, brevibus, quae hi necessaria, perstringam. Jacet haec civitas in exigua peninsula insulae majoris, in ipso promontorio fortissimo ac viribus humanis bene inexpugnabili loco, undique mari cincta, si Borealem terrae quasi linguam excipias; mare circumcirca habet minime altum, unde navibus vix patet accessus, nisi per ipsum portum, ad quem egregium munimentum est: illud naves tantum non radere coguntur, cum portum ingredi volunt, ubi compluca praeclara atque insignia sunt maiora tormenta, nusquam enim plura aut meliora, quam hoc in loco conflari existimo […]. Ubi nun curbs est, olim idolum erat Ama dictum, e quia optima ibi navium station est, quam Sinae dicunt, hinc Amacao ortum est nomen, cnm alias dicendum fuisset Amagao; hic itaque hactenus incultus locus ab Lusitanis excoli e habitari caeptus est, ipsis concedentibus Sinis, atque ultro annuentibus. [Macau has already been considered for a long time one of the most important markets of all , of which I would rather be silent than say less about, but, since this was already described by others more diffusely, I would rather let slip what I consider necessary. The is located on a small peninsula of the major island, on a promontory well defended and invincible, everywhere surrounded by sea, except a small strip of land in the north. All around, the sea is not very deep so that the ships could easily get near the port, where there is a big fortress, provided with a lot of powerful cannons, which the ship, when entering the port cannot avoid. I believe that in no other place there are cannons as such. […] Where now the city arises, once there was an idol, called Ama, and there was also a good berth for the ship, that called Gao, from which the name Amacao is originated and that better should be said Amagao. ndt.]. Martino Martini – Opera Omnia, vol. III, tomo II, Trento: Universitá degli Studi di Trento, 2002, p. 134. 5 Atlas Sinicus sive regni sinarum descriptio geographica in ipso sinarum regno impressa charta et characterius sinicis, 2 volumes, preserved in the Biblioteca Nacional di Firenze, Mgb. Cl. XIII, 116 Elisabetta Colla

Francesco Carletti – Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale - Florence. Frontespice of the first edition (1701). 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 117 ence this toponym was marked simply as xiangshan 香山, but he had already recognized it as the place of the idol Ama 娘妈 or as Amagao (Jin; , 2007: 165) The description of the voyage from Japan to China and his journey to Macau also gives us relevant details about some tributary states of the Ming (Mingdai chaogong guo 明代朝贡国).6

1. The context

Among the 17th century European travel literature, we find four manu- scripts 7 which originated one little known publication from 1701 about a cir- cum- that took place between 1591 and 1606.8 Quite recently several later Italian, one Spanish translation, other English, French, German, Dutch copies have followed even if all basically based on the publication. It was only at the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to Gemma Sgrilli, who developed the first comprehensive critical work on theRagionamenti and his author, that the Codex 1331 has become more and more famous. Francesco Carletti was not a famous navigator but a young Florentine merchant.9 In the Renaissance, European travellers developed their perceptions of ethnic, political and religious diversity, marking a break with the medieval tradition. Individual narratives about overseas discovery by Italian mer- chants resulting from cross-cultural encounters in the age of discoveries were an important group of the genres of Renaissance . They brought a shift of emphasis, outlining broad geographical perspectives and often paid great attention to detailed observations and sometimes their personal experiences served as a corrective to the rhetorical bias of the more educated writers. Since they did not respond to the pressure of the imperial doctrine prevailing at court, there was a certain level of objectivity in their accounts. The Ragionamenti was different from other official writings

1 and 2b. Probably based on the Guang yu tu 廣輿圖 (edited in 1579) by Siben 朱思本 and served as the base of Martino Martini S.J.’s Novus Atlas Sinensis. 6 Conchinchina (also known at that time as Annan安南), quoted by Carletti in (fl. 122), Siam (fl. 139) and Pegu (fl. 149 v.). Carletti was not the first to give a detailed account of this . Fernão Mendes Pinto (1509/10-1583) in the account of the voyages by the sixteenth century adventurer to Ethiopia, China, Tartaria, Cochin-china, Siam, Pegu, Japan, and much of the East- Indies, sometime blending fact with fiction, they provide a very colourful narrative of shipwrecks, captivity, . 7 See note number 1. 8 The edition passed through the censorship and therefore is slightly modified from the Codex 1331 and the Ma g l i a b e c h i a n o . 9 This is why his work took almost one century before being revised and published. 118 Elisabetta Colla because it was written by a person of natione italiana 10 who had a neutral position in the geographical space of the Iberian conquest. But we cannot forget that actually the Italian city states, not Spain and Portugal, were the dominant shippers of inter-European trade. The Catalans, Castilians, Portu- guese and their actions were not described by a “co-” in the Codex 1331, but by a neutral observer. Reading the Raginamenti, Carletti not only emerges as a merchant- traveller (family tradition), but also as narrator, therefore belonging to the category of “merchant-traveller-narrator”, following a certain tradition opened by . And furthermore, an anthropologist ante literam, whose style could perhaps be considered in some aspects as a precursor of the “scientific prose”.11 The purpose of Carletti was to convey the world he met and visited in logically ordered ideas, that were exactly, concisely and clearly expressed. In contrast to the annual letters from the Jesuit - aries, Carletti and other merchants left us a kind of reportage written without any apparent celebrative aim; the style was dry and devoid of any kind of apologetic elements and there was no need to show the strength of intellec- tual exercise or the power of a city-state. The Ragionamenti was more a kind of notebook in a conversational style, where he recorded many data both for practical reasons (he was a merchant) and for exotisme. As a Florentine, he was afforded a neutral position, especially between Spanish and Portuguese historical actors, and was able to go from one place to the other according to his needs. Francesco Carletti belonged to a traditional merchant family and, pushed by his father Antonio, he began his adventure with the declared intent of buying Moorish slaves in Ethiopia to sell to the . However, his destiny was completely different. He reached the West Indies (Panama, and ) through West before continuing his journey to the East Indies: the Philippine Islands, Japan, Macau (where his father died), and . In the morning of

10 Italian “nation”, that means cultural or social community. In this specific case the Italian natione, could be used as synonymous of the Florentine community. Before 18th century the term nation was not very far from the meaning we give today to the same word. When Carletti quotes the category natione Italiana, of course he is defining a class of people that were mainly speaking the same language: the Tuscan that began to predominate after Dante’s Divina Commedia (). Because of the central position of Tuscany in , and the aggressive trade of its most important city, Florence, its language was spreading very quickly soon becoming the basis of the volgare; Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) had the merit of disseminating some of his works using the volgare instead of Latin in order to make his research available to a wider audience. 11 That will appear regularly only in the late 17th century, the honour roll in the 16th and 17th centuries, one would have to include Copernicus’s De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Bacon’s Novum organum, Kepler’s Dioptice, Galileo’s Sidereus nuncius, Descartes’s Discours de la méthode, and Newton’s Principia. Galileo Galilei is normally considered the father of scientific prose, i.e. his way of writing was the first step to the creation of this new literary style. 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 119

Christmas 1601 he made an agreement with the of the Galeão (also San Jacopo) from Goa directed to Lisbon. The Santiago was shipwrecked in 1602 in Saint Helen, when VOC (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie) was formed. Carletti’s journey was stopped by Zeeland ships in where most of his merchandise12 was confiscated and he finally reached . It was only in 1606 that he got back to Florence, empty handed except for the experience acquired, many adventures to recount and the Atlas.13 In sum, his memories were the only treasure he brought with him. This long voyage, which brought Francesco Carletti to different key points of the 16th century trade routes, appeared to be much more valuable than silk, and , especially for the Grand Duke of Tuscany who planned to transform the port of (Leghorn) into an important interna- tional trade depot, a project that he never fulfilled. It was not by chance that Carletti became the Maestro (lit. Master, counselor at the court) of Cosimo II de’ Medici (1521-1621).14 After 15 years the only “luggage” he could bring back was the Chronicles he related at the court of Ferdinand I (1549-1609), which were translated into English by Herbert Weinstock (1905-1971).15 The twelve Chronicles of the Ragionamenti were divided into six about the West Indies and six about the East Indies; however, if we consider the number of folios we find a clear imbalance between the first Discourses with 69 folios and the second with 145. This difference was probably due to the fact that events in the Medici Court during the 17th century were more recent and therefore fresher in his memory. The Chronicles about Japan is followed by the account on China/Macau the largest in the whole Codex and contained 39 folios. This clear separation between the first and the second Discourse could be associated to the imaginary line designed running north and south through the mid-Atlantic on the map, when on 4th May 1493 Pope Alexan- der VI (1431-1503) began the process that led to the (or Tordesilhas) with the Inter Coetera bull. Pope Alexander VI was himself Spanish, and to clear up any confusion that may have arisen over territorial

12 Three or four Dutch vessels whose Capitan was Gerardo de Roy who shot against the Portu- guese from the Zelanda vessel, defeating them. The Santiago (main ship of the trade team) led by António di Melo de (Portugal) had just sailed around the of Good Hope, very close to Saint Helena Island, where Carletti was travelling, and was waiting for the other vessels to continue on their route to Lisbon. (Sgrilli 1905: 154; Barchiesi, 1978: 163-82; Brito, 1735-1736). 13 Atlas Sinicus sive regni sinarum descriptio geographica in ipso sinarum regno impressa charta et characterius sinicis, 2 volumes. 14 He was the eldest son of Ferdinand I de’ Medici (1549-1609), Grand Duke of Tuscany and of Christine of Lorraine. Cosimo II de Medici was succeeded by his oldest son who reigned as Ferdinand II (1610-1670). 15 In this paper I will use Winstock’s translation with some slight modification to be closer to the Codex 1331; the original folio number will be quoted in the text and put in brackets. 120 Elisabetta Colla claims decreed that Spain would have possession of any unclaimed to the west of the line and Portugal would have possession of any unclaimed territory to the east of it. The virtual division of this geographical space and all its political implications emerged very clearly throughout Carletti’s Discourses; for example, on talking about the Philippine Islands: “[…] fur- thest terminus of the conquest by the of Castile, made in 1564 during the reing of King Philip. This is why they are called the . They were subjugated and controlled by Castilian who, navigating by way of the West Indies and proceeding constantly to the west, finally arrived in the Far from which they had departed” (fl. 61v). Probably Francesco Carletti’s manuscript was circulating at the dawn of the Italian Rinascimento, a period of great cultural change and achieve- ment. This epoch was centered in the city of Florence from the 14th to the 16th century before spreading to other cities and creating a great impact in Rome. When Francesco was travelling, Clement VIII (1592-1605) who was also from a Florentine family was the Pope regent. After Innocent IX’s death on 30 January 1592, the conclave issued “ smoke” and Cardinal Ippolito Aldobrandini (1536-1605) was elected. He was received as a simbol of a more balanced and liberal Papal policy in European affairs and played a key role as a wise statesman. His policy was to free the Papacy from its dependence on Philip II of Spain (1527-1598). When he died in 1605, his successor was Pope Leo XI – a Medici. His , Francesca Salviati (16th century), was the daughter of Giacomo Salviati (1461-1533) and Lucrezia de’ Medici (1470-1553) and sister of Leo X, while his father also had a dis- tant connection to the Medici family. The Medici family (ca. 1360-1675) was very powerful and influential. During Carletti’s time, Ferdinand I de’ Medici (1549-1609) fostered commerce and gained great wealth through the Medici bank network which was established in all the major European cities. When Carletti was travelling, the society of Jesuits that was approved by Pope III (1534-1549)16 with the Regimini militantis ecclesiae (1540) had already settled in most areas of the discovered world together with Franciscans and Dominicans. Economically we witnessed the rise of maritime commerce on a world scale and the centre of economic exchange moved from the Mediter- ranean Sea to the oceans where there was a prolific environment of com- mercial micro-equilibrium. The Braudelian model spoke of a micro-cosmos where European merchants played their game of economic exchange with local mediators (Braudel, 1989). The Portuguese and the Spanish were the main actors when Carletti began his journey, but at the end the rise of Dutch power, which would later break up the maritime empire, was also visible.

16 Alessandro Farnese (1468-1549). 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 121

1.1. Carletti and Japanese historical frame: 南蛮貿易時代, nanban-bóeki- jidai,17 豊臣秀吉 Totoyomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598) and the “daimyo phenomenon” 大名 daimyóno

Charles Boxer, in his work18 considered the “Christian Century in Japan” as the starting point of the modern transformation. The development foreign trade was also very important, but emphasis should be placed on other phenomenon such as the so called “daimyo ” and the fight for national hegemony. An epoch protagonized by Oda Nobunaga 織田 信長 19 and Tyotomi Hideyoshi 豊臣 秀吉, the achievement of military consolidation and the establishment of a new shogunate in 20 (1603-1868). As we can read from the Chronicle, “At the time when I reached that kingdom, the universal overlord was Taico Sama, who also was called Quam, Bacco, Dono, and – earlier, when he had been a soldier and a private – Fashiba. Later he became the tyrant of all that , though he was not born king or even of royal blood” (fl. 113).21 Sengoku Jidai戦 国 時 代,22 which can be seen as the violent competition for land and status, through the so-called Gekokujó 下克上 23 phenomenon, at the end, was essential to achieve unification and political stability with Tokugawa hegemony. “He [Hideyoshi] reached the position by violence of arms and by his own valour, being him before a farmer, a villain of poor conditions. Then, having become a soldier, he reached a captaincy. Then, in the army of King Nobunanga, he became the King’s general”, and under-

17 The southern barbarian trade period (1543-ca. 1650). 18 He quotes in the introduction “The period of Japanese history known as the Christian century was decisive for the development of Japan’s relations with the West. But for the introduction, growth, and forcible suppression of militant in the sixteenth and seventeenth centu- ries, it seems probable that Tokugawa Japan would not have retired into its isolationist shell”, (Boxer, 1951: p. ix.) 19 Oda Nobunaga 織田 信長(1594-1582) daimyó 大名 during the Sengoku Jidai 戦 国 時 代. 20 江戸 Edo, lit. River-door, means estuary, the actual . 21 (豊臣秀吉, original surnames Kinoshita 木下 and Hashiba 羽柴), as we can read Carletti confirmed that he was of peasant lineage and since he was born with no traceable lineage and hence without a surname. He joined the Oda clan as a lowly servant. He was noticed for his resourcefulness and rose to a high position within a relatively short amount of time and later become one of Nobunaga’s generals. 22 Sengoku 戰國 literally means "country at war", also known as "age of war" in Japanese (some say "the age of the country at war"), it was a time where almost the whole of Japan was embroiled in fighting, a term which somehow reminds us theZhanguo shidai 戰國時代, or period of Chinese “Warring States”. 23 Literally means “the lower overcomes/conquers the upper”, and is a concept used when the retainers and subjects came to reject traditions and values of the prior establishment and force- fully their leaders to establish their own independence 122 Elisabetta Colla lined the complicated historical phase when he says that can be divided into the Muromachi-jidai 室町時代, (Muromachi 1336-1573),24 Onin War (Ónin no Ran 応仁の乱 1467-1477), which continued into the Azuchi- Momoyama-jidai 安土桃山時代, (Azuchi-Momoyama period 1568-1600),25 exactly when Carletti arrived in Japan, the daimyo power was feeding the aspiration of provincial lords to reach beyond regional control towards national supremacy. But the samurai 26 class during the was the one that consolidated power as the ruling class. In the Edo period, this class of warriors turned into a bureaucratic class although they did not abandon their original military function. With the invasion of Korea (1592-1598), in Japan began the so-called Keichó era (Keichójidai 慶長時代),27 but Hideyoshi’s field generals arranged a truce with the Chinese that fails to meet Hideyoshi’s military objectives. In 1597, the year when the Carletti’s arrived to Nagasaki,28 Hideyoshi ordered the death of twenty-six as Francesco testified in his chronicle during the “[…] debarking at the city of Nagasaki, we went immediately to see the spectacle of those poor (as regards this world) six of Saint Francis, of the discalced Spanish order, who had been crucified with twenty other Japanese Christians – among them three who had donned the habit of the Jesuits – on the fifth of the month of of that same year, 1597” (fl. 105).29 These martyrs “raised on the crosses 30 and placed on the top of a

24 The Muromachi bakufu, the Ashikaga era, the Ashikaga period, or the Ashikaga bakufu. 25 Sengoku Epoch, which ended finally with the installation of the so-called Edo-jidai 江戸時代, when in 1615 a long peaceful period began under leadership of Tokugawa bakufu 徳川幕府, the first “” (shógun 将軍) of the Edo Period. 26 The Japanese samurai (士 shi) was a class of warriors (different from ronin 浪人, the samurai without a master) linked to a strict code of honor called bushidó 武士道, so strict that it could oblige a warrior to comit seppuku 切腹 – in case of losing honour, came into existence in the 12th century when two powerful Japanese clans fought bitter wars against each other – the Taira and the Minamato. At that time the “Japanese shogunate” or bakufu 幕府, a system of a military ruler, called the shógun 将軍, was formed. Under the shógun 将軍the next hierarchy were the daimyó 大名, local rulers comparable to dukes in Europe. The Japanese samurai were the military retainers of a daimyó 大名. 27 This should be defined as the Keichó era 慶長 I: a conventional way to classify the passing of time, beginning from 1596 (the first Japan-Korea war) up to 1615. This system of course shows clearly Chinese Imperial influences. Since 645 (up to 1845), Japan had adopted the . 28 Situated, as he wrote, at a latitude of from thirty to thirty-two degrees toward the north (fl. 99). 29 In 1596, Toyoyomi Hideyoshi confiscates the Spanish Galleon San Felipe, inaugurating his of Catholic and in 1597, twenty six Japanese and foreign Christians were crucified at Nagasaki by order of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who died the following year. 30 “The crosses were made like thato one on which outr Redeemer was crucified, but each addi- tionally hád a piece of wood in the middle of the shaft or trunk and emerging from the back” […] 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 123 mountain, a place that is ‘an arquebus shot’ from the city” (fl. 105), and ended the crude description by saying “this is the of in Japan” (fl. 106). In the same year Hideyoshi moved to Osaka Castle and ordered the second invasion of Korea.31 On 18 1598, Totoyomi Hideyoshi died and, soon after, the Japanese invading armies were recalled from Korea, when Carletti had already left Nagasaki.

2. Shonin 商人 Carletti and his account about 16th century Japan

Francesco Carletti related to the Grand Duke of Tuscany: “after having been in Japan from the month of June until that of March of the year 1598, we gave thought to leaving and going toward China. […] And that ship 32 made a landfall when passing by the […] island of Macau,33 as I shall tell in

“at the feet, furthermore, there was a piece of wook across, resembling the crosspiece above, but not so large” […] “To it the feet were fastened, with the legs apart. And instead of nails they used iron straps hammered into the wood and holding the wristis, the neck, and the legs close to the feet”, op. cit., pp. 105-106. 31 It was reported in a letter of Father Luís Fróis (1532-1597) that around 300.000 Korean prisoners of war were brought as slaves to Nagasaki. In Francesco Carletti’s ‘Discourses’ we find that Carletti in 1597 bought 5 of them, according to him, for ridiculously low prices: “The country of Korea is said to be divided into provinces, the names of which Cioseien, which is the capital province and gives its name to the city in which the King resides, Quienqui, Conguan, Honliay, Cioala, Hienfion, Tioneion, Hanquien, Pianchien. From these provinces, but particularly from those nearest to the coast, had been brought as slaves a large number of men and women of all ages, among them some quite pretty children. These were all being sold indifferently at a very cheap price, and I bought as many as five for a little more than twelve scudi” (op. cit., p. 115) One of Carletti’s converted Korean pupils later went together with Carletti to Holland and later to Rome, Italy and lived there – the first Korean to visit Europe – his name was Antonio Correa (1578?-1626). In the the Vatican send him to to re-enter Korea as a , but he was not successful. 32 He is talking about the ship that usually came to Nagasaki, the so called Nau do Trato (a merchant ) – which among other journeys, made commercial voyages between Macau and Japan, when Chinese officials banned direct trade with Japan in 1547. Carletti describe “Very good business is done between that country and other lands. But there is a very great lack of vessels ready to make long voyages, though the Japanese make them in every way, and at much risk, to diverse places. That is, they go to the Philippine Islands, to which they take wheat flour and other sorts of provisions and merchandise, at a profit of from sixty to one hundred per cent. […]” (fl. 129). Evidence proves that Portuguese trade along the China coast began shortly after the conquest of Malacca in 1511. However, it took some forty years until the Portuguese were able to acquire a permanent base in Macau. In the pre-Macau period Portuguese trade was periodically interrupted. After the foundation of Macau in the mid it became more regular and centred on the exchange of Chinese silk for Japanese and Spanish silver. Beyond Japan, Macau traded with and various other places in Southeast , with India, Europe and also west India and, of course, with other of Imperial China. Of all its trading partners, Canton and Nagasaki were the most important ones and major trade entrepôts of that region (Boxer, 1948: 268). 33 The name “Macau” is thought to be derived from “’Templo de A-Má” 媽閣廟 澳門 Àomén means "Inlet Gates". Explica “Macau Island”, see article. 124 Elisabetta Colla the next chronicle” (fl. 135). In the beginning of the first Chronicle of the East Indies the author states: “I therefore shall begin to tell you of the voyage that we made from the Philippine Islands to those of Japan, for which place we embarked in the month of May in the year 1597 on a vessel of the sort that the Japanese call «somme» and which differ from ours in all respects” (fl. 96). The so-called “Japanese section” 34 of the Chronicle, as well as the Chinese one, are the longest of the whole work. But while the “second Chronicle of the East Indies” appears more elaborated, because it was written through the lenses of material absorbed from other’s writings, the first one seems mainly based on personal observation. The first Discourse of the Second part of the Ragionamenti, is a vivid account, somewhat crude framework of a hostile environment, just half a century before all outsiders were banned for centuries, under the promulgation in 1650 of the “Sakoku鎖国”,35 or Seclusion Laws during Tokugawa bakufu 徳川幕府 (or ). Carletti was fascinated by Japanese life. As we know, after opening the sea-route to India in 1498 began to build up their seaborne 36 empire, but they only reached Japan ( Island 種子島 – south of today’s 鹿児島県 -ken)37 in a Chinese in 1543. Since trade between China and Japan was forbid- den by the founder that promulgated the Maritime Prohibition ( 海禁),38 the contact between China and overseas foreigners was to take place only through official diplomatic embassies known as tribute mis- sions. Portuguese restored and monopolized the trade between these two nations and opened the nanban-bóeki-jidai 南蛮貿易時代 (1543-1650).39 The earlier European accounts about Japan, when the propagation of Christianity was in a historical chaotic condition, were based on descriptions

34 “The first chronicle of the East Indies. In which is told the voyage from the Philippine Islands to those of Japan, and other notable things of that region” (Weinstock, 1964: 95-135). 35 Literally means “close a country”. 36 A category introduced by Boxer. 37 The South of Kyushu, South Japan, today what is part of the Kagoshima Prefecture. In the 17th century it was the so-called headquarters city of the Satsuma domain of southernmos Kyushu. Pinto was not probably present in the first Portuguese contact with the Japanese, although he did in fact visit Tanegashima soon after, and legend says he married a local women and had a son. Before the modern prefecture system was established, the land of Japan was divided into tens of kuni (国, countries). The province was divided into gun earlier kóri (郡, counties) but under the rule of Hidyoshi, the provinces as administrative units were totally replaced with daimyos' han 藩, which was abolished on 1817, when the prefecture system was introduced. 38 海禁 Haijin in Chinese, in Japanese kaikin (ideographically represented by the same characters) from 1371, repeatedly issued decrees that prohibited the Chinese from voyaging overseas for private purposes and thereby rigidly circumscribed the opportunities for foreign trade. 39 Literally the Southern barbarian trade period also known as Nanban trade period. 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 125 mostly spread through the Jesuit sources. The first Europeans to visit Japan should have come in the of Chinese illicit traders, so did and his interpreter Yajiró (a wakó 倭寇).40 But the aim of the Jesuit mission 41 was officially different from the aim of a merchant, which prin- cipal – if not only scope – was trade. The “sons of Loyola” adapted themselves to the Japanese way of living (the right way to infiltrate themselves into the ) and demonstrated their genius for compromise and mimicry. The attitude of the Jesuits towards Japanese culture and civilization was of course managed and organized by Valignano: tireless leader of the Jesuit enterprise in the Far East and Visitor. If in Japan they transformed themselves in Zen priests, in China they soon realized that they had to act as Confucian literati. This could not wipe out the differences between the European and Japanese, more evident to the merchants, who were militating around the Japanese world of Azuchi- Momoyama-jidai 安土桃山時代 (or Momoyama period 1568-ca. 1600),42 and sustained the mission which largely depended for its existence on the resources and facilities furnished by Goa, Macau and Malacca, where Portuguese influence was predominant. But among the Jesuits we havea combination of various European countries. Even during the Age of Discov- eries the Spanish and Portuguese were officially competing for trade influ- ence and used their language as an extension of their conquest, what actually occurred in various strategic areas of was a recreation of the Medi- terranean world where a mixture of Italian, Castilian, Portuguese, and Turkish was spoken. Japan was considered to be involved in the Chinese tributary system since the in a relationship that was disturbed by many facts, among them. During the Ming Period (1368-1644) Japan continued

40 Wakó 倭寇, means pirate/piracy, whose Chinese pronunciation is , same sinograms. were pirates who raided the coastlines of Imperial China and Korea from the 13th century onwards. They were comprised largely of Japanese soldiers, rónin浪人: literally, wave man – one who is tossed about, like a wave in the sea and merchants, and later also of Chinese bandits and smugglers (Arano Yasunori, 2005: 185-216). 41 Protected only few years later by the ‘great patron’ the daimyó 大名 Ótomo Yoshishige and consequently was always well disposed toward the Portuguese. Sórin sought to secure his posi- tion as , meanwhile secure his position establishing firm legacies overseas. Like quoted in “Avisi particolari delle Indie di Portugallo. Novamente havuti questo anno del 1555 da Reve- rendi Padri della Compagnia di Jesù si ha informatione delle gran cose che si fanno per augmento de la santa fede. Con la descriptione e costumi delle genti del regno de la China, & altri paesi incogniti novamente trovati. Romae apud Antonium Bladum Impressorem Came- ralem. 1556”, where together with Ótomo Yoshishige, we have Arima Harunobu (Dom Protasio), Ómura Sumitada (Dom Bartolomeu), the so-called “Christian daimyo”. 42 Sengoku-jidai 戦国時代, warring states era. 126 Elisabetta Colla to play the role of “tribute-bearing”.43 During Ming China the Sino-Japanese trade was granted by Japanese merchants and Chinese brokers and it was the only way permitted and the sole legal channel for the direct exchange of commodities. In 1567 a new emperor surprisingly took their side and decreed an “Open Seas” policy. Foreign traders were still forbidden to land in China except on tribute missions, but Chinese were allowed to sail abroad so long as they obtained licenses and paid tolls and taxes, and so long as they did not sail to Japan, which was considered too friendly to pirates. Carletti was in between the religious and merchant world and registered most of these aspects in his Ragionamenti.

2.1. The described by Francesco Carletti

Between 1550 and 1700 Japan became one of the most urbanized societies of the world. Due to the rapid increase of the population, the unprec- edented concentration of people in an area little more than 400 thousand sq km, the “sengoku cities 戦国城”were carefully planed and divided into three prin-cipal types of urban settlement. Of course during this warring period the were built headquarters the jókamachi 城下町(castle ) of the daimyo. Meanwhile, there was a growing merchant class, at the bottom of the Confucian hierarchy, daimyo 大名, established within the precincts of the new castle , officially authorized where commodity transactions could take place carefully and also residence was encouraged there. Finally, the jinaimachi 寺内町 or “temple-town”, fought for a long time for from the daimyo大名. In 1580, Oda Nobunaga destroyed Ishiyama石山 (Osaka), where soon after Hideyoshi built his castle, and step by step issued edicts so that to clearly divide the warriors, from merchants and peasants. Carletti spoke about “Nagasaki, which was populated wholly by Japanese Christians 44 and had a very few of Portuguese merchants, who were remaining there under the rule of that King”[…] “The end of the streets all are closed by gates, [which] also have guards 45 who let no one pass who will not give his name […]. The nearest neighbours are required to do that also when some misdeed takes place near their houses”. “The houses […] are made of wood

43 The “tribute-bearing” system was not new to China, but the Ming policy was extreme. It stipulated that all contacts between Chinese people and “foreigners” also referred to as Folangji 佛郎機 in the Ming dynastic archives, should be only as formal missions. No unofficial visits by foreign traders would be tolerated, nor were Chinese allowed to sail abroad, except on tribute missions. 44 Christian Daimyo. 45 These guards had also a function as firemen. 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 127 worked with such artifice that, because all the materials have been worked out to the design and measure first, a can be erected in two days” (fls. 120-121). And he continued with a description full of details, aimed at underlining the creativity, engineering perfection and innovation of this kind of house made in a timber “like ” (fl. 121). The houses were very clean and decorated, on the floors all the rooms had a finger thick straw pad (called fatami 46) made by yo-yo (fl. 123),47 and the walls were decorated by pictures that Japanese call “biobus” (fl. 122) the “wind wall” or byobu 屏 風: folding screen “[…] with the sight of various paintings of different birds and flowers and animals and ohter fantasies all gallantly colored in fresco and all decorated with […] ” (fl. 122) a beautiful fashion that still endures in Japanese houses.

2.2. Exotic Japan

Carletti does not hide the fact that the Japanese are different from Europeans when general in relating that “their customs are no less strange than varied” (fl. 124). Japan’s exotic allure contributed of course a very deep description of Japanese way of living in “their way of carring the , that they use to eat fresh and slated fish” (fl. 124), and add “in everything doing the opposite of what we do” (fl. 125). The fashion is the same for men and women, but they vary according the age. Silk dresses were made in various colours; normally the poor wears blue, or black garments made of cotton, white is reserved for morning. The clothes were placed one over the other. They wrap their shameful parts in some cotton cloth. The beautiful Japanese women clearly fascinated him: “reasonably white”, “with tiny eyes” and “black teeth” 48 (fl. 126). They also tint their hair black, very far from the aesthetic canons imposed by the Renais- sance: “golden hair [and] white teeth” (fl. 124). Men, are hairless, and they are used to “wear the hair somewhat long, with that of the temples from the middle of the head down toward the nape of the neck and bound neatly together behind, so that it resembles a plume, and they trim the ends of this hair, which they comb and retie every morning” (fls. 128-129). Puccini’s “Madame Butterfly” () is deeply rooted in Naga- saki history. Carletti related certain Japanese customs that he described as:

46 The misspelling is in the original manuscript. Of course Carletti is referring to the Tatami畳. 47 Probably the rush used to make the tatami 畳. 48 Because they used to varnish like ink when they become bribes, the same did noblemen when reached the age of fifteen or sixteen. 128 Elisabetta Colla

“These people, even those belonging to the gentry, ordinarily contract mar- riage with only one woman, and they deal with death to both parties if they are caught” (fl. 126). He also recorded the “price of the bribe” which was a common practice at that time not only in Japan. At that time there was also a big traffic in women, and Portuguese were good witness of this, because “as soon as they have arrived, come the agents of the women, looking them up in the houses in which they are lodging for [nine month]. And they ask them if they want to buy a virgin girl or have her in some other way that would please them more, and this for the time that they will be there, or just to have her for some nights or days or months or hours” (fl. 127-128). We know from the same Chronicle, that the Portuguese paid thirty or forty scudos, which contributed to their dowry saved for later, when these young Japanese girls got married, a contract to that effect being signed with the go-between or the family. The Dutch merchants continued this practice during the 250 years that they were allowed, as the only foreigners, to stay in Japan on the tiny, of 出島Dejima or Deshima in the harbour of Nagasaki. Suddenly exotic Japan become harsh Japan, when Carletti described the way they punish adultery 49 “[…] taking man and woman, they put them into a wagon and take them, bound and with their hands behind their backs, to the house of the husband. And in his presence they cut off the man’s penis and take enough skin from his body to make a sort of cap, this to put on the head of the adulterous woman. And from near her shameful part they cut a strip of flesh from around the vagina, making a garland of it to place on the head of the adulterous man” (fls. 126-127). Also different was the Japanese way of sailing, because they “[…] do not make use of either maps or astrolabes” [but] “they have the science of the winds, and they use the magnet and the compass differently” (fl. 98), and described how the Japanese use the water compass. He dedicated many pages in describing the cha 茶 (fl. 100), whose “leaf is produced by a plant that grows almost like that of the box tree except that its leaves are three times as large and it remains green throughout the year” (fl. 100) and the “wine made of ”, commonly known as sake, but which means shu 酒, alcohol. They also prepared many kind of dishes “from fish, which they favour with certain sauce of theirs whtich they call misol [miso みそ]” (fl. 110). Like in the “Chinese Chronicle”, he also transmitted that “these people of Japan use letters and characters of their own, writing with them, but they also understand Chinese books” (fl. 132), and drawing a wonderful table of the “Japanese alphabet” (fl. 133).

49 The so-called mittsu 秘譚, or “secret penetration”, was publically punished by law in Japan. 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 129

What he wrote about Japan was only a part of his amazing master- piece, in which he left us a picture of a fascinating country, an eccentric and exotic world. To conclude, dear reader, with Carletti’s own word “[…] Japan is one of the most beautiful and best and most suitable in the world for making profit by voyaging form one place to another” […] “and in that way one would very quickly become incredible rich, because of their need of every sort of manufacture and their abundance of silver as of provisions for living” (fl. 132) and it is still so.

3. Carlettian Macau

News from China! During the Age of Discoveries, between summer and autumn 1513, Jorge Álvares – a Portuguese – became known as the first European who reached Tamão: ilha da veniaga, the island of commerce; also known as Tunmen 屯門, probably corresponding to Linding 伶仃, lit. the Tunmen 屯門 bay at the mouth of the River (Zhujiang 珠江).50 Around 1515 it was the turn of the Portuguese Rafael Perestrelo (Barreto, 2006: 56) and Andrea Corsali (1487-1520?) together with Giovanni da Empoli (1453-1518), who on 16 April 1503 left Lisbon for Asia as the first Floren- tine merchant to go to China. The correspondence of Albuquerque 51 together with the above mentioned witness were among the first European written feedback from modern China. “Pictures” of the fabulous ! In browsing Walravens’ China Illus- trata (1987) we have a clear perception of the images that were circulating in Europe between the 16th and 17th centuries. The cartographic representation of China appeared in 1529,52 when Diogo Ribeiro’s Mappamundi was printed in Seville, and the Middle Kingdom took more or less the shape we know now. Henceforth there was a never ending stream of information, wood- cuts, products and people from and to China. Between 1550-1555, the first printed books on China were circulating in Europe: Ramusio’s collection Navigationi et Viaggi (1550), Fernão Mendes Pinto’s Peregrinação (1555) in , followed by the João de Barros’ Décadas da Ásia (Lisbon 1563). Meanwhile a huge volume of letters was travelling from Asia and Europe: Father Melchior Nunes Barreto S.J. (1555, published in Venice 1558),53 the

50 More details Jin Wu, 2007: 43-9; Jin, 2007: 12-16; Barreto, 2006: 15-34. 51 See Barreto, 2006, p. 55 note 47. 52 In fact we have at least three planispheres: 1525, 1527 and 1529. 53 Copia d’vna lettera del padre Melchior Nugnez Preposito prouinciale della compagnia di IESV nell’India, scritta in Machuam portò della China, alli 23.di Nouembre 1555. per li suoi 130 Elisabetta Colla

Dominican Gaspar da Cruz (?-1570) and his Tractado about China, published in Évora by the Casa de Andre de Burgos in 1569. Recently, Francisco Roque de Oliveira (2003) collected the main works about China produced between 1500 and1630 in his PhD thesis, providing a clear representation of what kind of works were circulating at that time. We can conclude that any erudite person in the European elite had access to this news between 1565-70, therefore theoretically could write an account about China without leaving the studio. What about Francesco Carletti? We certainly know that from midnight of 15 March 1598 and 1599 he lived in Macau and that his principal oral source was the Jesuit Lazzaro Cataneo (Guo Jujing 郭居靜, 1560-1640).54 Was he influenced by any of the above-mentioned works or letters? It is belief that, as a merchant, his work was in no way an exercise of erudition: nothing compared to the later work of Gemelli Careri (1651-1725) Giro del Mondo,55 where we find a detailed description of Qing China, full of marginalia. In 1594, four years before Carletti’s arrival in Macau and after the death of Father António de Almeida S.J., he reached Ricci in Shaozhou 韶州 (today’s 韶关).56 This was probably where he developed the

fratelli dell’India. (Anonymous, 1553: 183; Barreto, 2006: 25). 54 Lazzaro Cattaneo, born in Sarzana near Genoa, Italy, joined the in 1581. After completing his training in Portugal, he went to Goa, India. In 1589 he became superior of the mission. In 1593 he arrived in Macau to study Chinese and the following year was with in Shao-chou (Shaoguan). As interim superior of that mission, Cattaneo was the first to discuss Christianity with Hsu -ch’i, one of the pillars of the early church in China. Cattaneo accompanied Ricci on his first trip to Peking (), but no imperial audience was possible because of Chinese participation in the war against Japanese invaders in Korea. During this journey Cattaneo added the five tones and aspiration marks for all the words in the dictionary that Ricci composed. This system remains today a standard feature of Sino-Western dictionaries. Cattaneo later worked at Nanking (), spent some years in Macau, and then returned to Nanking and Nan-ch’ () in 1606. At the urging of Hsu, he opened the mission in where the entire Hsu family became converts. He later went to Hangchow () where he continued his apostolic labors until his death. 55 Giovanni Francesco Gemelli-Careri wrote the Giro del Mondo, whose first edition was printed in between 1699-1700 in 6 volumes. The fourth volume is about China. This work was translated into many languages soon after the first edition, while Carletti was trans- lated into other languages only in the 20th century and was studied at the beginning of the last century. The English edition was printed in Paris in 1720: A voyage round the World / by Dr. John Francis Gemelli Careri. Lazzaro Cattaneo, a musician from Genoa; thanks to Ricci, he was able to instruct the priest Diego Pantoja in harpsichord repertory and tuning in Nanjing. From the Fonti Ricciane, compiled by Father P. D’Elia, we know that Cattaneo also collaborated with Ricci for the compilation of the Chinese-Portuguese Dictionary, Vocabolarium sinicum, ordine alphabetico europaeorum more concinnatum et per accentus suos digestum, (also known Bartoli: Vocabulario Sinicoeuropeo; Kircher: Dictionarium Sinicum) a dictionary with the annotation of the five tonal variations, organized in alphabetical order. Fonti Ricciane, II, 1949, della Entrata, book 4, chapeter III: “fecero un bello vocabulario, e messero in regola et ordine le cose di quest lingua; con che da lí avanti il doppio più facilmente si poteva imparare” (D’Elia, 1942-1949). 56 Cambridge , p. 797. 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 131 linguistic system to mark the five tones of the Chinese caracthers together with Sebastião Fernandes (Zhong Mingren 鐘鳴仁 – 1562-1621) and edited a Chinese vocabulary arranged in alphabetical order. At this time, the Jesuits in China adopted a policy of cultural accommodation to Confucianism so stopped shaving their heads and both “/sects” – as defined in the Codex 1331(Confucianism and ), were described by the Florentine merchant in (fl. 133) and (fl. 133v). In 1596, Cattaneo met Xu Guangqi in Shaozhou 韶州 and Carletti in Macau, in 159857 when he came back from Beijing, the first trip to one of the curial capitals of the Middle Kingdom, and offered cia 58 to Carletti, who drank it for the first time in leaves: 59 I tasted a certain one, that was given to me by the aforementioned Jesuit Father Lazzaro Cataneo, who had brought it from the city of Beijing (fl. 134 v). It is not clear how much of Carletti’s Report originated from verbal accounts and contacts with Cattaneo, how much from the famous Atlas and from his direct experience and it is very difficult to reconstruct the architecture of the facts. We must not forget that although Father Diego de Pantoja S.J. (Pang Diwo 龐迪我, 1571-1618) 60 was also in Macau at the time, Carletti did not men- tion it, which was strange as Cattaneo was teaching harpsichord to Pantoja. Moreover, he met Alessandro Valignano S.J. (Fan Li’an 范禮安, 1539-1606) (fl. 107) and, soon after his father died (20 July, 1598), he also met another Florentine merchant – Orazio Neretti 61 (fl. 109) – who had met nobody from his country for 10 years (Florentine): Neretti declared that he was abroad for 15 or 16 years, but actually he remained only 10 years; as executor of Sassetti’s last will and testament (1540-1588) he had to be present at the death of Filippo Sassetti. “Even to me in such long peregrination I did not happen to meet another Florentine, hence is easy to consider the happiness I was feeling at that occasion. Hugging him closely with the tears in my eyes, I told him that my father died, and we had the opportunity to mutually change favours like very good friends, during the 17 months that we lived in the same city, almost always together, because of the proximity of our houses” (fl. 109). It is important to cite these facts in order to try to sketch the map of Carletti’s sources and justify why there are similarities between

57 In 1598 together with Ricci, he disembarked in Tongzhou 通州 for Beijing) in 1598 and reached Beijing for the first time on 7th September 1598; however, they were not received at the imperial court. 58 , from the Chinese pronunciation cha 茶. 59 The tea he drank in Japan was in powder. 60 His Chinese name was: Pangzi yiquan 龐子遺詮 and also Pang Diwo 龐迪我. 61 Friend of Filippo Sassetti (1540-1588), brother of the layer Bernardino, who arrived form Goa on the captain’s ship. We know from Carletti declarations that Neretti was involved in the commerce of the black ship from Amacau (Nau do Trato). 132 Elisabetta Colla the Fonti Ricciane and Carletti’s eighth Chronicle. The description of Macau/ Middle Kingdom resulted of course from numerous sources. Some inter- preters helped him to translate the above-mentioned geographical books, which form a large part of the eighth Chronicle of his Ragionamenti. Even if we cannot compare it to other above-mentioned European works in terms of the amount of data, the importance of this account lay in it being documental proof for a cross reference of the historical facts, procedures of the time and the location analyzed. After the settlement of a not well defined waiyi 外夷 around 1555-57, later defined as folanji佛郎机 in the chapter yiqingshang 夷情上 of the Guang- dong 广州通志 or as in the folangji 佛郎机 section of the mingshi 明史, Macau, was not yet Macau. Jin Guoping 金国平 and Wu Zhiliang 吴志良 clearly traced the evolution of this toponym, resuming in few pages the archaeological Foucaultian reconstruction of this name linked to A’ma 媽祖 cult: “There were some huge stones in the countryside in Amacao, in a certain place dedicated to their idol, with golden characters carved on them, a simulacrum of that idol, which is called Ama, from which the name of the island, Amacao, is derived and means place of the idol Ama” (fl. 133). Haojing 蠔鏡, geographically identified as the ancient toponymy of Macau, was quoted in the Fu’s 林富 Memorial of the Guangdong Provincial Gazetteer 廣東通志 printed in 1561; however, the first official document on Haojing 濠鏡, graphically different from the abovementioned homophonous toponymy though indicating the same location, was quoted in Pang Shang- peng’s Memorial 鹏尚庞 (jiaqing sishisan nian 嘉靖四十三年) in 1564: South the Guangzhou Town 廣州市, there is the Xiangshan District 香山縣, bathed by the sea. From Yongmo 雍陌 to Haojing’ao 濠鏡澳 there is one day. There exist two mounts which are one in front of the other, from which the name Nantai 南薹 and Beitai 北薹. There Aomen 澳門 (Jin; Wu, 2007: 155-179). Carletti quoted the word Amacao (fl. 105v), to identify the “City in the name of God”: “[…] Reached the island of Amacao, located nineteen degrees to the north, near Canton, terra firma and city of China, which gives the name to one of those provinces, and from which the island is distant miles, more or less. On it a small unwalled city without fortresses, but with a few houses of Portuguese, who call it the City of the Name of God. Even if it is an island adjacent to China, nevertheless it is governed by a Portuguese captain who leaves each year from Goa with a patent and royal provisions from the Crown of Portugal, to administer justice among the Portuguese living there” (fl. 105v). Ricci, stressed that Maccao is a Portuguese’s town, located in the Quantone Province (Guangdong 廣東, lit. Quantone, guangzhou 廣州), in a piece of land that formed a Peninsula with a circuit of two or three miles. Finally, Portuguese got permission – in Ricci words – to settle in this penin 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 133

Image 1

Macau – Saint Paul Complex Layout: 1) Mater Dei Church; 2) Entrance; 3) Casa “Professa” (Jesuit Residence); 4) Philosophy, Theology, Latin Classes 5) Japan Affairs, Treasure Room; 6) College Extension; 7) Infirmary, Dispensary, Annexes; 8) Orchard; 9) North Wall; 10) West Wall; 11) East Wall; 12) Monte Fort; 13) Stairs; 14) Gate of St. Paul.

sula, where the of the Goddess Ama was worshipped (D’Elia, 1947: 206). What is Macau like? Years before, at 苏州, Ricci gave a glass prism 62 to a friendly mandarin, Qu Taisu 瞿太素, this small, transparent, optical object with polished surfaces refracted light and a set of colours exploded and broke up light into an amazing rainbow. The fall of 16th century Macau can be characterized as an explosion of many colours, different sounds, a tower of Babel, and a spicy smell everywhere, crowded ports, people gambling and bargaining. This is the scene that the Florentine merchant Francesco Carletti found on his arrival. Far from his exotic imagination, he found the great map of mankind concentrated into a very small territory. Observer by chance, he soon realized the strategic importance of this small island, which belonged to the immense Catayo, drafted and imagined by Rustichello da Pisa, and documented by Bento de Góis S.J. (1562-1607) in 1607.63 The Carlettian Macau was an unwalled city in an island located 17 miles from Guangzhou 廣州. As soon as Francesco and his father Antonio reached Macau, they were imprisoned because they had disembarked secretly at midnight and gone directly to the Jesuit College. This highlighted two aspects that were quite common at that time: the existence of a network of unofficial commercial traffic in that area, between Japan-Macau-Japan and the from Philippine Islands; the close link between merchants and Jesuits. On Carletti’s arrival, the local authorities confiscated the money they brought with them because they arrived in China without a licence and by

62 “un vitrio triangular di Venezia” Fonti Ricciane, sect. 241. 63 Bento de Góis – Viagens na Ásia Central em demanda do Cataio / Bento de Goes e António de ; introd. e notas de Neves Águas. Mem Martins: Europa-América, D.L. 1988. 134 Elisabetta Colla way of the Philippine Islands. On his arrival, there were rumours they would have come to Macau with thousands of scudos to invest, and then would have returned to Japan by way of the Philippine Islands. There was also hearsay about the fact that the matter was in the Jesuits hands and that the money was deposited in their 64 convent (fls. 103v-104).65 The problem was solved in three days and they were soon released. While the economic destiny of Macau had already been traced in 1557, the religious impor- tance was marked by the bull of Pope Gregory XIII Super Specula Militants Ecclesia (1576), when the diocese of Macau was was authorised to admin- ister the missionary work in the Middle Kingdom, Japan, Ilha Formosa, or beautiful island (), Chosòn (Korea), Khmer and . In the city of Amacao there was a bishop and a cathedral Church, but there were also the churches and convents of other orders: Franciscan, Domin- ican and Augustinian: In the city of Amacao there is a bishop with his cathedral church and there are also other minor churches and convents of Franciscans, Dominican and Augustinian monks, but with a small number of monks because they all live on charity that they receive daily from the few Portuguese living there (fl. 106v). These latter orders were living on charity. Valignano S.J. (Fan Li’an 范禮安, 1539-1606) told him that the Jesuits were spending around 8000 and 9000 scudi a year, besides the amount they spent on the Collegio d’Amacao (see image 1: Pinheiro; Yagi; Korenaga, 2005: 43-50), but Valignano did not provide him with this information (fl. 107). In the ethno-botanic map left by Carletti, he described that around the square in front of the Mater Dei Church there was a kind of tree: “I saw that tree lose all its leaves in one morning, and at that instant the new foliage opened out, having grown to some size before the old foliage fell, but curled up in such manner and position that it was not visible, so that at one moment it seemed as tender and fresh as though it had been created and budded on that very day on which it all uncurled at one moment” (fl. 132), Carletti also recounted that there were monks of the Society of Jesus who lived in a church they called College.66 Four months after their arrival, Antonio Carletti became sick and

64 As defined in the Recompilacion de las Leyes de las Índias. Continuacion del IX, desde el titvlo XXVI. De los passageros, y licencias para ir a las , y bolver á estos Reynos. After judgment Francesco and António Carletti were imprisoned and questioned whether they knew or not the prescriptions and prohibitions of His Catholic Majesty (fl. 107v.). Finally at the end of three days, they were freed and fined two thousand escudos. 65 During the 12-day journey from Japan toward Macau, a riot broke out in the boat owing to a misunderstanding between Japanese and a Portuguese, whose mother was Japanese. In the somma, where the two Florentine merchant were travelling, there were also some Jesuits, but Carletti did not mention who. 66 Construction of Saint Paul College began around 1572. The “Casa Professa” was the first structure. In 1592 the Jesuit from Nagasaki founded the college in Macau. The College adja- 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 135 suddenly died: “Too soon it pleased God to take to Himself Antonio Carletti, my father, who suffered four continuous months of the stone sickness, which ended by taking his life in the year of 1598 on the twentieth of the month of July, he having first received all the Sacraments of the Church. Then, having had him buried with honourable funeral rites in the Episcopal church of that city, and having chosen a post beyond the middle of that church and opposite the large altar where the Gospel is preached, I had that spot com- petently covered with a large, long stone. On it I had incised his name and country, age, and death, so that his memory may be kept green there as long as time might preserve it. It was very difficult to identify in which church Antonio Carletti was buried. Up to date there is no documentary evidence, or monument to prove exactly where he was buried” (fls. 108-108v). After his father was buried, Francesco became a neighbour to the above mentioned merchant Orazio Neretti; they were “good and cordial friends” (fl. 109) and almost lived together for seventeenth months. He remained in Macau in 1599 instead of embarking on the ship to India because he wanted to go to Japan with Neretti. It emerged clearly from Carletti’s account that Neretti was somehow linked to the kurofune commerce. Orazio Neretti was son of Bernardo Neretti and Isabella di Simone Gondi 67 (a relative of Sassetti) and brother of Bernardino Neretti,68 who worked as a in Florence and belonged to the Accademia Fiorentina,69 He was a companion and intimate friend of the Florentine merchant, Filippo Sassetti, and also linked to the famous Rovellasco Company (another Florentine manager of a Portuguese Company that had the pepper monopoly and represented one of the first contracts signed between the Crown and private commerce), with whom Neretti sailed in the Indies till his death (1588). Orazio Neretti was wounded in 1593 in an unknown location. He arrived in Goa in 1598 and then moved to Macau with the clear intention of continuing his journey to Japan. In 1600 he was named capitão-mor for the Japan Route and some-time before 1604 the ship was captured by the Flemish; this ship came from Macau and was

cent to the Mater Dei church was a place conceived for the Jesuits to study. This was their first residence and their first school in 1565; it was upgraded to University in 1594 (the first Western University in the Far East). 67 The Gondi family were prominent financial partners of the Medici family. They also estab- lished a Florentine cell of merchants and bankers in . 68 Also celebrated in the Lorenzo Giacomini Tebalducci Malespini Orazione sesta. Di Lorenzo Giacomini Tebalducci Malespini. Nel lasciare il consolato dell’Accademia Fiorentina A M. Bernar- dino Neretti Nell’AnnoMDLXXXIIII, in Orazioni otto Accademiche Fiorentine, no titlepage, pp. 123-144. 69 It was located in Vecchio, founded in 1541 with the clear purpose of defending the volgare toscano as a scientific language and spreading knowledge. 136 Elisabetta Colla transporting the cargo of another Francesco Capponi, protagonist of another story witnessed by Carletti in his account to the Grand Duque of Tuscany. In 1613 he was sent as ambassador to the Shogun Tokugawa Hidetada 徳川 秀忠 (1579-1632) where he was successful in his efforts to re-open trade with that country. Trade relations between Macau and Japan continued and were mainly based on silk and silver. In 1619, thanks to his brother Bernar- dino, he received the recommendation of the Grand Duque and became a fidalgo in Portugal, where he remained at the service of the Iberian Crown.70 Orazio Neretti was an example of how the framework of commercial and political relationships during the 1450-1640 epoch (Renaissance, Mannerism and ) was working. At this time the Italian Model, as categorized by Braudel (1989), emerged and endured on the backstage of the official rela- tionship mainly established by the Iberian and Dutch Empires, where the art market was the main engine of the commerce aimed to satisfy a rich elite and with a network of traders and commercial between city-states and empires, developed both locally and in Europe. Bringing this Chinese Chronicle to an end, on 28 July, 1599 Francesco Carletti witnessed a violent . This region had suffered strong winds for many years that the Portuguese called tuffoni: “During some years there reign through the summer certain winds that the Portuguese call tuffoni, and which are a fury of winds that blow from all parts of the horizon and in less than twenty-four hours run through all the winds of the compass and they blow so strongly, one after the other, that uproot large trees, ruin houses, capsize all the ships in the harbours, and drive those which are at the sea wherever the force of wind and waves wishes, without sails and without helm and at the end they shrink, as often happens” (fl. 138v.). He saw around 10/12 houses completely destroyed by the water and the power of this wind. The same wind is called huracan by Catilians in the Philippine islands (fl. 139) by Castilians. In Macau the houses were made of earth and quicklime mixed together; the walls were fortified every arm’s length with partitions of stone set in lime and covered with tiles. During the two days of the typhoon, Carletti told how it was really hard to walk and stressed how the fleet was lost that had reached the harbour of Amacao from Siam (), loaded with sapan 71 (fl. 139). The Siamese sailors escaped with great difficulty from the junk, together with their women who used to accompany them on long voyages; he added that these ships could come to China, stressing that there

70 Carteggio Universale Mediceo, filza 995, carte 615. In, Sgrilli, Gemma - Francesco Carletti mercante e viaggiatore fiorentino 1573-1636. Rocca San Casciano, 1905, footnote 2, pp. 78-79. 71 Sapan, derives form the sapang; it contains a colour substance and is there- fore used in the tinctorial manufacture and is lighter than Brazilian wood. 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 137 was a well organized system in which some countries were “authorized to trade” with the Middle Kingdom. In order to conduct a steady and profitable trade with Ming and Manchu China, the Ayutthaya kings willingly entered into a tributary relationship with the Chinese emperors from the 14th to the 18th centuries. Throughout its long history, Ayutthaya’s commerce was mainly sapanwood (a wood which produces a reddish dye), eaglewood (an aromatic wood), benzoin (a type of incense), gumlac (used as wax), and deer hides (much in demand in Japan), but also fed the Chinese luxury goods market: elephant teeth and rhinoceros horns. He seemed to have met rhi- noceros for the first time, called badà (fl. 122). These highly valued exports were a strict royal monopoly. They recognized Chinese sovereignty and Chi- na’s prominent position in Asia. The Chinese, with their large and versatile junks, in exchange exported cotton, silk, porcelain and musk. Musk had been very valuable since ancient times and was a product that also the Portuguese in Macau could offer. Carletti reported that between Consé ( 广西) and Fonam ( 云南), there was a land which the interpreter told him was the province where musk was mainly produced and then commer- cialized through Macau. At the annual fair of Guangzhou, the Portuguese mainly bought raw silk, diverse clothes, quicksilver (mercury) and lead, dry groceries, porcelain, gold and quantities of not very good musk in bladders (fl. 106). Carletti said: “Musk is not made in they way that many that many have described, I brought a whole skin of the entire animal to Your High- ness, with its bladders, which is nothing but the animal’s umbilicus as it comes out under the body full of that odoriferous matter. In size and shape it is almost like one of our small foxes, and it has this sac full of musk, that Nature spread little by little” (fls. 110v-111). It is amazing that Chinese people knew how to sell fake musk to European: The Chinese transformed it in putting other mixtures into it, and from one bladder they make three and four, using the animal’s skin to form the others. And they sell those false bladders to the Indians of the region, selling the Natural one to Portuguese, but even those falsified in the contents, being certain that one never finds the musk unadulterated or without admixture if it is not still affixed to the animal’s skin (fl. 111). Chinese musk was quoted like gold in carats: good musk reached 12 carats (called by natives matte) and musk commonly sold in that area was around 9 or 10 mattes/carats; sometimes musk of low quality was commercialized and normally it did not reach 6 or 7 carats. In his stay in Macau, Carletti was also fascinated by other aspects such as astrology. Chinese people paid attention to physiognomy and signs on the hands and other parts of the body. Out of curiosity, Carletti wanted to experi- ment having the soles of his feet read. Other methods of prediction were: posture of the body, dreams, words, flight and singing of birds, etc. 138 Elisabetta Colla

To conclude, among natural phenomena that year, he also reported a great eclipse, which occurred on 6 , 1599: “On that Friday evening I saw the moon blotted out almost entirely, it having been full when it appeared over the horizon, and this lasted about two hours. It was of a reddish colour, much inflamed and the little of it that remained clear was on the northern side” (fl. 141v). In December 1599, he boarded one of the ships that usually travelled from China to Goa. The Report ended here: “I embarked on the journey to India, as I shall recount to Your Highness during the next chroni- cle of this voyaging, but I shall now bring this one to its conclusion if you do not order me otherwise” (fl. 141v).

Final remarks

Carletti found himself in a very delicate period of the Discoveries; on one hand we have the decline of the Iberian power and on the other the arrival of the European East India Companies. This crucial era of passage between the 16th century when the “capitalist system” (Rabb, 1974: 675-689) was in operation in Europe, based on a net of well-developed structure of trade pattern linked to the international exchange. A number of prominent Florentines – among others – found considerable rewards in 1590s, but this was not the case of some smaller investors who, like Francesco Carletti, tried their hand at this game; he lost everything in circumnavigating the world, but for his Chronicles (Ragionamenti). His ambitious father lived in a productive environment where the merchant activity reached a climax and the merchant community experienced a “golden age”.72 Quoting Rabb, “the dissemination of European influence throughout the world, combined with the exploitation of so many territories, peoples, and commodities, was surely the most long-lasting and effective accomplishment of the merchants, active during this period in the history of ” (1974: 676). Together with the merchants, Christian orders – mainly Jesuits – played a key role on the stage of the “East-West encounter”. They were ministers of God’s word who preached the Gospels, freed the wasted of lost savages, agents of “Christian Humanism”, strongly linked the religious inspirations and passions inherited from the Middle Ages. One play that began in the age of Discover- ies, one stage Zhongguo 中国 (the Middle Kingdom), many players: religious,

72 Golden ages, cyclically appears along the merchants’ history. For example the Muslim Merchants golden age lasted from 750 to the 16th century. Fortuna was an objective force that manifested itself quite independently of our will and in ways that clearly had valuable implications. 16th century Japan and Macau described by Francesco Carletti 139 merchants, literates, fidalgos, Kings, Captains, mariners and jurubaças. The oeconomicus found a fertile land in Amacau to maximise his profits which was consolidated during the 16th century. According R. Ptak “a trader is more than just a trader. He is subject to the social and religious constraints of his environment and he may become involved in various activities comple- mentary to or absolutely independent of his enterprise”,73 Carletti was an example of this. In Chinese society, it is amazing to see the metamorphosis of a merchant class in a Confucian based society, where the li 利 was clearly condemned so that their influence was often turned against the development of Chinese industry and commerce. But during 1500-1800, the Confucian class distinction was not so strict and merchants began to emulate literati and purchased – in Pin-Tsun Chang 張彬村 (Ptak, 1994: 67) – official ranks, titles and favours for their descendants. The Confucian attitude was gradu- ally changed and during late imperial times scholars were adopting a less discriminating attitude, clearly expressed in neo-Confucianism. Merchants were able to assert that their role was compatible with Confucianism, because the aim of their profit-making was public welfare. When Carletti, father and son, arrived in Macau, the coastal population depended on a lively network of a cross-cultural merchant class. Portuguese people optimized this network and Jesuits took their advantage of the situation to consolidate their position in Macau. This is witnessed by Carletti on his arrival: The Jesuits had this matter in hand and that we had deposited the money in their convent. So it came about that, in order to control the anxiousness of the people, it became necessary for the judge of such causes to command that we be arrested and imprisoned (107v). The European merchants were somehow protected, or linked to the Jesuit management, like Francesco Carletti, and was so fre- quent that could cause the riots of local peoples. In his eighth Chronicle Carletti registered all the main events that took place during 1598-1599 in Macau. He also recorded all the important liaisons between local merchants and Folangji 佛郎機 and that it was possible to overcome the official system imposed by the Ming Magistrates. He was aware of the context he lived in for almost one year and had contact with many residents, both local and European. It is impossible to summarize this Chronicle successfully in this paper as this would imply a choice and a choice implies a loss of data; the aim of this text is to highlight aspects that in one way or other remained constant in Macau during the Ming era.

73 Roderich Ptak, Maritime Asia: profit maximisation, ethics and trade structure c. 1300-1800. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1994, p. 37 140 Elisabetta Colla

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