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Research Article SOJ Neurology Open Access

From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent process” Florian Houssier Psychologist, Psychoanalyst, President of the Collège International de L’Adolescence (CILA), Professor of Clinical Psychology and Psychopathology at the University of Paris-North: Transversal Research Unit Psychogenesis and Psychopathology (UTRPP), Villetaneuse, Sorbonne Paris Cité (SPC).

Received: September 22, 2016; Accepted: October 18, 2016; Published: October 24, 2016

*Corresponding author: Florian Houssier, Psychologist, Psychoanalyst, President of the Collège International de L’Adolescence (CILA), Professor of Clinical Psychology and Psychopathology at the University of Paris-North: Transversal Research Unit Psychogenesis and Psychopathology (UTRPP), Villetaneuse, Sorbonne Paris Cité (SPC). E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract too often exclusively centred on the infantile. Our main source Some aspects of Anna Freud’s life reveal the existence of onelaboration, Anna Freud’s while life avoiding is Elisabeth the pitfalls Young-Bruehl’s of psychobiography, biography

Young-Bruehl considers that Anna Freud theorised on the basis psychoanalysis.specifically adolescent Her historical conflicts, input which in the can gradual be tied construction to some of (1988), which provides an acute insight into her adolescence. aher theoretical theoretical corpus and on clinical adolescence discoveries has often in the been field ignored. of adolescent These links between biography and theory gave rise to a movement of of her own understanding of herself. Indeed, her self-analysis conceptualisation making it possible to develop a psychoanalytic disordersyielded several in the important context of clinical the struggle notions: against altruistic genitalisation surrender, duringasceticism, adolescence. intellectualisation, daydreaming and anorectic strugglemetapsychology against the of genitalisation adolescence: indeed,of the adolescent emerged body. such notions as asceticism, intellectualisation in relationship with anorexia and the

main source of investigation and theoretical transmission of what is In order to begin our approach to this difficult context linking nowToday, called the the adolescent Annafreudian process. school of thought has remained the points:personal 1. The life, development psychoanalysis, of the and psychoanalysis theoretical elaborations of adolescence in Key words: Anna Freud; Biography; Masculinity complex; begana complex with web Freud’s of ramifications, founding work we onwill the consider “Transformations the following of Adolescence; Beating fantasies; Transmission Puberty” (1905). 2. Freud began to analyse his daughter at a time

Introduction thesewhen issues.she was The still paper working was through directly herlinked adolescent to her analysis conflicts; and 3. dealtAnna Freud’swith personal first paper issues (1922), raised based by adolescence. on her own 4.case, In herreflected most frequently in the context of her rivalry with Melanie Klein. This Anna Freud is most often associated with child analysis, untouched by the battle between their opposing views. Our important work of the Viennese period (Freud, A. 1936), one case article addresses a different issue, that of adolescence, a field perspective is the following: certain aspects of Anna Freud’s life can be considered autobiographical, a self-analysis of the woman she had then become, in other words a woman who found a can be related to some of her clinical and theoretical discoveries reveal the existence of specifically adolescent conflicts, which way of sublimating her infantile and adolescent conflicts. A long chapter of the work is devoted to adolescence, probably the most in the field of adolescent psychoanalysis. Adolescence is one complete essay on the topic at that time: it is the first clinical and theoretical study of what was later called, particularly in France aboutof the her threads close discreetly ties with herlinking father her and life, the beginning contradictions with her of own analysis, and later work. Much has been said and written and in Anglo-Saxon countries, the ‘adolescent process’, a generic term whose relevance is still questioned today (André, J. Chabert Annafreudian theory, but her historical input in the construction C,From 2010). the “black devil” to Antigone: a troubled of a theoretical corpus on adolescence, once the “Cinderella of adolescent Let us be clear: our aim is not to retrace Anna Freud’s life psychoanalysis” [15], has largely been forgotten. Between jealousy and identification elaborationin detail or of review a metapsychology her theories, of but adolescence. to suggest We a linkwish between to study thebiography very close and relationship theory, a link between that laid private the foundationslife and theoretical for the Anna was born in 1895, the third daughter and youngest of Sigmund and Martha’s six children. She was an unwanted child, and to make matters worse, Freud wrote to Fliess, anticipating Symbiosis Group *Corresponding author email: [email protected] From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent Copyright: process” © 2016 Houssier his daughter’s future masculinity complex: “You will not have any she would like him to continue calling her his “black devil”. In his obje

ctions to my calling my next son ‘Wilhelm’! If he turns out answers, Freud tried to reason with her, criticizing her tendency to be a girl, she will be called ‘Anna’ [44]. Anna Freud’s internal to be too passionate and obstinate. In one letter, he told her conflicts touched upon two realms, one more discreet and tied that she need not write every day, and asked her to take care of loveto her for rebellion her father. against her mother, whom she felt to be either herself, because she was “still quite young” [44]. intrusive or neglectful, while the other concerned her passionate In 1913, after her sister Sophie’s wedding – among the becausesiblings, [sheSophie has] was run her away main like rival a child for fromtheir manyfather’s things love of – whichFreud fatherShe would felt rejected sometimes by comfort her older her siblings, and congratulate who considered her for wrote to Anna that she was “overzealous, restless and unsatisfied her asundemanding “one too many”, attitude. and The had pleasure trouble asserting she felt atherself. receiving Her her father’s approval was so great that nothing else was of any withdrawa grown-up from girl thewould pleasures not be of afraid” your age(ibid., but p. gladly 59). In enjoy the samewhat importance to her. otherletter, girlsFreud enjoy” added: thus “We noting will notice that she a change was “removed when you from no longer [her]

own life” (ibid.). Anna criticized her own tendency to daydream, ownAnna childhood was brought one of up her by central her governess themes – Josefine, the fear for of whom being she was a sort of favourite and only child, and found in her during which she would withdraw into intense erotic fantasies, “normalinstead offemininity” looking for(ibid.). an object in reality, outside the family. Freud then voiced his and Martha’s hopes for their daughter, i.e. onlyabandoned, metaphorically– expressed with in terms the ambiguity of a fear of of “losing her parents’ and being feelings lost” (Freud, A, 1967). She associated the feeling of being lost – not little Anna reproachfully to her mother upon reuniting with her. In 1915, as she was preparing for the schoolteacher’s for her, her mother’s distracted attention: “You lost me!” cried examination, Freud expressed the wish to keep his daughter near him. He found her to be “a charmer, more delightful than any of older sister and ideal child of the Freud family. The tensions Despite her jealousy, she identified with Mathilde, her their other children” (letter to Ferenczi, quoted by Young-Bruehl, hisop.cit, daughters p.72); in Sophie another and letter Anna to “thoroughly Ferenczi, he satiate[d] admitted his being libido”. “in need of signs of youthfulness and vigor”, adding, with insight, that especiallyin her relationship as Sophie with was Sophie, devoted whom to their she mother. called “the What family’s Freud “The little one is also an extraordinarily dear and interesting little angel”, and whose beauty she envied, were quite strong, admired in Anna, however, was not the feminine charm he found sister-in-lawcreature”, he wrote, (ibid.). a Freud’s consolation ambivalence for the thought lasted untilthat, heas he fell put ill “blackin her devil” sisters, with but whom her spunky he exchanged and cheeky grunts character, as he entered and even the it, that “now [he has] left only [his] two old ones”, i.e. his wife and dining-roomher meanness. to Beforelunch after she becamethe morning’s his Antigone, work. From Anna her was early his like her to “exchange her attachment to her old father for some morewith cancer. lasting Inone”. 1921, (ibid. he wrotep.111). to Max Eitingon that he would also atadolescence being considered on, she too sat young in on tothe accompany debates of her the father Wednesday to the society, listening with fascination; in 1909, she was very unhappy United States. According to Young-Bruehl, Martha Freud’s lack of support Anna was quite annoyed by mother’s “secretiveness” – a daughterfor her husband’sto adopt the profession, role of companion not to in mention her father’s her work negative and opinion of psychoanalysis, made it possible for her youngest character trait which later became a theme of her 1936 book in the end, in his life as well. She saw her mother as someone (Freud A., 1936). Indeed, Martha, probably concerned about her who had “lost her”, someone who did not take care of her, unlike daughter’s anxiety, would hide such things from her as the dates sameher other way objects as she herselfof feminine had been identification, for her nephew Loe Kann Ernst. or Lou We andof her developed examinations, various or upcoming symptoms appendectomy. shortly after. SheAnna was entered then Andreas-Salomé, whom she saw as her adoptive mothers in the thirteen.the hospital not knowing that she was going to be operated on, observeanger­ ­– asometimes splitting of directed maternal against figures: her on the aunt one Minna hand, who Martha, had Shared ambivalence whom she considered intrusive and abandoning, an object of

the privilege of travelling alone with Freud. On the other hand, or After stupid. the She appendectomy, later tied theseshe continued feelings to to experience her daydreams forms Louthe substitutes formed with of Freud Josefine, an analyst-parent in particular the couple idealized sharing mother their accompanyingof psychological her distress, masturbatory such as fantasies. the feeling Eating of being disorders exhausted also figure represented by Lou Andreas-Salomé. Replacing Martha, described by Freud with the famous “strawberry” dream [18]. “Daughter-Anna” (ibid, p.112), an image of fertility by way of the appeared in early adolescence, reminiscent of the greediness intellect,Analysis something or “something strongly to invested help myself” by all three. One of the reasons that led Anna to ask her father for an analysis In the early 1910s, weakened by her constant illnesses, she lost was her inability to understand the reasons for her persistent weight. From Merano, where she was convalescing, Anna wrote home every day, especially to her father, reporting every pound she gained and telling him that she wanted him near her, that feeling of unease, in particular her “psychasthenia”, as it was then Citation: Page 2 of 10 Neurol , 1-10. Houssier F (2016) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent process”. SOJ 3(1) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent Copyright: process” © 2016 Houssier

expressed this in a letter written to him after Sophie’s wedding to her desire for independence. “Her adolescent turn outside of termed, as well her anorexia and masturbatory tendencies. She herpsychoanalyst, family for friendshipbut her father’s and love cancer was suddenly still in course brought when an endshe in 1913: “I would like to know, so that I can do something to help myself” adding in a postscript that “anyway, she had no secrets was faced with her father’s illness in 1923”, writes Young-Bruehl for him” (ibid. p.58). In her daydreams, she generally imagined (op.cit., p.192). Her father clearly wished her to stay with him, a herself as a boy, as she felt that she was not feminine and pretty wish echoed by Anna: “You’re right”, she wrote to Lou Andreas- enough, not as pretty as Sophie. Masturbatory satisfaction was Salomé, “I wouldn’t leave him now under any circumstances” produced by the image of a young boy, beaten or humiliated by a (ibid. p.118). Freud later (in 1935) confided to Lou that “I of Loudominating Andreas-Salomé: man, a figure “it was of authority. even a love Only story” in 1922 [42]. did a woman course rely more and more on Anna’s care, just as Mephistopheles begin to play a central role in her daydreams, as she confided to once remarked: ‘in the end we depend on the creatures we made’. In any case it was very wise to have made her” (Pfeiffer, 1972, p.209). Anna Freud was bonded to her father, and she confided At the age of 23, as she began her first analysis, she went stories” and daydreams. Another consequence of her analysis in Dorothy Burlingham, who became her best friend during the back to writing poems, an extension of what she called her “nice 1920s, that “as far as she [could] see, “being in love is never really enjoyable” (Young-Bruehl, op.cit., p.192). was that “mostly dire things [happened] in her dreams ­—killing, storiesshooting were or dying”, replaced as byshe violent wrote fantasies.to her father Her in“unruly 1919 ego”[44]. roseHer In 1925, as her friendship with Eva Rosenfeld was still very toadolescent the surface distress as well andas severely infantile repressed conflicts masturbation surfaced: the wishes. nice strong, she confided to her that when her father was being treated She began to tell herself stories again at night to fall asleep. Her for cancer, she was cast back into her adolescent condition, before unrequited quest for love found a compensation as she imagined haveher analysis, been living devoting as I did most before of her I was time an to analyst poetry, and daydreaming, before you and weaving (ibid., p.135). “These two weeks”, she wrote, “I the envy of both young and old. The idea of potential renunciation herself as a male hero, earning “glory by the sword” and causing and Dorothy knew me: with Rilke poems and daydreams and in exchange for relinquishing a life of love and happiness. The herweaving” masturbation [31]. One fantasies of the main seems focuses to be of the her link treatment between was her thus two thoughtemerged, came a foreshadowing to her that sheof future might sacrifice: have found glory love and “had success she analyses.the resolution of her adolescent conflicts, and the persistence of not been distracted by ‘other thoughts’ and turned in on herself” In 1924, a dispute broke out between Otto Rank and Freud, (ibid, p.95). as secretary of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Her wish to and the latter agreed to let his daughter take over Rank’s job A struggle then developed between the beating fantasies, as Thea means passage to attain from direct daydreaming masturbatory nice satisfaction, stories to writingand the them“nice unshakeabletake the place oedipal of a man, bond. a wish she had so fully expressed in her stories”, a more sublimated outlet for the more repressed drives. daydreams, was thus fulfilled (Dyer, 1983) in the context of an a passion for writing psychoanalytic articles or books. As she down was a first step towards sublimation, later developing into in particularIndeed, when because her of father the intrusive suggested daydreams in 1924 that and she beating take up her analytic work with him again, she accepted gratefully, fromwrote the in heractual first act autobiographical of writing which article provided (Freud indirect A., 1922), libidinal she drew pleasure not so much from the content of the stories, but fantasies that still plagued her. This time, having become an analyst renounce repressed genital pleasure and devote herself to the herself, she understood the “temptations to untruthfulness” tied satisfaction, with a narcissistic aim: to satisfy her ambition, Among the facts she concealed from her father/analyst was the emergenceto her analyst of her being feelings her fatherfor Dorothy (Young-Bruehl, Burlingham. op.cit., Her p.123).feeling pleasure given to others. The vicarious wish of her fictitious of dependence and her desire to have the Burlingham children patient was a first step towards developing the concept of altruistic surrender (Freud A, 1936). This “surrender” includes and their mother for herself, in the same way as her onanistic an essential component: the transformation of a solipsistic, relation. We can also see here her desire for recognition and wish temptations, resulted in a feeling of shame. Although she could tonarcissistic be admired activity by her into father a social in order activity, to obtain i.e. involving his love. an Through object whichconfess he her nevertheless masturbatory soon desiresdiscovered. to her father, she could not tell him about her growing attachment to the Burlingham family, her masculine identification, she avoided greater oedipal guilt, if the relationship remained platonic. Anna Freud’s masculinity butBeing her (a)conflict double concerning her sexual identity remained intense. complexHowever, could this be resolvedsolution throughto her drive having impulses obtained could something only last –

In 1922, the year she became a member of the Vienna thechildren equivalent as a penis of a mothersubstitute– and anda loving a friend, and docileDorothy sister. Burlingham, She thus Psychoanalytic Society and was finishing her first analysis, Anna who represented several figures, though without genuine rivalry, Freud was beset by a typical adolescent conflict: whether to leave or remain in the family home. She thought of moving to Berlin, found herself a substitute family, even though it was difficult for where she had a few friends, to begin her practice as a child her, and for the four Burlingham children who soon became her Citation: Page of 10 Neurol , 1-10. Houssier F (2016) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent process”. SOJ 3 3(1) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent Copyright: process” © 2016 Houssier

analyst. The sense of ideal friendship fuelled in both women the Burlingham from 1925 on represented both a relationship patients, to play the double role of both substitute parent and However, the intense friendship she developed with Dorothy fantasy of being twins, which echoed the fact that Dorothy’s older aswith her a father’swoman whofavourite was daughteralso a mother, and support and a solution during his to herold sisters were twins. This extended family situation, where family oedipal disappointment, added to the secondary gains earned and analytic ties were intertwined, repeated her own analytic Her platonic relationship with Max Eitingon was also experience (Houssier, 2010). atage. the In service our view, of the this cause compromise of psychoanalysis enabled Anna thanks Freud to libidinal to end her adolescence; in other words, she put her infantile conflicts present throughout her life and work. Max having given her marked by loss and renunciation, themes which are ever compensations: playing a central role in her father’s movement, taking care of children (whether or not they were her patients), up, the experience rekindled her perception of disappointing being a substitute mother, all the while maintaining strong attachments, which she both sought and feared. At the same oedipal ties with her father, who accepted and even favoured time, her relationship to her women friends became “mirror other and the self merging into a single person. This tendency this situation by discouraging her suitors (Ernest Jones and Hans relationships”, showing strong a narcissistic identification, the helpedLampl, her for give example). up masturbation This narcissistic and beating compensation, fantasies. i.e. the recognition of her value, even if it meant rivalry with her peers, became quite explicit, as Anna wrote to Eva Rosenfeld: “Now, we know: you are me and I am you” (Young Bruehl, p.cit. p. 136). and her reactions to what she felt was criticism of her father (for hypotheses emerge: that of sublimated love; or the language of At the end of the 1920s, her emotional life became more stable, Taking this phrase out if its context, two complementary Her calm determination during her father’s recurrent bouts of example in his dispute with Otto Rank) became less passionate. seemspassionate, closer yet to brief a struggleadolescent against friendships. her sexual On the and personal aggressive side, the notion of altruistic surrender defined by Anna Freud (1936) illness seem to show that she had become less tormented, more self-assured. Young-Bruehl (1988) considers that at that time, drives. The spirit of sacrifice, living a vicarious life, asceticism Anna succeeded in finding a solution, a positive elaboration of are reflections of a feeling of loss of Ego, a sense of being absent her adolescent conflicts. She was nearing thirty-five. Much later, to herself, which she complains about in her letters to Eva looking back on that period, her friend Kata Levy wrote to Anna Rosenfeld. This tendency to identify with others is very present in that it was then that “[she] became grown-up” (Young-Bruehl, her relationship with her father: “When he is depressed, I am too” 1988,This p.195). sublimation seems to have replaced the masochistic (Heller, 1992, p. 143). Her relationship with Dorothy Burlingham made it possible for her to reverse identifications and change offset by her friendship with Dorothy Burlingham and the care places, enabling to her to feel like a mother or, as Kata Levy wrote ofdaydreams, children and while adolescents. her sexual A abstinence life project seems was in to the have making been toAn her, extended an older familysister.

(Houssier, 2010). The Freuds and Burlinghams were very close, gradually Ludwig Binswanger in 1928 of a “symbiosis” between the two Let us now return to the first period of elaboration, during the becoming an extended family, to the extent that Freud wrote to theoretical advances. Viennese period, when personal life was closely intertwined with Ramifications in the elaboration of a theory of families (Burlingham, 1989, p. 192). Through her friendships, Anna Freud found a compromise solution to her internal adolescence first with Eva Rosenfeld, and especially with Dorothy Burlingham, A rite of passage: Junius Brutus saves his son acknowledgingconflicts. These her two feminine substitute part mothers which she enabled repressed her to through satisfy asceticism.her masculinity E. Hitschmann complex, because considers they that loved Anna her Freud’s like a theory sister, As she was terminating her first analysis, Anna gave up teaching to embrace the career of psychoanalyst. For some time, on defence mechanisms, in particular during adolescence, can choseshe had to been translate translating – this time her father’s from English works into into German English. – In was 1921, an be linked to her position of sexual asceticism (Ibid, p.210). Her on her own initiative, the first text not written by her father she taste for intellectual pursuits, through her interest in her father’s 1922). theories and her love of writing, are echoed in her theorisation of article by Ernest Jones on the problems of adolescence (Jones, intellectualisation during adolescence (Freud A., 1936). st In December 1927, in a letter to Lou Andreas-Salomé, Freud SocietyOn May also 31 admitted 1922, Anna Siegfried Freud Bernfeldpresented and a paper August for admission Aichhorn wrote that “Anna is splendid, good, and intellectually independent, to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. That same year, the Vienna but [has] no sexual life. What will she do without her father, again[i.e when expressed I am gone?]” concern (Burlingham, about what wouldop.cit. becomep. 210.). of Her her female when – with Anna, three founding figures of the psychoanalysis of hefriendships died. “What seemed will shelike do pale when substitutes she has tolost him. me? In Will 1935, she he lead once a adolescence, with three pioneering papers. Anna’s essay (Freud A., 1922) was actually written six months before she received her first patient (Young Bruehl, 1988, p. 103; Sayers, 1991). Anna life of ascetic austerity?” (Pfeiffer, 1972, p.204). Freud’s biographers (Young-Bruehl, 1988, Sayers, 1991) agree Citation: Page 4 of 10 Neurol , 1-10. Houssier F (2016) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent process”. SOJ 3(1) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent Copyright: process” © 2016 Houssier

“asceticism” could very well echo what he felt about Anna: that this fictitious patient was most certainly herself. If we follow “Itstaying would away be appropriatefrom men; Freud’s to support (1911) those definition who are of willing the word to imaginedthis assumption, by this “screen-patient” then Anna identified became her more first complex daydreams around as undergo their way through hardship to knowledge”. Sublimation having begun between the ages of eight and ten, but the stories femininity. the age of fourteen or fifteen. through writing meant permanent asceticism, or the sacrifice of

At her presentation before the society in 1922, Freud had substitutions include the displacement of object representations Freudhis own compare daydream: his daughter he saw himself to a man as Junius going throughBrutus having a rite toof In the more recurrent phases of this fantasy scenario, judge his own son (Young-Bruehl, op. cit. p.108). Not only did of the teacher – but wasn’t Freud often called “Herr Professor”? – onto different characters: thus, the father figure is replaced by that passage, but Junius Brutus’s son was executed after his father had recall the three parts of the fantasy described by Freud – the ruled against him in the Roman tribunal. Here, on the contrary, fatherWhile theis beating beating the scene child often that takes I hate; place I am in a being school. beaten If we brieflyby my Freud, who long ago had regretted this sixth child, now had the father; I am watching other children being beaten – we may note opportunity to defend her against the attacks of others, thus that the third part brings in a teacher who punishes or humiliates playing the heroic role of saviour. In this fantasy scenario, there are no female characters. Similarly, in her article, Anna Freud mentionsdescribes eitherher “patient’s” her mother first or love Minna object when as being speaking the father;of her Theboys, development who are in the and girl’s intensity fantasy of substitutes these daydreams for her thenown takeself. her mother is never mentioned. In the same way, Anna never In this context, being beaten in fantasy triggers masturbation. father’s illness, beginning in 1923. on a specific function: “to make possible a feeling of satisfied excitation, even though the masturbatory act was abstained from” At the presentation, Siegfried Bernfeld perceived the patient may have chosen her story material for the enlargement (Freud, 1919, p.190). Disguising one’s presence by changing significance of Anna’s first paper: he commented that the young satisfaction within and by way of the daydream. The young men the hero’s sex follows Anna’s masculinity complex, leading to of her ego, in the sense of an omnipotent wish-fulfilment and in the daydream are typical figures of adolescent heroic figures. typical adolescent creativity, which he called the “genius form” of to what will become of these potentially perverse positions: if the other hand that the girl she had written about was a person The “age of puberty” (Freud, 1919, p.192) is indeed decisive as “whoseadolescence incompetence (Bernfeld, and 1995, inferiority p.64). Another would absolutelyanalyst suggested emerge on in withthere male are obstacles, heroes and the beating attempt fantasies to find a directly sexual object echo heroutside father’s the family fails, giving way to the infantile fixation. Anna’s daydreams realNevertheless life’” (Young-Bruehl, Anna Freud 1988, in p.108). her paper saw another outcome discoveries. Freud thus wrote about the outcome of this fantasy construction in terms of the difference between the sexes: “By oedipalfor her scar “patient”: – of which the the sublimation beating fantasies of her are oedipal the regressive conflicts demands of the erotic side of her life altogether. She turns herself should enable her to find an occupation valued by society. The the same process, on the other hand, the girl escapes from the making it possible to bear the repressed and/or sublimated “precipitations” – are transformed into a narcissistic advantage, eventin phantasy which takes into athe man, place without of a sexual herself act.” becoming (Ibid. p.199). active in a masculine way, and is no longer anything but a spectator of the If we consider this article as being inspired by his daughter’s reactiontendencies formation: (Young-Bruehl, the feeling 1988, of inferiority p. 109). Her tied sexualto the persistence asceticism ofthen infantile found wishesa compensation, was offset which by the could advantage be understood of being as her a analysis, we see that Freud does not so much suggest here a “hiding place” of the libido (Freud, 1912, p.102) to counter father’s daughter, his representative in the psychoanalytic masculine homosexual identification, or in defence against the movement,Anna Freud’s and the professional foremost pioneer success of through child psychoanalysis. sublimation went suppression of all forms of direct genital sexuality in connection oedipus complex; he emphasizes rather the idea of a generalized she describes in her main work: permanent asceticism (Freud of extremely passionate post-pubertal sexual drives is central along with a typically adolescent defence mechanism, which with an intense fantasy life. This struggle against the fulfilment a tender friendship while the beating fantasies went along with period. A., 1936). Her sensual love for her father was sublimated into to Anna Freud’s (1936) most important work of the Viennese Hatred and altruistic surrender in a young a masculinity complex, maintaining her infantile bisexuality. To schoolteacher latterbe more resulting precise, from one can a refusal make the of theassumption castration of complexa mobility and of Anna Freud developed her clinical practice with children and bisexual identifications, with blurring of sexual difference, the recourse to perverse substitution fantasies. Thus, in the beating adolescents (Heller, 1990) along with her theoretical work. In offantasy, anorexia the little and angirl oedipalbecomes proximity a boy (Freud, with 1919). her father. For Anna, Anna’s at 1935, she was labouring on what became one of her main works, investmentthe age of 27, of sublimation the psychoanalytic came with theory asceticism, went recurrent along with bouts her She“The wrote Ego and to Maxthe Mechanisms Eitingon that of her Defence” work (1936),was meant closely to represent studying puberty as a time when the drives flare up for the second time.

Citation: Page 5 of 10 Neurol , 1-10. Houssier F (2016) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent process”. SOJ 3(1) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent Copyright: process” © 2016 Houssier

a theoretical basis for her thoughts on puberty, which she had –and to devotion leave the to family her father, and pursueresulting one’s in self-abnegation life outside the and family self- already developed in other lectures (Freud A., 1930). The fourth sacrifice, became a stumbling block P; the adolescent project and strongest part of her book, devoted to puberty, attracted object and on the creation of an extended family. Seen from this most notice, and it is probably closest to her own analysis. She circle – was instead turned inwards, fixated on an oedipal love describes here the notion of “altruistic surrender”, which Freud had termed “retiring in favour of someone else” (Freud, 1920, p. perspective, her analysis contributed to the continuation of her 159), as well as that of “identification with the aggressor”. inincestuous the continuation attachment and defence while finding of her afather’s pro domo work. compromise. The incestuous conflict found a resolution through sublimation In this book, she introduces the case of a young schoolteacher. From life to theory: adolescence through defence According to some biographers, among whom Raymond Dyer mechanisms paper.(1983), She it would had actually seem that been Anna a schoolteacher described herself and once founded again a in this young schoolteacher, fourteen years after her 1922

In this part, we will take a look at a few notions developed by psychopedagogical school [33]. In the introduction to the chapter life and work even if their autobiographical roots have become main childhood wishes: to wear beautiful dresses and have Anna Freud, which can be seen as linking together her personal on “altruistic surrender”, she mentions the schoolteacher’s two less visible over time. The concepts that emerged during the Viennese period seem very much tied to the way she experienced many children. Both wishes were indirectly fulfilled: single her adolescence: a struggle against masturbatory wishes and and childless, she describes herself as a person governed by repression and reaction formations, a latency child who has intellectual investment in psychoanalytic theory. post-pubertal genital sexuality, through asceticism and an clothingremained and attached especially to past in otherconflicts. women’s Her interest children in thedominated sexual lives her Facing the danger of drive impulses personalof others, and her professional talent as a matchmaker, life. Her apparent interest lack in of other ambition women’s was

described as the ultimate stage of psycho-sexual development. may have given the impression that she did not want anything for Both in her theorisations and in her father’s, adolescence is displaced to ambition for others, those whom she loved, and this adolescence can be seen a psychic defence crisis. In the chapter Adolescent drives give rise to specific defence mechanisms, and letterherself. chiding “She lived her for in notthe enjoyinglives of other life as people, other girls instead of her of havingage. any experience of her own” (Freud A, 1936), echoing her father’s theentitled mechanisms “Instinctual of defence Anxiety sheduring considers Puberty”, crucial Anna at Freud this time(1936) of investigates a specific point of her theory of the Ego, centring on Though defensive, Anna Freud’s lucidity is striking: “Her asceticism and intellectualisation. penis wish, with its offshoots in the shape of ambitious masculine intense drive forces. These mechanisms are first and foremost phantasies, was prohibited, so too her feminine wish for children Anna Freud describes asceticism during adolescence from a repressed:and the desire she tofound display some her, proxy naked in theor in outside beautiful world clothes, to serve to her as father, and to win his admiration. But these impulses were not phenomenological, objective and descriptive angle, and does not devote much attention to object-choice conflict, particularly as a repositoryThe masturbatory for each of them.” daydreams (ibid, p.125). are threatened by the Englishconcerns translation the mother quoted figure. here) Asceticism in their is a bodily defence expression. mechanism As be displaced. of the Ego, aiming to control the drives (or “instincts” in the 1937 emergence of more directly incestuous fantasies, which cannot impulses is the redoubling of the subject’s efforts to master the One event in Anna Freud’s life illustrates “altruistic she writes, “the indirect effect of the intensification of instinctual

154).instincts” This (Freud attitude A, 1936), of the adolescent’sin a movement ego of resemblesexcess. “Every that time of a liked.surrender”: She transformed when she was this thirteen, resentment she into was making intensely her jealous older the instinct says ‘I will’, the ego retorts ‘Thou shalt not” (ibid., p. sisterand hateful even more of her beautiful. sister Sophie, The substitute who was satisfaction courted by received a boy she in this way enabled her to blot out the resentment and humiliation strict parent. But for Anna Freud, the adolescent fears his drive she felt. Finding one’s wishes expressed by another person impulses and this fear can extend to all needs, even the most makes it possible to avoid one’s own hostile feelings; these are basic, most ordinary physical needs. Contemporary authors have explained this observation of adolescent asceticism, in particular as concerns anorexia, therepressed sister whose through beauty “sympathetic” resulted in identification a transformation with of a her rival. penis By as corresponding to a vital necessity: by refusing to eat, the envydisplacement, during adolescence. the schoolteacher’s “Her altruistic present surrender friendships was representa method observationtroubled adolescent to adolescents finds a way who to are preserve driven a throughsense of asceticismcoherence toand an existence attitude (Kestemberg,of total deprivation 1962). as Anna a form Freud of “repudiationextends her of overcoming her narcissistic mortification” (Freud A, op.cit., p. 131). whoseof the symptoms instincts”. are However, signs of adolescenta compromise asceticism between differs prohibition from Through the case of the young schoolteacher, Anna Freud neurotic attitudes of refusal (hysteria, phobia, obsessions), might have been offering a reflection of the woman she herself became following her adolescent conflicts. Altruistic surrender and drive impulses. Here, we do not have repression, but the Citation: Page of 10 Neurol , 1-10. Houssier F (2016) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent process”. SOJ 6 3(1) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent Copyright: process” © 2016 Houssier

an excess of drive impulses; the adolescent no longer observes thereversal constraints of the defence of external mechanism reality. Wheninto its the opposite, ego continues leading to Anna Freud clearly describes the role of identification in the overlove life object of adolescents, relations at underscoring the time of narcissistic its narcissistic withdrawal: aspects. lead to a form of psychosis. Asceticism appears to be founded on Identification enables the adolescent to preserve some control arepudiate process thatthe instincts, is more primitive without reversal, than repression. then the Onemechanism could see can it identification prevents massive narcissistic regression. When towards the drives. The defence mechanism appears then as the the libido is withdrawn from parental objects, the ego suffers a expressionas an archaic, of theancestral, intensity phylogenetic of the drives trace and of theirthe ego’s threat hostility to the loss, due to its being detached from the superego and parental ego. identifications.

Another inhibition: intellectualisation to a Inpsychotic addition, breakdown. during puberty, We have the heredrives’ a psychodynamic devastating force model can threaten more or less durably the defences of the ego, thus leading In the same way as asceticism is a mechanism aiming to

aof turning adolescence point seen which as acan moment give rise of developmental to grave psychopathological fragility, a time expression of a defensive mechanism aiming to control the of danger, similar to André Green (1989) termed “psychotic-like”: drivescontrol in the the drives realm atof thethought. body Adolescent level, intellectualisation intellectualisation is the is “an indication of a tense alertness for the instinctual processes disorders, the developmental breakdown of the child becoming and the translation into abstract thought of that which they an opportunity for regression: the threatened ego regresses to investmentsan adolescent. which But beyond are more this, narcissistic Anna Freud than describes object oriented. puberty asIn world the perception of the new demands of the id; they translate driveperceive” processes (ibid p. into 162). intellectual Adolescents language thus inexport an attempt into the to outsidemaster this context, she does not consider object libido as particularly significantAfter Vienna: in love relationships transmission during and adolescence. heritage in the representations leading to the process of intellectualisation of psychoanalysis of adolescents instinctualthem. Anna life.Freud The refers drives to the are links controlled between by affects, “connecting drives them and with ideas which can be dealt with in consciousness” (ibid. p. A historical moment (1958) Despite her interest in her adolescent patients before World 163). However, more than just the mastery of drives through intellect, this psychic work,– “one of the most general, earliest War II, after 1936 Anna Freud did not write again on the subject and most necessary acquirements of the human ego” (ibid, p. to these anxiety-ridden sensory experiences. until 1958. Indeed, before the war, literature on the subject of 163), represents an activity of symbolisation that gives meaning In the same way that the child’s intellectual curiosity is a adolescents usually portrayed them as potential delinquents, response to his quest for answers to the enigma of sexuality – always acting out and unable to work things through. The view, onfrequently the subject expressed of adolescence. at the time, that some types of patients were period of intense psychic activity is followed by prohibition and not accessible to analysis, also explained the lack of knowledge aAnna relative Freud stagnation is alluding of here intellectual to the epistemophilicactivity. During drive the latency –, this Adolescence” began with an observation: the study of adolescence has Twenty-twonot been satisfactory. years later, The failure Anna Freud’sto establish (1958) a body article of theory “On on adolescence was due among others to the fact that very few sexualperiod, drives recourse forcing to abstraction through the is unnecessarybarriers of repression since the ego generate is not psychoanalysts practiced psychoanalysis with adolescents. newseriously interest threatened in intellectual by the activity.drives. During pre-puberty, returning The 1958 article is based on already extensive clinical Asceticism and intellectualisation are both part of a third mechanism – identification. “These passionate and evanescent experience, especially with children (the Hampstead Nurseries, love fixations are not object relations at all, in the sense in which Thebetween paper 1940 clearly and 1945, shows with how Dorothy her thinking Burlingham, has evolvedand of course over we use the term in speaking of adults. They are identifications the Hampstead Child Therapy Clinic), but also with adolescents. of the most primitive kind, such as we meet with in our study the years, in particular the increased emphasis on the object, inof infantileadolescents: development, “the adolescent before is any in objectdanger love of withdrawing exists.” (ibid. his p. a perspective that can easily be tied to psychoanalytic object-relations and internalised interpersonal relationships, object169). This libido identification from those aroundtendency him takes and the concentrating form of regression it upon developmental psychology. The tone of the article is very in his libidinal life from object love to narcissism. He escapes this different from that of the 1936 opus. Anna Freud has become dangerhimself; byjust convulsive as he has regressed efforts to within make the contact ego, so once he may more regress with in the sense that she draws the outline of what is becoming a more familiar with adolescent psychology and psychopathology, as merely the terminal phase of childhood. Adolescence is viewed external objects, even if it can only be by way of his narcissism, specific psychoanalytic approach to adolescence, no longer seen imaginary/fantasythat is, through a seriescouple offormed identifications.” by her father (ibid, and Lou p. 171). Andre Thisas- drives. Even if Anna Freud still considers adolescence to be a as a structural time of life, a key moment in the destiny of the Salomé.description is reminiscent of Anna Freud’s identification with the normal developmental disturbance, she shines a new spotlight Citation: Page of 10 Neurol , 1-10. Houssier F (2016) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent process”. SOJ 7 3(1) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent Copyright: process” © 2016 Houssier

a concept which was further developed and theorised by Moses psychoanalyticon the issue, in thetheory sense of thatadolescence. she encourages analysts to develop concept of a “breakdown” in the adolescent’s psychic development, a new approach, thus preparing the foundations of today’s the confusion between internal and external worlds and leading The article addresses the relationship with infantile love Laufer (1984). Her notion of “emotional surrender”, underlying at puberty. Both these issues are seen today as paradigmatic of to loss of identity, was extensively used by Eglé and Moses Laufer objects and the consequences of the modification of the drives to define the psychotic breakdown of adolescents faced with the linked together and intertwined in the psychic work of separation impossible task of integrating their sexed, genital body. adolescence, not separately (as she presents them) but closely of adolescents favoured by Anna Freud involved taking into life. The relationship with objects addresses the place of internal considerationFrom a therapeutic not only the perspective, practical aspects the model of the of child’s treatment daily from parent figures – in itself a sensitive issue in her own personal objects. In this context, the struggle against the drives and the life – a stance which opposed her to Melanie Klein, – but also their defensivesexed body narcissistic causes anxiety, withdrawal fantasy in life the becoming face of genital in itself adolescent a source Thehuman psychotherapy environment, i.e. of parents adolescents and/or caretakers. sexuality.of conflict. This Masturbatory struggle against daydreams the sexedof adolescence body ties are in awith form the of masculinity complex and refusal of the feminine body. For Anna Freud, several factors explain the difficulty for Anna Freud illustrates this point of theory with a note on a rebellionanalysts to usually develop directed a metapsychology towards the of parents adolescence, is redirected and most in specifically, the difficult question of transference: indeed, the case of anorexia, showing the decisive role of genitality at the of a break in the treatment. When the adolescent does establish The adolescent is troubled not only by the transformations of the transference towards the analyst, with the concomitant risk time of adolescence, with the arrival of possible motherhood. fantasies in a new context of possible accomplishment. This a transference, it is a sort of “love at first sight” phenomenon, situationpuberty, but is radically by the re-emergencenovel since until of pre-oedipalthen the child and had oedipal been itwhere as a sourcethe adolescent of insight. cannot The risktolerate of a frustrationconfusion between and tries fantasy to find protected by his functional immaturity against incestuous and andimmediate reality gratificationin the imagined in this relationship new relationship, between instead psychoanalyst of seeing and patient is very high: words then become a source of parricidal wishes. The adolescent, feeling threatened by the possible accomplishment of these fantasies, now experiences off the treatment. Anna Freud explores here what she herself wasdispleasure unable toor experience: fear, leading the the possibility adolescent of breakingto act out off and with break her impregnationher psychic life revived as dangerous by the girl’s and new tries potential to escape for motherhood. it. Anorexia, for example, can be seen as a struggle against fantasies of oral increases the anxiety tied to the elimination of the rival parent. analyst, her father. She then rejects identification with the mother, which in turn Today, we can take stock of what has been achieved in this In suchAnna cases, Freud’s anorexia new insights can lead also to a include deep sense an interest of loss ofin identity.the pre- field. First of all, acting out, even if it does involve breaking off the oedipal aspects of adolescence: in contrast with the absence of adolescenttreatment, isis noseen longer as the considered effect of the as somethingexcess of excitation which cannot caused be bydealt the with strength in therapy. and immediacy Next, the lack of ofthe investment adolescent’s on the transference part of the the importance of the primary relationship with the mother. The integrationher own mother of this in primary most of internal her correspondence, object makes sheit possible highlights for adolescents to disinvest this relationship in order to reinvest (Marty, 2007). The consequence of these observations has been their libido in external objects. She thus shows that renouncing the adaptation of the setting to the specificity of adolescence. The approach suggesting that the treatment should be limited, process rests on a strongly invested preliminary relationship in the sense that no attempt be made to obtain modifications infantile attachments cannot be taken for granted, that the between mother and child. through the analysis of unconscious material, remains relevant. Anna Freud underscores the importance of fantasies Historically, the specificity of the psychotherapy of adolescents, during adolescence. She highlights the danger represented by afteras well sixty as borderlineyears of theoretical patients, has and led clinical to the trial reassessment and error. Inof the confrontation between newly acquired genital demands the setting and therapeutic techniques, a need recognized today had apparently disappeared but were only repressed during anticipation of the theorisation which blossomed in the 1960s and infantile oedipal objects. These oedipal fantasies, which (Houssier, 2007), Anna Freud’s views on adolescence underwent (Freud A. 1922) are now experienced as threatening. Although toconsiderable explain opposition modification. to In ideal her parentalown self-analysis, values. Anna following Freud’s her shethe addresseslatency period the issue – indeed from the angle subject of of the her ego’s first defences article analysis with her father, she calls up her adolescent memories perspective on adolescence combining both pre-oedipal and own cultural ideas and objects, poetry and music, which were oedipalagainst anxiety,aspects. rather than as a process, her work opens a new different from those of her parents, contributed to her process of individuation during adolescence (Freud, A, 1966). Her study of psychopathology enabled her to introduce the In a 1968 article on “Acting Out”, devoted in part to the treatment of adolescents, her changing position shows a shift Citation: Page 8 of 10 Neurol , 1-10. Houssier F (2016) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent process”. SOJ 3(1) From Biography to Theory: the role of Anna Freud in the emergence of the “adolescent Copyright: process” © 2016 Houssier away from pessimism towards a discreet but nevertheless coordinate the work of the different therapists caring for child ofsignificant past tendencies elaboration. as well Thus, as she an attempt reflects toon reach the possibility outside the of and mother, for example. using acting out in the transference, interpreting it as a return guidanceThis model,centres based and other on thepublic alliance institutions between in France psychoanalysis with the and pedagogy, has been adopted today in numerous child family circle (Freud A. 1968). The propensity of adolescents to act out their conflicts instead of talking about them is no longer interpreted rather as a gesture addressed to the object and a way support of psychiatry. In France, this alliance is apparent in the seen as simply the reflection of narcissistic tendencies; it is Pédagogiques. One of the main therapeutic tools is the practice very designation of some institutes as Centres Médico-Psycho- of remembering, following in this Freud’s view on acting out in of family, or parental, consultations, which take into account theTransmission analytic context in (Freud, the psychoanalysis 1914 c). of adolescents: make-up and symptoms of adolescents. These consultations Anna Freud’s legacy the parents’ narcissism, an important factor in the psychic

Anna Freud’s 1958 article marked a turning point in the are also justified by the wish to protect the psychotherapy and psychotherapist from parental intrusion. Clinical experience has confirmed this concern: in her article, Anna Freud (1958) elaboration of the psychoanalytic theory of adolescence – indeed, writes that parents must cope with difficult moments when they the same title was chosen by Jeanne Lampl-de-Groot (1960) for see that their child is changing; this has an influence not only on her article and by Peter Blos (1962) for his book “On Adolescence”. entire family group and underlying fantasies. Beyond their role the child’s relationship with each of his parents, but also on the theAnna task Freud of raises elaborating the question the metapsychological of the definition of foundations adolescence, of work through and modify their parental positions thanks the thebeyond adolescent psychopathology process to or the developmental second and third issues, generation entrusting of psychotherapyof “resounding ofbox”, their family child. consultations can also help parents psychoanalysts. As it turned out, almost all the pioneers of the psychotherapy of adolescents has become a widespread practice psychoanalysis of adolescents, except Winnicott, belonged to the Today, thanks to Anna Freud’s work and influence, the Annafreudian trend. The movement was initiated in the 1960s, in France by Pierre Mâle and Evelyne Kestemberg, in the United [31]. Many different forms of psychotherapy have emerged, and States by Peter Blos, Erik Erikson and Kurt Eissler, and in Great the creativity observed in this field matches the variety of issues interestingBritain by Moses point ofLaufer. view1 Françoison the deeper Ladame sources (2008), of their who work:belongs in raised by adolescents. Instead of expecting adolescents to fit the to the school of Moses and Eglé Laufer, recently expressed an tomodel pathological. of the analytic The development cure, psychoanalysts of different have clinical adapted settings their ­— did her adolescence. Ladame’s hypothesis is the following: Anna practice to the wide range of situations encountered, from normal Freud’shis view, unconditional Freud did not support so much for fail Laufer’s to analyse work his ondaughter, adolescence as he psychotherapy, “bifocal” therapy (i.e. therapy conducted by two therapists) or family therapy, psychodrama, psycho-pedagogical onemight could have not been analyse rooted adolescents in Anna’s unresolved if one had adolescent not analysed conflicts. one’s theoryapproaches and practice. [37] has confirmed Anna Freud’s viewpoint: ownFrom adolescence. her insistence, This Moses question Laufer leads derived to the issue the convictionof Freud’s own that adolescence plays a distinct and specific role in psychoanalytic (Translated by Zoe Andreyev) References adolescence and self-analysis, with the possibility that Freud’s 1. adolescence may not have been as “quiet” (De Mijolla, 1996) as might have been surmised. Kurt Eissler (1978) counters J. André, C. Chabert, La psychanalyse de l’adolescence existe-t-elle ? 2. [DoesBlos P the. On psychoanalysis adolescence : Aof psychoanalytic adolescents exist?] interpretation. Paris, PUF. New-York 2011. : this more official version supported by Ernest Jones, among others. He suggests that like all creative persons, Freud had had a difficult adolescence, and that one of the main triggers of his The Free Press of Glencoe. 1962. Eissler’s hypothesis is that this disappointment led to a defensive Burlingham. New-York : Atheneum. 1989. adolescent conflicts was a traumatic disappointment in love. 3. Burlingham M J. The last Tiffany. A biography of Dorothy Tiffany to what later happened for Anna. 4. Mijolla A. Quiet teenager: S. Freud. A quiet teenager: Sigmund Freud organization and the repression of his adolescent drives, similarly During the thirty years she spent working at the Hampstead 5. Les Cahiers du College International Adolescence. 1996;1:231-267.. developed a technique of observation and data collection Dyer R. The work of Anna Freud. New-York: Aronson. 1983 Child Therapy Clinic, Anna Freud, along with her colleagues, concerning the psychoanalytic treatment of children and 6. Eissler K. Creativity and adolescence : the effect of trauma in Freud’s adolescence. Psychoanal Study Child. 1978;33:461-517. London. 1919. adolescents, with a view to evaluating the degree of maturation of 7. Freud A. Letter to Ernst Freud, 2 February 1919. Freud Museum: 8. Freud A. Beating Fantasies and Daydreams. In : The writings of Anna tothe discuss ego. They the created technical the and now theoretical famous indexes, aspects which raised contained by each clinical notes on each child and adolescent, making it possible . Freud. Vol. 1: Introduction to Psychoanalysis, p. 137-57. New-York. case (Sandler, 1962). These indexes also made it possible to International Universities Press. 1966-1980

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