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Oil Transportation by Tankers: an Analysis of Marine Pollution and Safety Measures

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Oil Transportation by Tankers: an Analysis of Marine Pollution and Safety Measures Oil Transportation by Tankers: An Analysis of Marine Pollution and Safety Measures July 1975 NTIS order #PB-244457 OFFICE OF TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT CONGRESSIONAL BOARD Representative OLIN E. TEAGUE, TEXAS, Chairman Senator CLIPFORD P. CASE, New Jersey, Vice Chaiman # SENATE HOUSE E DWARD M. KENNEDY, MORRIS K. UDALL, Massachusetts Arizona E RNEST F. HOLLINGS, GEORGE E. BROWN, Jr., South Carolina California H UBERT H. HUMPHREY , C HARLES A. MOSHER, Minnesota Ohio R ICHARD S. SCHWEIKIZR , M ARVIN L. ESCH, Pennsylvania Michigan TED STEVENS, M ARJORIE S. HOLT, Alaska Maryland E MILIO Q. DADDARIO (II) — OFFICE OF TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT DIRECTOR’S OFFICE E MILIO Q. DADDARIO , Director D ANIEL V. DE S IMONE, Deputy Director SUPERTANKER REPORT REVIEW PANEL LEONARD E. BASSIL . Maritime Transportation Research Board, National Research Council W. O. GRAY . Exxon Corp. E LDON V. C. GREENBERG. Center for Lawand Social Policy CHARLES O. JONES . Department of Political Science, Univer- sity of Pittsburgh M ARY H OPE K ATSOUROS. Oceans Affairs Board, National Academy of Sciences VIRGIL F. KEITH . Engineering Computer Optecnomics ARTHUR MCKENZIE. Director, Tanker Advisory Center J. D. PORRICELLI . Engineering Computer Optecnomics HARRY S. TOWNSEND . U.S. Salvage Association R OBERT S. WALTERS . Department of Political Science, Univer- sity of Pittsburgh OTA OCEANS PROGRAM STAFF R OBERT W. NIBWK, Program Manuger THOMAS A. ComIU P ETRR A. JOHNSON JOANXALYNX FULLERTON CyN’rI~IA M ERCING E MILIA G OVAX- cHAR~As w. W IXOM L IONEL V. JOHNS (III) . LETTER OF SUBMITTAL JULY 23, 1975. Hon. OLIN E. TEAGUE, Chairman of the Board, Office of Technology Assessment, U.S.. Con- gress, Washington, D.C. DEAR MR. CHAIRMAN : I am pleased to submit this report entitled: “Oil Transportation by Tankers: An Analysis of Marine Pollution and Safety Measures” which was requested by Senator Warren G. Magnuson, chairman of the committee on commerce, U.S. Senate. On July 23, the Technology Assessment Board approved transmittal of the report to the committee. This report was prepared by the Office of Technology Assessment with the assistance of an ad hoc panel comprised of public policy an- alysts and representatives of tanker operators, insurance underwriters, ship design and construction companies, training groups, and environ- mental organizations. The report was further reviewed by OTA’S Ocean Advisory Panel and the Technology Assessment Advisor-y Council. It is anticipated that the data and analysis contained in this report will be of use to the Committee on Commerce, particular y for over- sight hearings on the Ports and Waterways Safety Act anticipated in the fall of 1975. Sincerely, E~ILIO Q. DADDARIO, Director Office of Technology Assessment. Enclosure. (v) LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL JULY 23, 1975. Hon. WARREN G. MAaNUSON, Chairman, Committee on Commerce, U.S. Senate, Washington, D.C. DEAR MR. CHAIRMAN: We are pleased to transmit the following re- port on “Oil Transportation by Tankers: An Analysis of Marine Pol- lution and Safety Measures.” Prepared by the Office of Technology Assessment with the assistance of an ad hoc panel, this report first describes the status and trends of tanker operations and pollution problems and subsequently develops advantages and disadvantages of those technical and administrative improvements which could be made. Substantial data on related sub- jects is presented in an effort to provide the committee with necessary background for further deliberation on this subject. The summary of findings contained herein is not intended to reflect the views of individual members of the Technology Assessment Board of OTA. Sincerely, Sincerely, OLIN E. TEAGUE, CLIFFORD P. CASE, Chairman of the Board, Vice Chairman of the Board, Office of Technology Assessment. Office of Technology Assessment. (VII) CONTENTS Page List of tables -------------------------------------------------------- xi List of figures _______________________________________________________ xiii Preface ------------------------------------------------------------- xv Definition of terms --------------------------------------------------- xvii I. Summary of Findings ____________________________________________ 1 A. Pollution Prevention and Safety -------------------- _______ L,9 B. Technical Improvenments ---------------------------------- s 1. Double Bottoms/Double Hulls ----------------------- 4 2. Controllability ------------------------------------ 4 3. Inert Gas Systems ---------------------------------- 5 4. Maintenance _______________________________ ------- 5 5. Personnel Training and Licensing ------------------- 5 6. Information and Control Systems ------------------- 5 C. Effectiveness of Regulations ----------------------- ------- 6 11. Background: Tankers ------------------------------------------- 8 A. Waterborne Oil Transportation --------------------- ------- 8 1. Status ------------------------------------- ------- 8 2. Projections of Petroleum Movement ----------------- 14 B. History of Tanker Growth -------------------------------- 1 Y C. Status and Trends of Tankers ------- -------------- --.-—--- 1;’ D. Supertankers in U.S. Waters ------------------------------ 22 III. Oil Pollution and Safety Considerations-----------------------—-_ 26 A. Oil Pollution From Tankers ------------------------------- 26 1. Amounts and Sources------------------------------- 26 2. Effects ------------------------------------------- 30 B, Examples of Major Tanker Spills-------------------------- 32 1. Recent Major Spills --------------------------------- 32 2. Other Tanker Accidents ---------------------------- 34 C. Personnel and Equipment Safety-------------------------- 36 IV. Approaches for Reducing Pollution and Improving Safety ---------- 38 A. Introduction --------------------------------------------- 38 B. Ship Improvements -_-____----__---_----_-.-_------J----- 38 1. Nature of the Problem ----------------------------- 38 2. Utilization of Segregated Ballast Spaces for Accident Protection -------------------------------------- 38 3. Controllability Aspects ----------------------------- 48 4. Cargo Tank Atmosphere Control -------------------- 52 C. Maintenance ------------------------------------ -------- .54 D. Personnel Training and Licensing ------------------------- 57 1. Training ----------------------------------------- 58 2. Licensing ----------------------------------------- 59 3. Captain/Pilot Operations -------------------------- 62 (lx) x IV. Approaches for Reducing Pollution and Improving Safety--Continued Page E. Information and Control Systems ----------------- --------- 63 1. General __-__---_---__---_---_---__.---_.-,-------- 63 2. Navigational Aid Systems ------------ -------------- 63 3. Communication Systems --------------------------- 64 4. Information Systems ------------------------------ 65 5. Control Systems --------------------------:-------- 66 6. Vessel Traffic Systems (W’S) ---------------------- 67 7. Collision Avoidance Systems (CAS) ----------------- 68 F. Local Port Conditions ----------------------------- -------- 68 G. Oil Spill Clean-up Approaches_ ------------------------------ 69 V. International and Domestic Regulatory Authority-------- ----------- 72 A. Introduction ------------------------------------ --------- 72 B. International Law and Jurisdiction ------------------------ 72 1, The High Seas ------------------------------------- 73 2. The Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone --------------- 75 3. The 1973 IMCO Conference on Marine Pollution from Ships ---------------------------------—--------- 76 4. The Law of the Sea-------------------------------- 80 C. Federal Law and Jurisdiction ------------------------------ 81 1. Constitutional Authority ---------------------------- 81 2. Federal Statutes and Programs ---------------------- 82 D. State Law and Jurisdiction ------------------------------- 84 Bibliography -------------------------------------------------------- 85 Appendix A, Statistics on the World Tanker Fleet ----------------------- 89 Appendix B. Statistics on the U.S. Tanker Fleet ------------------------ 93 Attachment l. Tankship Accidents and Resulting Oil Outflows, 1969-1873-- 97 Attachment. IMCO-Relations with the United Nations and The Special- ized Agencies—The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea—Note by the Secretariat ----------------------------------- 106 Attachment 3.Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972__________________ 162 Attachment 4.VLCC Metula Grounding and Refloating Report-Executive Summary—(U.S. Coast Guard)----------------------------------- 170 Attachment 5.VLCC Metula Oil Spill (Roy W. Harm) ___________________ 173 Attachment 6. Collision Involving the SS Arizona Standard and SS Oregon Standard at the Entrance to San Francisco Bay on February 18, 1971. (NTSB) -------------------------------------------------------- 242 Attachment 7. Torrey Canyon—A Polar Case in Accidental Oil Pollution-- 285 —NoTE— The statistical information presented in this report was prepared from current data available in early 1975. The references indicate the dates covered by various sources. The reader may wish to collect more current statistics as they become available. Many of the dated statistical references contained in the bibliography are periodically published and can be checked for this purpose. LIST OF TABLES Page 11–1.—Summary of tanker carried U.S. petroleum imports and exports--- 12 11–2.—Principal sources of petroleum imports to the United States— 1974 _-__ --_----__ : ---_ --_--_ --:--------------------------
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