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June MARITIME 2021 a7.50 Security D 14974 E &Defence

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NAVAL_GROUP_AP_2020_dual-GB_210x297.indd 1 28/05/2021 11:49 Editorial

Hard Choices in the New Era

The last decade has seen many of the foundations on which post-Cold War navies were constructed start to become eroded. The victory of the and its Western Allies in the unfought war with the heralded a new era in which navies could forsake many of the demands of Photo: author preparing for high intensity warfare. Helping to ensure the security of the maritime shipping networks that continue to dominate global trade and the vast resources of emerging EEZs from asymmetric challenges arguably became many navies’ primary raison d’être. Fleets became focused on collabora- tive global stabilisation far from home and structured their assets accordingly. Perhaps the most extreme example of this trend has been the German ’s F125 BADEN-WÜRTTEMBERG class frig- ates – hugely sophisticated and expensive ships designed to prevail only in lower threat environments.

Today, the world in which BADEN-WÜRTTEMBERG and her sisters were conceived no longer exists. The idea that high intensity has been definitively confined to the past has been shattered, first, by the emergence of as a ‘near peer’ rival to the US Navy in the western Pacific and, subsequently, by the increasingly assertive actions of a revitalised along and beyond its borders. Perspectives about the motivations of these new naval powers will inevitably differ; this edition’s article on China’s maritime expansion attempts to look at this subject from Beijing’s perspective. However, whether con- sidering the construction of new islands in the or the support for an ally who has forced down a European airliner to seize a political opponent, this editor views the actions of these emerging challengers of the status quo as often being far from benign. The nature of the new danger to the established “rules based” world order is seemingly clear; the most appropriate way to respond is more uncertain.

Although a new age of naval rivalry is rising, the security of the arteries of maritime trade that under- pin the world economy remains crucial to potential friends and enemies alike. As demonstrated by the recent mishap to the container EVER GIVEN in the Suez Canal, any significant disruption to these crucial commercial links could have considerable global economic consequences. Achieving this security depends far more on naval collaboration than competition. The example of EMASOH/Opera- tion AGÉNOR in the Strait of Hormuz is a case in point. Given this reality, it seems sensible to aim for cooperation at sea where this is achievable. Efforts to achieve the resumption of joint “confidence building measures” with rival navies that have largely become a casualty of recent frictions would be one potential way forward. This need for balance is reflected in broader economic and political choic- es. Although, for example, European leaders may condemn Russian adventurism, the Nord Stream 2 pipeline still continues with its “march” across the Baltic on the way towards completion. Achieving the correct balance will never be easy.

Whilst, therefore, it may be in the West’s interests to maintain cooperation at a practical level in an ex- ample of “hoping for the best”, there is also no excuse other than to “prepare for the worst.” - tially, this means rebuilding capabilities that have been allowed to atrophy in the Cold War’s aftermath and – at the same time – seeking fresh approaches to ensuring a maritime advantage. The efforts that are now underway to achieve the revitalisation of Europe’s flotillas – often accorded a low priority in the post-Cold War years – is an excellent illustration of the former plan of action. This is covered in two articles in this edition.

Meanwhile new approaches to maritime superiority can take many forms. One example is the ac- quisition of more advanced systems, such as ’s integration of F-35B strike fighters on its carrier CAVOUR described in our interview with the officers leading this effort. An alternative is the fielding of entirely new technologies, typified by the autonomous ships of the type detailed in our coverage of current American and British programmes. Yet another example is the development of new operational methods and doctrines, demonstrated by the United States Marine ’ cur- rent adaptation to distributed naval operations in the Pacific. Again, many of these approaches have required hard choices, be they the surrender of existing capabilities to finance new equipment or the surrender of tried and tested operating concepts in favour of new methods of fighting.

These subjects are just some of the many topics of current maritime interest that are assessed in this issue of Maritime Security & Defence. As always, we hope that they will make interesting reading.

Yours aye Conrad

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 1 Contents Photo: US Navy Photo: Italian Navy

The JOSE ROZAL was Page 6 The Italian Navy prepares for air superiority Page 58 built in the Republic of Korea. in the Mediterranean with its new F-35B JSF

MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE

6 South East Asian Navies: 53 A Renaissance in Amphibious Warfare Challenges and Priorities Sidney E. Dean Dr. Peter Layton 58 The Italian Navy: 11 Naval Programmes in and Getting Ready to Operate the F-35B JSF Eugene Kogan Guy Toremans 16 China’s Maritime Expansion: 62 MV POLARSTERN’s MOSAiC Expedition The Perspective from Beijing A portrait of endurance and strategic research in the remoteness Felix Lauber and Thomas Wolf Wunderlich

SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES 66 European Maritime Engagement in the Strait of Hormuz: A Simple Mission in a Complex Area 21 Submarine Combat Systems: Interview with C. Fjord-Larsen Europe is Expanding its Offer Luca Peruzzi COLUMNS 28 European Submarines: Patience is the Key Jaime Karremann 1 Editorial

33 All Hands off Deck: US & UK Navies Explore the 3 Periscope/The Watch Bill Potential of Autonomous Surface Vessels Richard Scott 57 Masthead 38 RSS INDEPENDENCE: New Approaches to Defending the Littoral Hsing Lim Index of Advertisers

Ak Bars 14-15 MARITIME INDUSTRY DNV 13 DSEI 3rd cover 42 The Threat of Hazmat Terrorism at Sea GA-ASI 4th cover Anna Paternnosto Hagenuk 31 45 The Ship That Launched 1,000 Memes – HGH 17 and Nearly Destroyed 12% of World Trade IMDS/ Laskin 30 Dr Salvatore R Mercogliano kta Naval Systems 23 48 The Security Situation in the Naval Group 2nd cover Mozambique Channel Sea Air Space 35 Helmoed Römer Heitman tkMS 29 50 The Sea in Focus – 's Sea Trade as UDT 41 an Element of a Globalised Economy USC Rubin 26-27 Ludolf, Baron von Löwenstern

2 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 Periscope

United Kingdom: will be required to integrate the ships in a United States: US Navy Exercises Carrier Strike Group Deploys UK . A previous international ten- Option for its Second CONSTELLA- (cw) At the end of May 2021, the Royal der to acquire the ships was suspended in TION (FFG-62) Class Frigate Navy aircraft carrier QUEEN ELIZABETH de- 2019 in line with a change in policy that (cw) The US Navy’s Naval Sea Systems parted Portsmouth, UK to lead the widely is seeing greater emphasis being placed Command (NAVSEA) announced the anticipated Carrier Strike Group 21 (CSG21) on building ships for British government award of a contract option to Fincantieri service in domestic yards.

Argentina: Third Argentine OPV Launched

(cw) STORNI, the third of the class of four graphic: US Navy Offshore Patrol Vessel 87s (OPV 87s) or- dered from Naval Group by was

Photo: Crown Copyright 2021 launched on 10 May 2021. The ship, which was partly built in Lanester, Lorient by A graphic of a CONSTELLATION class frigate

British and US Marine Corps F-35B Marinette Marine (FMM) to build its sec- jets on QUEEN ELIZABETH ond CONSTELLATION Class Guided Mis- sile Frigate, CONGRESS (FF-63) on 20 deployment to the and the Photo: Naval Group May 2021. According to the shipbuilder, Far East. The first British carrier deployment the value of the contract is estimated at for over a decade, the group includes the c. US$555M. The CONSTELLATION pro- Dutch frigate EVERTSEN and US gramme was awarded to FMM in 2020, THE SULLIVANS (DDG-68) as well as various PIEDRABUENA pictured at the time encompassing a contract for the first-in- Royal Navy warships. However, possibly the of her delivery class frigate and options for a further nine most interesting aspect of the deployment ships, as well as post-delivery availability is the embarkation of F-35B strike fight- Kership (the joint venture between Naval support and crew training. The total value ers from US Marine Corps Fighter Attack Group and Piriou) and assembled in Con- for Fincantieri amounts to US$5.5Bn if all Squadron 211 on QUEEN ELIZABETH for carneau by Piriou , is due to be options are exercised. The US Navy plans the duration of the mission, where they will delivered before the end of the year. Her to build 10 additional vessels as part of the operate alongside similar aircraft from Royal launch follows the delivery of her sister- program, for a total of force of 20 units. Air Force 617 Squadron. The pursuit of in- ship PIEDRABUENA, which was delivered tegrated operations over such a sustained on 13 April 2021 and was due to depart Shipyards: New Award for period by embarked carrier aircraft from for Argentina as this issue went to press. “Shaldag” Mk 5 Fast two naval nations in the same air wing is Construction unprecedented in modern times. : Second RAN Fleet Oiler (cw) Israel Shipyards Ltd announced in early Departs for Australia May 2021 that it had won a tender to sup- : Competition for (cw) The 's final ply to supply an undisclosed East Asian Na- New Support Ships Re-launched SUPPLY class Auxiliary Oiler Replenishment vy with its “Shaldag” Mk 5 fast patrol ves- (cw) The British Ministry of Defence has sel design. The award includes the transfer re-launched a competition to build three of knowledge regarding the construction new Fleet Solid Support (FSS) ships to pro- of the vessel, as well as the preparation of vide logistical support to Royal Navy op- the customer’s shipyard for vessel construc- erations across the world. The successful tion through an upgrade of its facilities. Al- though Israel Shipyards declined to reveal its customer’s identity, press reports suggest the award has been made by the Philip- pines, which has a previously announced The AOR STALWART pictured at requirement for eight or nine new vessels to her launch Photo: Australian Department of Defence meet its Fast Attack Interdictor Craft-Missile (FAIC-M) requirement.

Photo: Crown Copyright 2021 (AOR) vessel, STALWART, departed on her long voyage to Australia from Navantia’s Ferrol shipyard on Thursday, 20 May 2021. The FSS programme replaces ships The second of two 19,500 tonne fleet oil- such as FORT VICTORIA, pictured ers built by Navantia, she is based on the here ’s previous CANTABRIA and is

expected to enter service before the end of Photo: Israel Shipyards Ltd bidder for a contract with an estimated the year. Her slightly older sister is already value of c. GBP1.5Bn can work in part- in service, having been commissioned on nership with international companies but 10 April 2021. A “Shaldag” Mk 5 Fast Patrol Boat

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 3 Periscope

HENSOLDT Australia overhauls Royce contract for the first shipset provides 6002 radar; delivery is planned for June combat IFF system of HMAS four mtu naval generator sets, each rated 2021. Terma will deliver the radar in June Canberra at 3000 kWe at 1800 rpm. The generator 2021. is prone to natural disas- (se) The first of the Royal Australian Navy sets are based on the mtu 20V 4000 M53B ters and Hospital Ships are paramount to (RAN)’s IFF system’s antenna and ped- engine and provide a total power output of promptly ensure rescue and evacuation estals from CANBERRA class vessels has 12 MW for propulsion and on-board power missions. For this specific capability, each been overhauled at HENSOLDT Australia’s supply. is equipped with two heli- new overhaul facilities and workshops in copter landing spots, ensuring that person- U212 NFS SUBS GET ELETTRONICA nel and the patients are readily and safely EW SUITE moved to and from the vessel - built by (se) Elettronica announced it will supply shipyard PT PAL. the Electronic Warfare (EW) suite to Italy's Navy for new submarines (U212 NFS Pro- IMMS: Dyena Systems Announces Photo: HENSOLDT gramme), built by Fincantieri and managed New Vessel Monitoring Solution by OCCAR. This includes two suites for the (se) The Vessel Impact and Motion Moni- first batch and two additional systems as an toring System (VIMMS) from Dyena Sys- option for future batches. tems is a direct response to the maritime Elettronica supplies EW within the FREMM industry’s require- and PPA programme frameworks also man- ment to monitor aged by OCCAR. It aims to extend coopera- crew and vessel tion to EU co-funded projects. levels of shock and Electronic supremacy of any battlefield vibration during

means dominance and prior knowledge of high speed boat Image: Dyena Systems Like New: First RAN overhauled the electronic Order of Battle is mission criti- operations (HSBO) antenna & pedestal, re-painted cal. Electro-Magnetic Spectrum Operations to put this in a mili- and installed on HMAS CANBERRA. (EMSO) are a key enabler for many diversi- tary context. Now fied operations. it is available for Canberra. This is the first of four antennas civilian uses (po- and pedestals that will undergo repair and lice, SAR, et cetra). deep level maintenance in Australia. The VIMMS includes HENSOLDT facility already supports the IFF a helm unit and The VIMMS Kit

interrogator for the RAN and Royal Austral- Photo: Fincantieri two remote sen- ian Air Force. sors for measuring acceleration: on the vessel structure and at the helmsman’s Rolls-Royce to Supply MTU seat. Twin LED displays provides simul- Generator Sets for US Navy Frigate taneous information on received vessel Programme and crew impacts. Configurable settings (se) US Navy's new frigate programme - The Elettronica EW Suite will allow the operator to set relevant thresh- the next generation of small surface com- provide subs with additional olds to match LEDs response to the ves- bat ships - will have benefit of mtu naval protection and lethality. sels expected operating conditions. Real generator sets from Rolls-Royce. These will time feedback allows the helmsman to be a key component of propulsion and on- Terma Radar Selected for adjust their speed or course before limits board power generation for phase one of Hospital are exceeded, reducing repeated shock the US Navy’s Constellation (FFG-62) class Assistance Ships and whole-body vibration exposure to frigate programme - previously known as (se) The latest Indonesian Navy’s Hospital the crew or damaging shock impacts to the FFG(X) programme. The Navy Constel- Assistance Ship will have Terma’s SCANTER the vessel and equipment. lation Class Frigate is a multi-mission war- ship designed for operation in littoral and NEW FROM RUSSIA: The Ultimate blue water environments. It will conduct air, for MCM?

anti-submarine, surface and electronic war- Photo: Terma (yl) Russian Naval plans for fare and information operations. The Rolls- 2021 are on schedule, according to the programme programme that has pro- Image: mtu

Latest Indonesian Navy Hospital Corporation Assistance Ship (BRS) built in by the Indonesian state-

owned shipyard PT PAL is 124 me- Photo: United Shipbuilding ters long, 21.8 meters wide, and able to host more than 600 people Launch of the PYOTR ILYICHEV mtu-20V-4000 M53B including crew, troops, and patients MCM ship

4 European Security & Defence · June 2021 Periscope/The Watch Bill

visions for up to 40 ships and vessels, United Kingdom: Royal Navy including two mine counter-measure Appoints its First Female (MCM) ships (Project 12700). The Rus- (cw) For the first time in the centuries-long sian Navy currently operates four ships history of the Royal Navy, a woman

of the Project and has four more MCM Class Phoenix will be appointed to the rank of Admiral. rd ships are underway at the Sredne-Nevsky Commodore Jude Terry has been selected Shipbuilding Plant, part of the United for promotion to ; making her Shipbuilding Corporation. At the end of the most senior woman in the Royal Navy, April, the fifth Project 12700 Alexandrit past or present. The 47-year-old from Jersey MCM ship, called “PYOTR ILYICHEV”, in the Channel Islands will be promoted to was launched in St. Petersburg according Rear Admiral next year and take over as the

to Russian Ministry of Defence sources. Photo: US , PO-3 Royal Navy’s Director of People and Training Another MCM vessel (MCMV) - “GEOR- and Naval Secretary. GI KURBATOV” - will join the “PYOTR ILYICHEV” before 2021 ends. (Note: two more ships were contracted by the Rus- sian Defense Ministry last August at the ARMY-2020 forum.)

US Coast Guard Conducts At-Sea Joint training included hoisting

Exercises with Malta from one of Malta’s Agusta West- Photo Crown Copyright 2021 (se) The Legend-class national security cut- land helicopters ter USCGC Hamilton (WMSL 753) conduct- ed at-sea engagements with the armed Malta patrol boats P-51 and P-52, both of forces of Malta in the Mediterranean Sea, which were acquired by Malta from the US 17 and 20 May 2021. The Hamilton con- Coast Guard’s foreign military sales pro- ducted passing and communication exer- gram. They also conducted hoisting opera- Commodore Jude Terry, soon to be pro- cises on 20 May, with the armed forces of tions with the armed forces. moted Rear Admiral, in front of VICTORY

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Anzg_ESD_Prigital_210x148_2021.indd 1 19.05.21 11:28  MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES South East Asian Navies: Challenges and Priorities

Dr. Peter Layton

Surprisingly perhaps, the Southeast Asian region has a standard model navy. Several factors have created this: the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) multilateral organisation’s success in managing regional political differences; a focus on economic growth – not military power; regional armies often receiving budg- etary priority; limited domestic shipbuilding capabilities; a desire to keep up with neighboring states but not surpass them; and interest in avoiding starting a regional arms race.

he result is ASEAN navies are more alike Tthan not. Most today have a handful of or , some fast attack craft, numerous patrol boats and moderate am- phibious capabilities. The four larger navies also all have a small number of submarines with the fifth () seemingly always Photo: Royal Australian Navy on the cusp of joining the rest. The major exception to this ASEAN standard model navy almost proves the case. Thailand has a small Spanish-built aircraft carrier. Home- ported at Sattahip, the CHAKRI NARYBET accepts tourists to help pay its high operat- ing costs and, when it goes to sea, creates great regional media excitement in being Indonesian Navy OPVs seen on exercises with the Royal Australian Navy. so unusual. The possession of numerous patrol vessels is a typical feature of South The ASEAN navies have historically been East Asian fleets. self-referential, closely following what oth- ers are doing. The region’s earlier geo-stra- The navies of these five states are now in Of the five states, diminutive is less tegic setting allowed this “keeping up with the vanguard of Southeast Asian countries important in terms of influencing ASEAN the Joneses” approach to force structure in determining how to respond to the Chi- naval trends. Of the remainder, mainland to develop. However, since 2012 Chinese nese maritime challenge. The challenge Southeast Asian state is geographi- maritime activities have become increas- is not a traditional great power territorial cally exposed in bordering China, although ingly assertive with signs this may turn into grab using military forces but instead a per- arguably this has sharpened national think- aggressiveness. sistent nibbling away at the edges to gain ing and its desire to toughen ASEAN’s se- A new domestic law has been promulgated incremental advances without starting a curity stance. Of the maritime Southeast to allow the Chinese Coast Guard to fire on major conflict. While some People’s Libera- Asian states, Indonesia is most distant from foreign vessels inside its infamous South tion Army Navy (PLAN) warships conduct China but dominates ASEAN politically, eco- China Sea nine-dash line. This law is part of overwatch tasks, the majority of Chinese nomically and in population; it may become China’s long-running plan to gain sovereign- vessels involved are not the Navy’s, instead the world’s fourth largest economy around ty over more than 80% of the South China being Coast Guard ships, armed maritime 2050. is both a mainland and mari- Sea. This would severely diminish the EEZs militia vessels, government survey ships, oil time South East Asian state, and is consid- made under UNCLOS rules of Vietnam, Ma- rigs and commercial fishing vessels operat- ered a developed country with a regionally laysia, Indonesia, Brunei and the . ed by state-owned and private enterprises. high GDP/capita using Purchasing Power Consequently, for the navies of these five Parity (PPP) measures. Finally, the Philippines Author ASEAN states the challenge is sovereignty has experienced surprisingly good economic maintenance rather than balancing against growth in the last decade but is susceptible Dr. Peter Layton is a Visiting Fellow, a superpower able to easily outmatch to Chinese economic coercion and domestic Griffith Asia Institute, and a RUSI them. This shifts the focus more towards political turbulence. Associate fellow. He has extensive the constabulary end of naval taskings All four of these larger navies offer insights defence experience and writes fre- then war-at-sea. This helpfully simplifies in terms of force structure, operations and quently on geostrategic matters, the problem, as ASEAN navies traditionally future paths, and together are broadly force structure issues and emerging have had policing roles such as countering representative of all the region’s navies. technologies. piracy, terrorism, and Illegal, Unreported Amongst the others, ’s Navy is and Unregulated (IUU) fishing. partly an outlier in having an ASEAN stand-

6 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES  ard-type force structure but being much better funded and more technologically advanced. Singapore’s (and Thailand’s) EEZ lies outside China’s nine-dash line claims and so its navy has different geo-strategic drivers. An article elsewhere in this journal issue discuses Singaporean naval matters.

Vietnam Photo: Singapore Ministry of Defence

Sovereignty maintenance in the South China Sea is more problematic than it may seem given China’s expansionist ambitions. For Vietnam this is especially obvious given the country was defeated by China in the The Vietnam People’s Navy has been modernising with the acquisition 1974 Battle of the and in the of ships from Russia, such as the GEPARD class frigate seen here. 1988 Johnson South Reef skirmish in the Spratlys. The use of military force by China warships are new: the submarines, the GE- new-build militia fishing boats will be of once again to seize parts of Vietnam’s EEZ PARDS and many of the corvettes were de- steel hull construction, not the older wood- appears quite possible. Such beliefs are livered in the last decade. Reportedly, there en style vulnerable to ramming. strengthened when Chinese coast guard is interest in acquiring two more GEPARD The three layers of warships, coast guard vessels ram and sink Vietnamese fishing frigates and MOLNIYA class corvettes. vessels and militia forces is effectively a sym- vessels, as happened in April 2020. Vietnam’s Coast Guard, the largest in ASE- metric response to China’s grey zone tactics. Consequently, today’s Vietnam People’s AN and bigger than those of Indonesia, the Such use of combined forces was ably dem- Navy (VPN) aims to deter hostile maritime Philippines and Malaysia combined, is also onstrated to Vietnam in 2014 when China actions by being manifestly able to impose expanding. Over the last decade the ser- moved the HAIYANG SHIYOUH 981 oil rig significant costs when countering grey zone vice has acquired four locally-built Damen into Vietnam’s EEZ. Returning the lesson, activities and territorial grabs. China may be DN 2000 OPVs, two ex-US Coast Guard Vietnam now plans to flood future actively able to quickly capture islands claimed by HAMLTON class cutters, an ex-Korean disputed areas with large numbers of mi- Vietnam in a coup de main but attempting Coast Guard HAN-RIVER class OPV, three litia fishing vessels with crews armed with to keep them would place China’s naval, Damen patrol craft and 18 Metal Shark 45 small arms, reinforced and protected by governmental and civilian shipping in the patrol boats. The larger vessels are lightly coast guard vessels able to stop any Chinese South China Sea at real risk. armed including some with gun turrets. Six ships ramming and sinking fishing vessels, Implementing such deterrence draws on armed patrol vessels, based on the Japa- and overseen by well-armed frigates or cor- sea denial strategic concepts and Vietnam’s nese Coast Guard’s ASO class have recently vettes able to use military force in extremis. close historical relationship with the Soviet been ordered for delivery by 2025. Future Moreover, lurking in the background may Union, and now Russia. The VPN force plans across this decade include two large also be a KILO class submarine. structure is Russian-dominated in com- helicopter equipped OPV’s and ten, pos- Such a concept of operations, suggests the prising six KILO submarines, four GEPARD sibly Polish-designed, SAR vessels. VPN’s shortcomings. In terms of equipment, frigates, five PETYA frigates, 14 corvettes Less obvious is the build-up underway in a high level of maritime domain awareness built in Russia, locally and in , Vietnam’s maritime militia, estimated by would be essential. Efforts are being made 26 mainly Soviet/Russian patrol craft and some to field about 8,000 fishing boats. in this area with several light maritime several amphibious vessels. Many of the Concessional loans are being offered so patrol aircraft acquired, some ships now carrying helicopters and limited access to space-based sensors including the acqui- sition of a Japanese commercial synthetic aperture radar satellite. However, much Photo: DAMEN more is necessary to provide timely strate- gic and tactical level situational awareness. In the same vein, Command and Control (C2) needs digitising, connectivity enhance- ments made and low-cost ways found to include the militia in C2 networks. Moreover, the large-scale new equipment acquisitions for the VPN and the Coast Guard now need to be matched by organi- sation-wide improvements in maintenance and long-term logistic support. The subma- rines and GEPARD frigates in particular are sophisticated assets with new sustainment skills necessary. There are probably also Many of the Indonesian Navy’s high end vessels originate from the worries over whether Russia would contin- , This is Damen designed but largely locally assembled ue to supply spares for the VPN’s warships SIGMA 10514 frigate GUSTI NGURAH RAI. and submarines should China intercede.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 7  MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES

Indonesia The Indonesian Navy’s (TNI-AL) fleet has buy four 80m OPVs, with a request for been eclectically sourced as budgetary cir- proposals issued. Behind the OPV inter- The Indonesian archipelago is strategically cumstances have allowed. The submarine est is a desire to block the new Indonesian located between Asia and Australia, and force currently comprises three South Ko- Maritime Security Agency (BAKAMLA) between two oceans, the Pacific and the In- rean designed (Improved Type 209 CHANG from acquiring further large ships, instead dian. In 2014, newly elected President Joko BOGO class) boats, with the most recent reserving such acquisitions for the TNI-AL. Widodo built on this location to propose commissioned being locally assembled, Indonesia has seven different institutions an expansive vision of Indonesia becoming and one early-1980s German-designed undertaking various coast guard functions the Global Maritime Fulcrum. In his second Type 209 refitted in South Korea in 2004- and together operating around 400 small- term, this enthusiasm cooled and policy re- 2005. TNI-AL’s other “legacy” Type 209, to-medium sized patrol boats. An omnibus turned to that of a gradual development KRI NANGGALA, was lost during a bill, expected to be passed by the Indone- of Indonesian maritime organisations to firing training accident north of in late sian Parliament this year, will give BAKAM- the extent that national GDP growth al- April 2021. LA the authority to coordinate the various lowed. This development focus is, though, The frigate force includes two new Neth- institutions, effectively forming an Indone- noticeably shifting as China trespasses into erlands’ designed SIGMA 10514 ships sian Coast Guard. BAKAMLA was raised in Indonesia’s EEZ. (two-thirds locally assembled) and five ex- 2015 and operates six medium-sized patrol vessels and four OPVs, the largest of which is 2500 tons. TNI-AL already operates an impressive Inte- grated Maritime System (IMSS) that takes data from some 18 coastal sur- veillance stations, automatic identification system sensors and 11 ship-based radars Photo: Royal Australian Navy to pass to various command centres to al- low monitoring ship movements across the archipelago. Principally intended for constabulary purposes such as detecting smuggling and IUU, the IMSS has also uncovered Chinese survey ships possibly covertly mapping the Sunda and Lombok straits, important potential submarine tran- sit routes in time of conflict. Four Chinese SEA WING oceanographic research glider UUVs have recently been retrieved in Indo- The Indonesian patrol vessel HIU. Several hundred patrol vessels of nesian territorial waters. various shapes and sizes are operated by various Indonesian government organisations. Malaysia

China’s nine-dash line seizes less of Indo- Netherlands Navy frigates based on the The South China Sea separates the two nesian’s EEZ than that of the other ASEAN British LEANDER class. Ten guided missile halves of Malaysia, with East Malaysia’s states and, so, for a long time the issue corvettes are in service: four SIGMA 9113 EEZ significantly reduced under China’s was deliberately downplayed. In early 2020 ships and three 1980’s FATAHILLAHS, all nine-dash line claims. Nevertheless, Ma- however, some large Chinese coast guard built in the Netherlands, and three British- laysia has studiously practised overlooking vessels escorted Chinese fishing boats into built ships, recently acquired when a sale to the problem, focusing instead on the eco- Indonesia’s EEZ near the Natuna Islands. Brunei fell through. nomic possibilities China offers. Malaysia’s Indonesia lodged a formal diplomatic pro- In addition there are 14 modernised for- latest Defence White Paper acknowledges test, dispatched ten naval ships to the area mer East German PARCHIM class corvettes South China Sea issues but attributes these and deployed four F-16 fighters to Natuna and numerous fast missile boats, includ- to great power competition. Malaysia has Island. President Widodo flew in to ascer- ing 12 FPB 57s (six Indonesian-built) and even avoided discussing the issue bilaterally tain the situation first hand and for a week eight locally-designed CLURITs, several as China has wished too, preferring to let the Chinese and Indonesian ships were fitted with Chinese anti-ship missiles. The ASEAN handle it. locked in a standoff. TNI-AL’s large amphibious force includes Malaysia is trying to steer a middle ground, The Indonesia EEZ is some 1,500 kilome- 14 LSTs, and five new class, a hedging between the two great powers so tres from China and so was previously little South Korean designed Landing Platform as to gain the maximum benefits. The Royal disturbed by Chinese grey zone activities. Dock (LPD) of which three were built in In- Malaysian Navy (RMN) has become a casu- China’s island building has now created donesia. The navy also has some 150 small alty of this hedging in being poorly funded, adjacent ports and airfields, expanding patrol boats. facing real difficulties in recapitalising its China’s maritime reach and its ability to The TNI-AL plans to acquire additional frig- aging fleet and in needing to source new push southward using incremental ‘salami ates and at least three more submarines. ships from a diversity of sources including slicing’ tactics. Recognising this, Indonesia The latter were originally expected to be Western nations, China and locally. Diplo- is building a tactical level naval headquar- locally assembled South Korean designs. macy and domestic factors have taken ters and a submarine support station on This is now uncertain, with some interest precedence over rational naval force struc- Natuna Island to improve future EEZ intru- in possibly acquiring up to four TKMS Type ture development. The RMN to its credit sion response operations. 214 boats. There are firmer intentions to has certainly tried, devising its “15-to-5”

8 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES 

Transformation Programme that advocates moving from today’s 15 ship classes down to five in the future. The RMN fleet today operates two French- Photo: Navantia built SCORPÈNE type submarines, modi- fied for the warmer, more saline waters of but without the air-inde- pendent propulsion systems of later build boats. Two British-built LEKIU class frigates are in service together with six corvettes: two German built ships based on HDW's FS 1500 and four Italian-built ships based on Fincantieri’s Type 550. There are also 14 fast attack craft sourced from , and Germany. The OPV force comprises six ships based on the MEKO 100 design with the first two built in Germany and the rest locally by the state-owned Boustead Heavy Industries Corporation (BHIC). Building the OPVs locally proved problem- TUN RAZAK is one of two Malaysian Navy SCORPÈNE type submarines. atic with an 18 month delay in delivery and some politically damaging scandals. These new ships are all urgently needed. tilla of coast guard and paramilitary vessels However, this was just a foretaste of to- Of the RMN’s 44 vessels, the average age to shadow the drillship. The coast guard day’s much bigger problems with the six- is 30 years. Fleet maintenance costs are ac- vessels included a 5,000 ton ZHAOLAI class ship (LCS) acquisition. cordingly high but will not reduce unless ship and a smaller but better armed 2,700 These ships based on the French GOWIND recapitalisation is undertaken. The Navy’s ton ZHAOJUN class vessel. To counter this, design are being built by BHIC and budget though is at best flat, with declines the RMN sent the 2,270 ton KD JEBAT, its are late and over budget. With a decision in real terms in some years. largest warship, and an OPV, while MMEA taken to stay within the US$2.1BN budget, In 2005, the Malaysian Maritime Enforce- sent a 45m patrol vessel. Later, two USN the RMN may eventually receive only two ment Agency (MMEA) was established to INDEPENDENCE class littoral combat ships LCSs. perform coast guard duties. The Agency and a supply vessel joined the gaggle. In In contrast, the parallel purchase of four operates three new locally-built 1,800 ton late April, more US Navy ships arrived to Littoral Mission Ships (LMS) from China OPVs based on Damen’s OPV1800 design, undertake training nearby; these included Shipbuilding Industry Corporation has two OJIKA class OPVs transferred from the an amphibious assault ship, a , a de- proceeded well. Two of the patrol ships Japanese Coast Guard, two Korean-built stroyer and later a Royal Australian Navy have already been delivered with the other OPVs transferred from the RMN, and nine frigate. A Chinese destroyer also cruised two planned for this year. The ships use a small-to-medium patrol vessels. through the area while Vietnamese fishing modular concept, each able to carry up to The challenging environment the RMN vessels were at times present. The complex- three ISO containers with mission-specific and MMEA will face in the near term in ity and confusion of today’s South China equipment. The four LMSs will be based in the South China Sea is exemplified by last Sea maritime operations is readily appar- East Malaysia to conduct EEZ sovereignty year’s West Capella incident. The drillship, ent. patrols to both counter Chinese incursions WEST CAPELLA, was contracted by Malay- and to block the Moro pirates and the Abu sia’s national oil and gas company Petro- Philippines Sayyaf terrorist group from operating in the nas to explore in East Malaysia’s EEZ. In re- maritime border regions between Malaysia sponse, China dispatched the survey vessel For several decades, the Philippines govern- and the Philippines. HAIYANG DIZHI 8 escorted by a small flo- ment concentrated on fighting domestic insurgencies. The Philippines Navy (PN) ac- cordingly focussed on coastal patrol, troop transport and disaster relief tasks. Howev- er, China’s South China Sea actions forced a reassessment and in 2011 a decision was

Photo:: Naval Group taken to prioritise the PN’s needs over those of the . The intent was to create a modest maritime border protec- tion capability able to undertake surveil- lance, deterrence, and border patrol tasks. For this, the Strategic Sail Plan 2020 issued in 2013 envisaged acquiring six frigates, 12 corvettes, 18 OPVs, four strategic sealift ships and three submarines. Completion of this programme would effectively make the PN a standard ASEAN model navy. Constriction of Malaysia’s GOWIND type Littoral Combat Ships has not This ambitious plan has hit some rocks. gone entirely to plan. Long term budgetary neglect means the

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 9  MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES

sively irritate - but not impede - China as it expands its grey zone activities across the South China Sea. Given this, ASEAN states Photo: US Navy generally support extra-regional navies be- coming more active in the South China Sea. The US, , and Australia now exer- cise more frequently with ASEAN navies and increasingly send naval task groups through the area. France and Germany are becom- ing active while the United Kingdom’s new carrier, HMS QUEEN ELIZABETH, will de- ploy into the region later this year. Even so, ASEAN states will remain careful to placate China. After COVID-19 passes, naval exer- cises with the PLAN will probably resume while purchasing new ships and weapons from China will continue. In assessing the navies of Vietnam, Ma- laysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, their The Korean-built frigate JOSE ROZAL is one of a pair recently inducted diversity of supply is striking. This may gar- into the Philippine Navy. ner ASEAN stronger diplomatic support in a crisis but also means few synergies are PN operates mainly old second-hand ships. possibly from Korea, and two submarines, gained and economies of scale achieved. It needs not a straight forward re-capital- with the French SCORPÈNE class declared Also notable is that extra-regional countries isation but an expensive major rebuilding as meeting PN needs. are quite active in gifting equipment, with beyond the current limited defence budg- The PN is being re-shaped but offshore the US, Japan and South Korea notable in et. Moreover, the Philippine defence acqui- the South China Sea remains troubled. In this regard. South Korea has also been very sition process is tedious and protracted. March, 2021 some 220 Chinese fishing ves- successful in selling new ships, with Japan Lastly, shifting priority to the PN proved sels, believed armed maritime militia ships, seemingly making a breakthrough in the harder than originally envisaged as jihad- suddenly anchored in neat rows at Whitsun region with its recent sale to Vietnam. In- ist insurgencies worsened in the Southern Reef, a feature claimed by the Philippines. creasingly, making warships locally might Philippines. In 2017, the Army fought a five- In response, the Philippines lodged a dip- sway a sale although, as Malaysia shows, month urban warfare campaign to retake lomatic protest and sent several PN ships, this can be a difficult path. the city of Marawi. Vietnam despatched a GEPARD class frig- China’s grey zone activities are definitely Nevertheless progress is being made. Un- ate, the PLAN some Type 022 fast-attack impacting Southeast Asia’s navies opera- der the Sail Plan, the PN has so far gained while a US Navy expeditionary tionally. In terms of force structure though five frigates, one corvette, and two strate- strike group exercised in the western South the impact has been to reinforce pre- gic sealift ships; remarkably half were new- China Sea. It’s a busy sea. existing concepts but not overturn them. builds. Two JOSE RIZAL class frigates built The exception is the increasing number of in South Korea have been recently com- Conclusion OPVs, even if many are second-hand and missioned. These are modified Republic of for the region’s expanding coast guards. In Korea Navy INCHEON class frigate designs ASEAN states only allocate limited fund- the main, new warships are simply fitting and to keep costs down are fitted for but ing to their naval forces. The result is that in rather than triggering significant ASEAN not with several combat systems. The other in a war these would be one-shot navies, naval re-thinking. Having some subma- new-builds were for the Strategic Sealift where submarines might be critical. For rines, several frigates, a flock of corvettes Vessel role: two Indonesian-made LPDs constabulary tasks though, the navies are and some amphibious ships remains the based on the MAKASSAR class. The four steadily improving and they will progres- limit of regional aspirations. L second-hand ships were three former US Coast Guard HAMILTON class cutters that in being modernised were rebadged as frigates, and an ex-Korean POHANG class corvette. Photo: US Navy A Sail Plan 2028 is now being drafted while the older version remains guiding PN devel- opment. The next purchase should be six OPVs; probably Austal designed and built in the Philippines. After this may be two corvettes, possibly both will be donated ex-Korean POHANG class ships, and then two more new-build MAKASSAR class Indonesian-made LPDs. A contract is ex- pected shortly for eight Israeli SHALDAG Mk V patrol boats. Longer term, the PN The Philippine Navy LPD DAVAI DEL SUR was built in Indonesia to the hopes to acquire two new-build corvettes, MAKASSAR class design.

10 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES  Naval Programmes in Bulgaria and Romania

Eugene Kogan

The procurement of F-16 fighter aircraft fleets by Bulgaria and Romania had been a top priority until the year 2019, with navy requirements coming to the fore only after completion of these programmes. And this was despite the stormy weather brewing in the region and the speedy rearmament of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. These two developments have contributed to the acceleration of the modernisation plans for the Bulgarian and Romanian naval fleets and their related procurement efforts.

he governments of Bulgaria and Roma- Tnia had also realised that their naval ves- sels lacked modern capabilities, lagging far behind those of the navies of other NATO member states. As a result, the necessary funding for the procurement of new ves- Photo: Crown Copyright sels was allocated despite the reality of the raging COVID-19 pandemic that also re- quired the allocation of extra funds. As a result, the signed a contract with Fr. Lürssen Werft (also known as the Lürssen Group) on 12 November 2020 for two corvette-sized Multipurpose Modular Patrol Vessels (MMPVs), while the plans to sign a contract with Naval Group for four GOW- IND class corvettes at a not yet specified date in 2021, with deliveries scheduled for between 2024 and 2028. It should be Launched in 1977 at the Belgian Boelwerf shipyard, DRAZKI is an ex stressed that the construction of the GOW- WIELINGEN class frigate. She was acquired by the Bulgarian Navy in 2004. IND corvettes in Romania remains a top pri- ority for the current Romanian government around 1.93% of Bulgaria’s GDP accord- be built in Bulgaria. Bulgarian Navy require- led by Florin Citu. ing to data released by NATO in October ments call for the delivery of both multipur- 2020. This was still sufficient to proceed pose vessels within five years from contract Bulgaria’s MMPV Programme with the procurement of the two Multipur- signature.” Lürssen finally signed the acqui- pose Modular Patrol Vessels (MMPVs) ref- sition contract on 12 November 2020. The The Bulgarian naval fleet is still based on erenced above. A tender for these vessels ships will be delivered between 2025 and Soviet-era vessels and has not been mod- issued in April 2019 saw Lürssen selected as 2026 at a cost of BGN 984 million or about ernised for decades, with most of the ves- the preferred bidder in February 2020. Al- €503 million including technical and crew sels having reached the end of their service though, driven by the government’s finan- training. The vessels are based on the Ger- lives. cial constraints, the defence budget was man shipyard’s OPV 80 design. Bulgaria’s The Bulgarian defence budget amounted further reduced to 1.7% of the Bulgarian Defence Acquisition Directorate is the con- to BGN 3.53 billion (€1.80 billion) in 2019, GDP in the current year, this does not seem tracting authority for the programme. bolstered by one off sums to support the to have impacted the MMPV acquisition. Lürssen’s subcontractor in Bulgaria will be procurement of F-16 fighters. In 2020, the Accordingly, on 16 June 2020, Bulgaria’s the MTG Dolphin shipyard. MTG Dolphin is defence budget was reduced to a more Ministry of Defence (MoD) began nego- to build the hulls of the two corvettes while normal BGN 1.94 billion (€1.0 billion); tiations with Lürssen for the construction Lürssen is to focus on systems integration of the two MMPVs. The new-generation for equipment and armament. On 8 De- Author corvette is to meet the country’s require- cember 2020, the Swedish company Saab ments for anti-submarine and anti-surface was awarded a subcontract by Lürssen to Eugene Kogan is an Eastern Euro- warfare, air-defence, peacetime maritime provide the combat management system pean defence and security expert patrol and search and rescue operations. (CMS) for the Bulgarian Navy’s MMPVs. based in Tbilisi, Georgia. According to former Defence Minister Under the contract signed by the compa- Krasimir Karakachanov, “the vessels should nies, Saab will be responsible for the deliv-

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 11  MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES

However, the former Prime Minister Lu- dovic Orban said in July 2020 that “the Romanian authorities can start negotia- Photo: US Navy tions with the consortium comprising Na- val Group of France and Santierul Naval Constanta (SNC) for the acquisition of four GOWIND-type multi-role corvettes for a budget of €1.2 billion. Naval Group and SNC are expected to deliver the first vessel by 2024 and the last in 2028.” There is no doubt whatsoever that the Romanian Government’s decision to con- tract France’s Naval Group to build four GOWIND corvettes could result in its larg- est-ever military programme. Moreover, it would mark the country’s first major acquisition of modern vessels for its naval Built by the Russian Volodarsky Shipbuilding Yard, the ZBORUL class forces in 30 years. According to a state- missile corvette ROS LASTUNUL is an ex-Soviet TARANTUL-1 class with a ment by the Naval Group, “the contract full-load displacement of some 450 tonnes. includes the purchase of four new vessels and the modernisation of the country’s ery and integration of the 9LV-type CMS. NATO member states that allocated more two UK-built T-22 frigates in addition to Saab’s role as the CMS integrator will in- than 2% of its GDP for defence in 2020. the construction of a maintenance centre clude involvement of staff from the compa- The Romanian defence budget was and a training centre.” ny’s Kockums shipyard in Malmö. The 9LV- US$4.68 billion or 2.03% of its GDP in The GOWIND’s combat management sys- series CMS feature an open architecture, 2019 while it increased to US$5.498 billion tem, SETIS, is based on the SENIT combat allowing the customer to choose between or 2.38% of its GDP in 2020. According management system jointly designed by a customised systems configuration and a to a press release of the Ministry of Na- Naval Group and Thales and incorporating Saab-recommended default setting. tional Defence (MoND) issued in February a commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) open- In addition to the MMPV programme, Bul- 2021, the budget of the ministry proposed system architecture. The corvettes will be garia purchased two decommissioned TRI- for 2021 includes funds of RON 22.746 armed with MBDA’s MICA VL and PARTITE class from the Royal (US$5.6 billion) or 2.04% of the country’s missiles. Sensors include a hull-mounted Netherlands Navy in September 2020. The GDP; namely, slightly less than in 2020 but and a towed-array from Thales. cost of the acquisition amounted to €2.395 still above 2% of its GDP. In addition to the corvettes, the Romanian million. Another €2 million were spent on the Government has approved a deal and sent reactivation and delivery of the minesweep- GOWIND and NSM a draft bill to the Parliament in January 2021 ers to Bulgaria, whilst a further €1.5 million for Romania that will allow the country to buy two NA- will be spent on refitting the ships. Therefore, VAL STRIKE MISSILE (NSM)-based Coastal the total cost is close to €6 million. As a result of other high-priority procure- Defence Systems (CDS) within the scope of The two new will join an- ment efforts such as C4I systems with a Foreign Military Sales (FMS) programme. other TRIPARTITE-type MCMV purchased ISTAR integration capacities, SHORAD-VS- Developed by Raytheon and Kongsberg, by the Bulgarian Navy in 2004 and refur- HORAD systems, UAVs and the modernisa- NSM is a sea-skimming, over-the-horizon bished in 2009. tion of the IAR-99 trainer aircraft – all of anti-ship missile. In October 2020, the US Whether or not the above mentioned naval which were approved by the Parliament in State Department approved the potential procurement turns Bulgaria into an emerg- April 2021 – naval modernisation has not sale after requested the pur- ing Black Sea Guardian remains to be seen. been accorded a high priority until recently. chase of the two CDS. However, one thing is for sure: things are moving slowly but they surely are moving in the right direction. The Bulgarian Navy is strengthening its naval capabilities while its crews are undergoing training for the Image: Lürssen operation of modern naval surface com- batants. As far as MTG Dolphin shipyard’s capability to design and build indigenous naval vessels without external assistance is concerned, there is still much to be desired. Under the current circumstances the desire does not match the reality.

Romania’s Defence Spending

The Government of Bulgaria’s neighbour Ro- mania appears to be taking defence matters An Artist impression of the Bulgarian Navy’s Multipurpose seriously and the country is one of the ten Modular Patrol Vessel

12 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 The Government of Romania’s request to purchase two CDS extends to up to 10 Link-16 Multifunctional Information Distri- bution System – Joint Tactical Radio Systems (MIDS-JTRS). Also included are two coastal defence fire distribution centres, four launch vehicles, transport loading vehicles, a non- operational Inert Handling/Loading Missile (IHM) to train missile handling and loading/ unloading, training missile and equipment spares, associated containers, training and

training equipment, publications and techni- Image: Naval Group cal documentation, spare parts, and techni- The tender for four GOWIND corvettes and the modernisation of two cal and logistic support services. frigates was launched in 2016. Although Naval Group was selected as the The MoND said in a statement that “the preferred supplier in July 2019, negotiations have yet to be concluded. potential contract is to include 33 missiles and is cost- estimated at about US$286 mil- fleets of the two countries, though limited garia and Romania receive the MMPVs lion, but its precise value is to be determined in size, will continue to operate as before; and GOWIND corvettes. In other words, when the acquisition procedure begins.” namely, with restraint and caution. There- due to the restrictions of the Montreux The implementation of the contract will fore, the emergence of the Black Sea Guard- Convention, naval vessels from a mini- take place between 2021 and 2024 and the ians may well become a reality in three to mum of two NATO member states will mobile launcher system will be delivered in seven years from today but, until then, the stay in the Black Sea for three weeks the fourth quarter of 2024. stormy waters of the sea remain dark and instead of the three month air-policing in In conclusion, Bulgaria and Romanian’s naval menacing. the . The rotating mission will re- procurement shows that their naval compo- The navies of the two countries will need assure Bulgaria and Romania and will be nents, albeit belatedly, are now being taken the full support from the navies of other seen as a gesture of solidarity towards the care of by their respective governments. The NATO member states in order to maintain Black Sea NATO members. This suggestion scheduled improvements should take place resilience in the Black Sea region. Per- is worth discussion by the NATO member sometime between 2024 and 2028. Until haps, therefore, NATO can introduce a states. The sooner a decision is made, the then, the current capabilities of the naval Baltic-like air-policing mission until Bul- better it will be for all involved. L

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14 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 rial waters and the protection of naval bases and coastal areas. Ships based on this Project design are currently subject to serial production to meet the needs of the .

“Gepard-3.9” Frigate

We conclude with the “Gepard-3.9” frigate, which has already shown its export potential. At present, four “Ge- pard-3.9” frigates – which were devel- oped on the basis of the Project 11661 patrol ship – are serving as part of the naval forces of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The “Gepard-3.9” is a multi- purpose design that can combat surface, New 21635 project Sarsar has been developed by the Ak Bars Corporation submarine and air-based threats, either independently or as part of a group. the Russian Navy and the National Guard them to fight enemy surface ships, dis- It can lay minefields, patrol and guard of the Russian Federation. The ongoing rupt transport communications, support maritime borders and the exclusive eco- production of boats of this series by Ak ground force operations in coastal areas nomic zone, escort convoys, “fly the Bars Shipbuilding Corporation demon- and even strike at important targets deep ” in areas of interest and participate strates both the performance and the in enemy territory. The Project 21635’s in a wide range of other maritime opera- attraction of the design. capabilities are also proven. During Rus- tions. As a result, the design’s armament sian military operations in Syria, Russian is varied and balanced. Project 21635 “Sarsar” Series Navy ships of a similar design attacked Moreover, the basic “Gepard” (Cheetah) ground targets of the Islamic State ter- platform can be adapted to achieve vari- The Project 21635 family of ships includes rorist organisation from locations in the ous configurations. Our customers are a variety of small missile-armed, gun- Caspian Sea. not limited only to the base multi-pur- armed and anti-submarine patrol vessels pose configuration but can specify ships, that are designed to undertake the protec- Patrol Ship: Project 22160 for example, with enhanced anti-subma- tion of territorial seas and exclusive eco- rine or anti-aircraft weapons systems, nomic zones, the defence of sea lanes, This ship is designed to ensure the pro- improved shock resistance, or with a and the performance of combat missions tection of territorial waters, undertak- wide variety of propulsion and electronic in offshore waters. They are capable both ing patrol duties in both closed and equipment. The “Gepard” platform has of independent operation and integration open seas across the entire extent of also been adapted as the basis for a de- into a broader maritime force. the 200-mile exclusive economic zone. sign focused on patrolling the open seas, The Project 21635’s small dimensions al- Potential missions include the suppres- with greater autonomy of navigation. It is low it to be used in a wide range of mari- sion of smuggling and piracy, search also important to note that the “Gepard” time environments, including river deltas and rescue operations in response to family compares favourably with many of and inland waterways. In spite of their maritime disasters, monitoring the mar- its foreign competitors in terms of cost, compact size, they are capable of deploy- itime environment, escorting vessels in allowing greater capability to be acquired ing powerful strike weapons that allow the course of transit through territo- for the same budget. L

“Gepard-3.9” frigates are in service with the naval forces of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 15  MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES China’s Maritime Expansion: The Perspective from Beijing

Under Xi's leadership, far-reaching reforms are under way to turn China into a major military power by 2050. The role of the navy is crucial. The goal is to dissuade the US from using force through a mix of tactical ap- proaches and data driven warfare. Especially in the context of .

he traditional mentality that land out- Tweighs sea must be abandoned.” Therefore, “great importance has to be at- tached to managing the seas and oceans and protecting maritime rights and in- terests…” stated China’s Defence White Papers of 2013 and 2015. The People's Photo: China Military Online Republic's rise as a maritime power is not dictated by desire to challenge the US for global dominance, but by the need to pro- tect the national interest by combining “coastal water defence” (jinhai fangyu) and “offshore protection” (yuanhai huwei). From the perspective of Beijing, the se- curity environment outside China has deteriorated steadily and dramatically since the US turned regional territorial disputes into global geopolitical conflicts with its so-called Pivot to Asia. Steady US encroachment into the 12 nautical mile boundaries of the Huangyan Islands (or PLAN surface vessels are pictured exercising in the East China Sea in Janu- Scarborough Atoll) in the South China ary 2021. China is paying increasing attention to the maritime domain. Sea have increased hostile contacts be- tween the two navies and militarised bi- in the world, with an overall battle force of People’s Liberation Army (PLA) and of the lateral relations. approximately 350 ships and submarines in- military-industrial complex in this domain The US portrayal of China as a fearsome cluding over 130 major surface combatants. is an existential threat for China’s defence rival increases the military dimension of In comparison, the U.S. Navy’s battle force and deterrence capabilities. the conflicts of interest between the two is approximately 293 ships as of early 2020.” Conversely, the capabilities of China’s sur- countries, further strengthening China's While there’s strength in numbers, however, face ships are generally seen as adequate, concerns. The two countries risk being un- numbers aren’t the only factors of strength. with the People’s Liberation Army Navy able to escape the Thucydides trap. (PLAN) deploying large and medium-sized In its most recent report Military and Se- Beijing’s Perspective ships such as the Type 075 amphibious as- curity Developments involving the People’s sault ships and Type 055 and Type 052D Republic of China published in 2020, the Beijing would be deemed to lose a compre- . The possible addition of new United States Department of Defense (DoD) hensive arms race with the United States concept weapons such as electromagnetic assess that “the PRC has marshalled the in the field of aircraft carriers and nuclear rail guns to the 10,000-tonne Type 055 de- resources, technology, and political will… submarines, claim Chinese analysts. stroyer is a significant development. to strengthen…the PLA in nearly every re- China has currently no match for the up- The PLAN is expected to add three aircraft spect”. And "China is already ahead of the coming COLUMBIA (SSBN-826) class of carriers by 2035. They will join the Type United States in certain areas”. The navy is strategic nuclear submarines, whose first 001 LIAONING (16) and Type 002 SHAN- one of these. “The PRC has the largest navy unit officially began construction in 2020 DONG (17), both already in commission. and is scheduled to enter service in 2031. Since December 2019, the SHANDONG Author Equally superior active offensive capabil- has embarked on numerous training cruis- ity is ensured by the VIRGINIA (SSN-774) es. Training and time are required before Mu Xin is an established sinologist class nuclear attack submarines that are the PLAN achieves mature carrier opera- who works as a strategy manager currently in service with the US Navy. They tions. However, the speedy and success- and consultant. alone represent a 20-year gap with Bei- ful construction of a domestic carrier is a jing’s equivalents. The learning curve of the positive sign for the future of the Chinese

16 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 Photo: China Military Online

The PLAN’s first 10,000-tonne Type 055 destroyer NANCHANG is evidence of growing Chinese naval capabilities. However, the PLAN still lags behind its US rival in some critical areas. navy. The efforts to build-up competence sion” according to a Chinese source. The and technology centres are bearing fruit. PLAN seems to be moving towards a con- “Intelligent specialisation” leads the reor- cept of “Offshore Defense, Global Guard” ganisation of shipyards and the industry. Naval construction, supply chain capabili- Despite this progress, scenarios project- ties and comprehensive procurement plans ing the PLAN’s performance in an Air-Sea will be enhanced under the 14th Five Year Battle engaging US aircraft carrier battle Plan to ensure the PLAN has the ability, pre- groups outside the Second Island Chain do paredness, and readiness to compete withC not generally bode well for Beijing. [1] the Japanese Maritime Self-Defence Force as well as US Pacific Fleet. The ability to conM - Principal Naval Rivals duct independent operations within andJ outside the First Island Chain and the ability CM Japan and the US are viewed as China’s to conduct maritime manoeuvres equiva- main rivals operating within the First Island lent to that of the US Navy are regarded MJas

Chain. The US is considered to be the main being necessary objectives. CJ strategic threat to national unity, maritime CMJ rights, and strategic interests. In the new Changing Forms of Warfare century, the navy's strategic objectives N “should be based on the traditionally rec- The nature of warfare has undergone pro- ognised "coastal defence and distant sea found changes. Information-based warfare protection", and actively evolve towards is gradually replacing mechanised warfare. "coastal defence and distant sea protec- The future of information-based naval war- tion; ocean presence and bipolar expan- fare will be a system-to-system, system-to- Photo: US Navy

The carriers THEODORE ROOSEVELT (CVN-71) and NIMITZ (CVN-68) pictured underway in the Philippine Sea. Whilst China has grown A2/AD capabilities close to home, scenarios projecting the PLAN’s performance www.hgh-infrared.com against US carrier battle groups outside the Second Island Chain do not generally bode well for Beijing.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 17  MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES

three times since the Gulf War (1990-1), based partly on the experience of the First (2000-1) and Second (2003- 2011) wars. The current strategy is aimed at fighting local information-technology driven wars and emphasises the military Photo: China Military Online protection of Chinese sovereignty and ter- ritorial integrity. Given reforms in the Chinese system are generally timed on a ten-year baseline, the NDS strategy may be updated again in 2025. By that date some commentators foresee that the PLAN may have three air- craft carriers forming an aircraft carrier bat- tle group formation, possibly accompanied by eight Type 055 destroyers. In addition, SHANDONG, China’s first indigenously constructed aircraft carrier. China's new generation of electromagnetic By 2025 China could have three aircraft carriers in service. guns may be on board these ships, opening a new strategic epoch for the navy. system overall competition. Non-linear, hypersonic weapon system and one of the In the meantime, the main objective of Xi non-contact and asymmetric combat first in the world to be put into full initial Jinping's transformation of the PLA is to characteristics are becoming more obvi- operation. Currently land-based, the pos- ensure immediate war preparedness (be ous components. Long-range firepower sibility of developing submarine-launched ready to “fight tonight”). However, Xi has strikes are crucial. Today's advanced cruise versions might ease guidance problems not forgotten the second component of missiles can carry out long-range precision and fully exploit the Dongfeng-17’s poten- warfare, identified by Carl von Clausewitz: strikes against land targets from 2,500 kilo- tial. Along with other prospective devel- execution. metres, while aircraft carriers can launch opments, such as unmanned submersibles Xi NDS provides the PLA and the Party- attacks in waters 1,500-2,000 kilometres carrying high-explosive torpedoes, the State, as well as the nation, with the po- away. Moreover, hypersonic weapons can Donfeng-17 offers the prospect of tilting litical vision for strategic war planning, spe- achieve one-hour rapid strikes worldwide. the strategic balance in the Pacific Ocean. cific objectives and the types of warfare To counteract US force superiority, Beijing Chinese sources observe that the US is that must be pursued. Xi’s strategy seems seeks to strengthen theatre capabilities in also developing similar armaments such as more of a defensive than offensive nature. the First Island Chain by enhanced digital hypersonic weapons and electromagnetic Even the perceived maritime outstretch capabilities and reconnaissance, as well as guns. However, of the US $700 billion in is not directly in pursuit of an ambitious by embedding Artificial Intelligence (AI) in American military spending in 2020, much great-power diplomacy, as it aims to pro- weapon systems. The extent and role of is reserved for more traditional weapons ject Beijing’s commercial interests along the civilian and industrial innovation in the de- systems such as the eleven aircraft carrier new maritime and terrestrial “silk routes”. velopment of China’s military capabilities battle groups. This may come as a disad- Xi’s National Defence Strategy has been is an element of concern for the US intel- vantage, as funding for advanced weapons profoundly influenced by the ideas of the ligence. The “asymmetric” PLA doctrine research may not be as readily available. Information Technology-Revolution in Mili- underpins Anti-Access/Area-Denial (A2/ Some military experts in Beijing note that tary Affairs (IT-RMA) concept in the context AD) operations, a formula coined by West- the US aircraft carrier battle groups currently of the US Pivot to Asia and its Air/Sea Bat- ern analysts (to hinder, delay and repel a US operating within a 1,100 to 3,000 kilometre tle conceptualisation. The evolution of the offensive). Ideas related to A2/AD feature range of the Chinese mainland (i.e. with- Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) be- prominently in China’s strategy although in the First and Second Island Chains) are tween the US, Japan, Australian and India the term has never entered PLA's jargon. within striking distance of China’s newest is another development that cannot soothe The basic concept is that in future wars the missiles. This evolution is seen as proof that Beijing’s security concerns. PLA will have to “use inferiority to defeat the PLAN is on track to ensuring national It is, however, the prospect of a conflict superiority” (a principle of Taijiquan, also defence/deterrence. In other words, “we are in Taiwan that results in US involvement known as Tai Chi). moving into the right strategic direction”. that is what prompted PLA strategists to The possibility of conducting “asymmetric” develop the information technology-driv- warfare depends primarily on possessing Xi’s Strategic Vision en warfighting strategy in the early 2000s. concrete combat capabilities against ex- Four principal war scenarios were identi- posed enemy bases, weapon platforms The armed forces of advanced countries fied. The first is an all-out war against the and strike groups. The PLA has made great periodically formulate a National Defence American superpower. progress in this field through the develop- Strategy (NDS). In China, the NDS lays The second in terms of severity is a con- ment of an anti-satellite programme, cyber out all-encompassing directives for the flict in the Taiwan Strait, followed thirdly by disruption measures and the “assassin's transformation of the national civilian and small to medium scale land or sea wars in mace” (shashou jian), comprised of weap- military industrial and defence apparatus. the South China Sea and East China Sea. ons such as supersonic missiles, drones and In the Chinese mentality, going in the The fourth scenario includes low-intensity submarines. right direction is more important than ac- conflicts such as the war on terrorism in Officially unveiled at the National Day mili- cumulating capabilities. To adapt to the Xinjiang. With the Democratic Progressive tary parade on 1 October 2019, the Don- new ways, means, ends and objectives of Party (DPP) back in power in Taiwan, the feng-17 is said to be China first operational warfare, the PLA has amended the NDS second scenario is the most realistic.

18 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES 

command. In the final phase, complete in- Xi Reform Details teroperability across platforms is achieved; On 23 November 2015, Xi Jinping announced a new five-year plan to reform the this should be in place by 2050. Thanks PLA. It is a comprehensive programme; a new chapter in the history of the PLA. to China's massive investments in space Beyond a notable political dimension, which has strengthened Xi as - and information technologies, according in-chief, the plan reshapes the military in terms of its organisational structure and to mainland sources the PLA seems to chain of command. have gone beyond the goals set by the The reform, which mostly follows the IT-RMA hypothesis, transcends the original plan. By now, the PLA may have acquired tri-partition of the Chinese military “revolution”, but incorporates all its compo- “operational big data” and “full systems nents: theory, organisation and technology. However, there are some risks. All integration” capabilities, allowing the in- the major reforms involve some redistribution of power, which can generate dis- troduction of new combat tactics. satisfaction and potentially affect the military’s morale. This shift is primarily aimed at compen- The reform aims to increase PLA combat readiness. The ability to conduct digital sating for the enemy's superiority. The warfare is key. Preventing the enemy from understanding the dynamics of the Chinese focus on combatting the US battlefield is a strategic necessity, especially in the maritime domain. A Strategic Navy’s aircraft carriers is, in this sense, a Support Force (SSF) will integrate all “new types of warfare components and ca- typical example of asymmetric warfare: pabilities" as well as enabling technologies of modern warfare: space, cyberspace, an aircraft carrier is large, slow, and argu- remote control systems. ably relatively undefended against rapid, There are many instruments and tools that the PLA can use to conduct “asym- precise, and intense missile attacks. The metrical” warfare, but they risk proving useless without valid nuclear (mutual goal is to establish relative strategic parity assured destruction) and cyber (mutual assured interference) deterrence. Rebus or even temporary superiority over the US sic stantibus, the PLA is unlikely to pursue war parity with the US. Its goal is to superpower in a given, predetermined, provide adequate deterrence to discourage the Pentagon from hostile military and limited geographical quadrant (for action. In case of intervention, the choice of time will likely play out as the single a circumscribed target and for a limited most important success factor for both actors. time) in order to create the conditions for a political solution.

The 'war-and-a-half' doctrine has been of decision-making processes and smooth Strategic Weapons outlined as a compass to guide PLA's pre- execution of orders. [2] This provides im- paredness for maritime conflicts and along mediate knowledge of the dynamics of the Another important cornerstone of Chi- land borders. This doctrine is based on the battlefield, which is disseminated both ver- na’s defence – and naval strategy – is its ability to conduct both a military offensive tically and horizontally. System integration strategic weapons programme. By 2035, (the full war) to protect China's interests in is the driving force behind the modernisa- the Chinese Armed Forces could have its maritime domains and defensive land tion of PLA. ten strategic nuclear submarines each campaigns (the half war), should a main- Compared to the acquisition of expensive equipped with twelve JL-3 ballistic mis- land enemy wish to take advantage of a hardware, at the tactical level systems in- siles (three warheads each) capable of maritime crisis. This doctrine incorporates tegration is a cost-efficient “shortcut” to striking the United States; a total of 120 all the relevant components of warfare in a enhance combat effectiveness. The “Long ballistic missiles and 360 warheads. Un- hierarchical order March” towards digitalisation can be seen der this scenario, the PLA would be able unfolding in a three-stage evolutionary to survive a first wave of atomic attacks Innovation process. Firstly, IT systems are linked to and retaliate. the individual platforms. By 2020 (second Also in 2035, the PLA will have built a Space The PLA aspires to become a digital force phase), all systems are integrated across Force and a Cyber Force. Any attack on Chi- through the interconnection of a C6ISR all levels: central, theatre and weapon, by nese territory would break the main taboos structure that enables the rapid sharing connecting their C6ISR functions. This will concerning retaliation in Space, as it would of intelligence information, acceleration allow the merger of different chains of be considered more a form of self-defence Photo: Royal Australian Navy

PLAN diesel-electric submarines. The PLAN already has a large force of conventional submarines but is looking to expand the capabilities of its strategic flotilla.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 19  MARITIME POLICY, STRATEGY & FORCES Photo: China Military Online

The fourth PLAN Type 052D destroyer YINCHUAN replenishing from the Type 903 replenishment ship WEISHANHU during an Indian Ocean deployment. The PLAN has always complied with international conventions when engaged in naval operations outside its territorial waters.

than a preventive attack. China has made climate change and by the environmental part of the “Chinese dream” of rejuve- clear progress in building and launching crises. Resource scarcity, water poverty and nation of the Chinese nation, but China satellites: in 2014 it was the country that threats to food supply chains are all seen as will not become a global naval power in launched the largest number of rockets in endangering national and regional stability. the traditional sense soon. Partly this is the world. Global crises will only be solved through because – in the Indo-Pacific – China it The previously quoted DoD 2020 report global cooperation. Xi’s foreign affairs is surrounded by naval powers (the US, points out that the PRC is already ahead rhetoric is based on the twin pillars of the Japan and India). Beijing's assertiveness is of the US in relation to land-based conven- “community of common destiny” and the limited to the nearby seas, where its core tional ballistic and cruise missiles (“1,250 “ecological civilisation”. Xi’s vision is de- geostrategic interests lie. Up until now, ground- launched ballistic missiles (GL- fined by mutual cooperation. In Xi’s policy Beijing has not shown an intention to BMs) and ground-launched cruise missiles discourse, this is a “new” approach to in- shape a new maritime order, nor of chal- (GLCMs) with ranges between 500 and ternational relations that supersedes the lenging the United States as the super- 5,500 kilometres”), as well as integrated “outdated” Western model. power of the seas: unless it is existentially air-defence systems and architecture, A “community of common destiny” implies threatened. China will certainly increase where the PRC “has one of the world’s the recognition of a “community of shared its projection capabilities, but mainly on largest forces of advanced long- range interests” and a “community of shared re- a geo-economic level and through instru- surface-to-air systems—including Rus- sponsibilities.” The “community of shared in- ments such as the 'blue economy'. It will sian-built S-400s, S-300s, and domesti- terests” implies a situation of economic inter- thus become a maritime power, but not cally produced systems”. dependence. The “community of responsibil- an empire of the seas. L ity” refers to the political and security realms, Extending the Definition or a situation of “political mutual trust.” Cli- Notes of National Interest mate change is paramount. This part of the 1. The first island chain is generally de- Chinese Communist Party’s doctrine is driv- scribed as the line of islands stretching China has become the world's largest trad- ing profound transformation of the domestic from the Kuriles through the Japanese ing nation, its largest oil importer and the energy matrix and industrial system. home islands, the Ryukyus, Taiwan and second largest source of Foreign Direct In- In the light of these dynamics, the perception The Philippines, to Borneo. This encom- vestment. With the promotion of the "Belt of China as a revisionist power may not be passes the regional seas of most politi- and Road Initiative”, China's overseas insti- fully correct. Fears that Beijing is amassing cal, economic and strategic importance tutions, personnel and assets are spreading naval power to subvert the global maritime to Beijing: the Yellow Sea, the East China all over the world. The depletion of global order do not currently reflect the reality of Sea, and the South China Sea. The sec- land-based resources has made the oceans Beijing’s objectives. From China’s first mission ond island chain runs from the Kuriles an important resource space. This exten- in the Gulf of Aden onwards, the PLA Navy through Japan, the Bonins, the Marianas, sion of national interests corresponds to has always complied with international con- Guam and Palau to the Indonesian archi- the extension of security needs. However, ventions when engaged in naval operations pelago. China has embarked on a trajectory of deep outside its territorial waters. These operations 2. C6ISR is commonly defined as Com- decarbonisation that will reduce the coun- have not directly translated into a strengthen- mand, Control, Communications, Comput- try’s dependence on fossil fuels as well as ing of China's oceanic projection. ers, Cyber-defence, Combat systems (C6) on other resources. Beijing is acutely aware Xi Jinping sees China's transformation plus Intelligence, Surveillance, and Recon- of the looming existential threat driven by into a maritime power as an integral naissance (ISR).

20 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES  Submarine Combat Systems: Europe is Expanding Its Offer

Luca Peruzzi

As the conceptual approach to underwater warfare has considerably changed, submarines are no longer soli- tary hunters but just one element of a network centric warfare connecting surface, air and subsurface assets, manned and unmanned. MSD presents Luca Peruzzi’s analysis of the resulting changes in the combat management systems being selected for future submarines.

n the last 12 or so months, European Ishipbuilders and suppliers have reached important milestones in submarine con- struction and in the domain of underwa- ter subsystems. The development of new conventional and nuclear submarines, as well as of air independent propulsion sys- tems, is complemented by new combat Photo: NATO/FRAN WO Valverde and weapon systems. In addition to im- provements in propulsion and platform designs making the new underwater platforms quieter and more versatile, recent developments in the capabilities of combat systems are key to addressing current and future operational needs and challenges. The new generation of submarines, or their latest versions, will be equipped with combat systems providing ex- panded processing capabilities. New U212NFS: the combat management system by Leonardo will be based on integrated sonar systems will offer the Kongsberg MSI 90U CMS, here depicted on SCIRÈ. enhanced sensitivity. Together with further integration and fusion capabili- tion against cyber-attack. The evolution includes the design, construction, delivery ties, this will enable deployment of a towards machine learning and artificial and in-service support of four submarines wider range of surface and underwa- intelligence will support future subma- based on an evolved U212A Air Independ- ter sensors, weapons and the expected riners in dealing with a new conception ent Propulsion (AIP) design developed by unmanned systems. The new combat of their operational environment. Their Fincantieri with an unprecedented level of systems which are under development submarine will be the central node or a national industry content. Delivery of the will lead to a new configuration of a part of a wider network of surveillance first submarine is scheduled for late 2027 submarine’s Combat Information Cen- assets in which surface and air units – and the second boat is supposed to follow tre (CIC). Advanced and interchangeable both manned and unmanned – are con- early in 2029. operator stations, being less platform- nected. The main characteristics of U212 NFS dependent thanks to the introduction are a hull elongated by 1.2 metres, a of a full suite of non-penetrating masts, U212 NFS: hydrodynamically enhanced and qui- will provide flexibility with respect to the New Kid on the Block eter platform, an AIP propulsion system positioning of the CIC inside the subma- that includes a new energy storage and rine. The development of future combat In February 2021, the Organisation for Joint management system based on Lithium- systems is trending towards scalable, Armament Cooperation (OCCAR) awarded iron-phosphate batteries, and a newly COTS-based open system architectures. Fincantieri a €1.35Bn contract for a first designed combat system integrating This will enable operators to avoid the tranche of two submarines (with options many main components provided by Ital- limitations of proprietary products, en- for an additional two), a submarine train- ian industry. The new submarine will also able better management of equipment ing centre plus initial support on behalf of have a larger panoply of weapons and and software obsolescence and allow the Italian Navy. Thus, the Italian Navy’s payloads, as it will also be fitted for deep faster adaption to new technologies, U212 NFS (Near Future Submarine) pro- strike cruise missiles and the integration such as common network and server gramme will be the first in the underwater of unmanned underwater vehicles. An infrastructures and enhanced protec- domain assigned to OCCAR. The contract advanced platform management system

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 21  SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES

According to official statements, the de- sign of the Type 212A, which has proven

Photo: TKMS itself in service with German and Ital- ian Navies, will be further developed. Although little is known about the Type 212 CD’s detailed characteristics, its key features will be the integration of ad- vanced technologies that will further expand the European U212 family. Com- puter renderings show a larger platform compared with the Type U212A. New technologies could potentially include improved fuel cells and new diesel en- gines, as well as the latest generation batteries. On the tactical side, increased acoustic stealth, reduced target echo strength, enhanced sensors, special op- erations support and state-of-the-art command and control systems seem likely design requirements. Kta naval systems, a joint venture be- Lateral arranged multifunction consoles with touchscreen (left and right), tween TKMS, its Atlas Elektronik naval Commanding Officer’s station (front-center) and a large wall-mounted display. electronic systems business unit business unit and Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace by Fincantieri Seastema, an Avio Aero RESM/CESM suite and L3Harris Calzoni- will provide the fully integrated combat steering and diving control system, and GEM Elettronica for the low-probability system, which will be known as ORCCA. a Combat Management System (CMS) of Intercept radar (LPI). Leonardo’s BLACK According to kta naval systems, this plac- provided by Leonardo group will enable SHARK ADVANCED (BSA) heavy weight es the Type 212 CD in the vanguard of operation by a core crew of 29. Based torpedo (HWT), which is already available deploying a new family of systems. Over- upon the latest iteration of the SADOC to the Italian Navy, is the centrepiece of a all, the integrated CMS will provide en- CMS installed in the Italian Navy’s new weapons suite which will also be upgraded hanced flexibility regarding working ar- surface combatants – including the new with the capacity for deep-strike or over- rangements inside the submarine’s CIC. PPA, LHD and LSS – the CMS will allow the-horizon engagements. Kta’s documentation states that the com- further advances in the integration of the Being the main node of an underwater net- bat system infrastructure will feature a main combat systems. work linking manned and unmanned plat- common and integrated approach under The open and modular architecture in- forms – thus extending the navy’s overall which any operator will be able to access corporated in the U212NFS will ensure surveillance capabilities – the new CMS will any application from any multi-function easy integration of third-party applica- represent a “game-changer” in the global console. The system will run on a com- tions such as detection landscape of submarine combat systems. mon network and server infrastructure and remote computing. Other subma- It will see its first potential additional ap- and support virtualised processing and rine mission-specific applications in- plication with the mid-life update of Italy’s “red/black separation”. clude acoustic and enhanced real time U212A Batch I and II submarines. The combat system will be capable of inter- periscope video processing. The CMS will facing with and managing the whole range incorporate nine dual-screen and fully in- Norwegian-German of underwater and above water sensors, terchangeable multifunction consoles. Common Design as well as the integrated communications Embedded artificial intelligence and a and navigations suites. It will perform all multi-touch “interaction paradigm” will The Norwegian and German Ministries weapons control functions, including tor- be a feature of the Commanding Offic- of Defence announced in March 2021 pedo countermeasures, mine warfare, and er’s station. The CMS will be accommo- that they had reached an agreement with optional medium and long-range missiles. dated in a rearranged and more spacious ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems (TKMS) The released renderings suggest a control CIC positioned under a longer fin (sail). on the general conditions for the pro- room using lateral operator multifunctional While the attack periscope will be pen- curement of six Type 212 CD (Common consoles. These are characterised by a sin- etrating, the six other electrically hoisted Design) submarines. Four of these will be gle large touchscreen placed vertically, and masts (with the option for one addition) supplied to the Norwegian Navy and two a commander station with rotating chair will be non-penetrating. Antenna and to the . While already ap- and integrated screens, in addition to a sensor hoisting systems will be delivered proved in Norway, a German parliamen- large wall-mounted display. As exclusive by L3Harris Calzoni. tary decision is expected this summer. Ac- supplier to TKMS, kta naval systems is able The CMS will handle state-of-the-art cording to TKMS, the construction of the to engage with the German submarine communications, sensors and weapons first submarine could begin in 2023 if the builder’s global customer base for orders systems including SATCOM (UHF and X- contract is signed this summer. Delivery for new construction, upgrades and ret- band) and other datalink systems provided of the first submarine for the Norwegian rofits. Kta naval systems has already per- by Leonardo. ELAC will provide an open Navy is expected in 2029, while delivery formed detailed analysis into integrating architecture sonar suite while Elettronica of the two boats for the German Navy is ORCCA into a wide range of global navies will be contracted for the newly designed scheduled for 2031 and 2034. that currently operate submarines.

22 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 The new combat system of kta naval systems: ORCCA – shaping the future of command and control

Tailored to master the challenges of the underwater world

ORCCA merges the submarine expertise and ingenuity of the three technology leaders who founded kta naval systems: thyssenkrupp Marine Systems, KONGSBERG and ATLAS ELEKTRONIK. This unparalleled combat system has put the operator’s needs at the heart of its design. ORCCA’s outstanding recognition abilities and the highly integrated sensor approach allow for dependable and rapid decision- making by the crew. The system is exceptionally flexible and can be integrated into any submarine platform. Today. And tomorrow. Thanks to ORCCA’s scalable, responsive and upgradable design which already looks ahead to changing operational and fighting requirements in the future.  SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES

France continues Underwater Evolution

In November 2020, the first of six new gen- eration SUFFREN class nuclear-powered Photo: Naval Group attack submarines (SSN, or SNA as des- ignated by the ) entered into service. The subsequent announcement of the launch of the programme for four third generation nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBN 3G or SNLE 3G) for the French Navy in March 2021, essen- tially outlined the future composition of the components of a French underwater arm that – in some cases – will be in service up to the 2090s. Developed and built by Naval Group with the assistance of TechnicAtome with re- A concept study of the future SUBTICS suite. spect to the nuclear propulsion system, the SUFFREN class represents a huge leap be installed under the fin. Moreover, the and in the integration of weapons sys- in terms of capabilities and applied tech- propulsion management centre (French: tems and specific SSN requirements can nologies compared to previous French PCP – Poste Central Propulsion) is posi- be assumed. SSN and SSBN platforms. With a surface/ tioned near the PCNO, while traditionally According to published videos and images, submerged displacement of 4,700/5,300 in the past it was accommodated aft of the PCNO accommodates up to ten multi- tonnes and a length of 99 metres, the the nuclear reactor propulsion compart- functional consoles with dual touchscreen SUFFREN class is equipped with a new nu- ment. Thanks to the higher automation colour displays. There is also a command- clear generation hybrid propulsion system levels of platform, propulsion and combat er’s station with dedicated small tactical (steam/electric), a new integrated plat- systems, SUFFREN has a core crew of just screens. In addition, the PCNO includes a form management system and an up-to- 63 personnel (with additional accommo- mission planning and navigation station date CMS (SYCOBS – SYstème de combat dation for specialists and Special Forces). with a large tactical smart table overlaid COmmun Barracuda SNLE) for subma- First introduced on the last boat of the with touchscreen, with a further station rines. It was developed by Naval Group LE TRIOMPHANT class and later applied with two consoles for diving and plat- for both the French LE TRIOMPHANT class to the previous submarines of the class form control sided by a mission planning SSBNs and their SUFFREN class SSNs. An during their refits, the SYCOBS Combat area for weapons and intelligence activities. important characteristic is the ensemble of Management System variant onboard SYCOBS manages an advanced package of non-penetrating masts – amongst the first SUFFREN class SSNs is understood to sensors including state-of-the-art sonar, of its kind. It permits the CIC (French: PC- incorporate further enhancements in communications and EW sites provided NO – Poste Central de la Navigation et des terms of both software and hardware. by Thales together with navigation equip- Opérations) to be accommodated where it Although very little information has been ment and a set of non-penetrating masts fits best. This offers more flexibility com- released on its capabilities, further im- by Safran. The latter includes the Series 30 pared to previous generations of subma- provements in processing, functionality, Search Optronic Mast (SOM), Series 30 At- rines, where the operations room had to the design of human-machine interface, tack Optronic Mast (AOM) and the Series 10 Compact Submarine Radar (CSR) mast. SUFFREN is the first French SSN that of- fers a long-range deep strike capability provided by the MdCN naval cruise missile supplied by MBDA. The inventory of 20 Photo: Naval Group weapons also includes Naval Group’s new F21 Artemis heavy-weight torpedo (HWT), the SM39 Block 2 Mod2 anti-ship missile manufactured by MBDA, and naval mines. The submarine is equipped with the Naval Group Nemesis torpedo defensive system fitted with Canto-S decoys. Further progress in the French underwater warfare domain will be achieved with the SSBN 3G (SNLE 3G) programme, again as- signed to Naval Group together with Tech- nicAtome. The SSBN 3G will feature Naval Group’s new generation SYCOBS 3.0 CMS, which will control sensors and communica- tions. Thales will provide new generation Naval Group’s SUBTICS (Submarine Tactical Integrated Combat System) flank arrays and bow-mounted and as it is internationally in use. a new towed array based on optical tech-

24 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 nology (ALRO), all of which is expected to be applied to the SUFFREN class once they fall due for updating. Capitalising on the French Navy’s CMS development, Naval Group has been offering its SUBTICS (Sub- marine Tactical Integrated Combat System) suite on the export market. It is the standard for the group’s SCORPÈNE type submarines and has also been retrofitted to Swedish A12 and A17 boats, as well as to German Type 209 designs. Its latest iterations are being offered worldwide for current sub- marine tenders. Photo: Navantia

Spain re-joins the Club The Integrated Combat System Core (ICSC) is developed by Lockheed After a troubled development and con- Martin and Navantia Sistemas is based on the latest version of the struction programme, further complicated SUBICS (SUBmarine Integrated Combat System) suite by Lockheed Martin. by the pandemic, the industry team head- ed by Navantia group finally launched the network infrastructure, the navigation Cell. This will provide an underwater en- first S-80 PLUS AIP submarine on 22 April system and essential applications, includ- durance of around three weeks. BEST will 2021. According to Navantia, its first sailing ing seven multifunction consoles and large not be available for installation in the lead is scheduled for early 2022 and the deliv- tactical displays delivered by Sainsel. Also S-80 PLUS submarines but will be installed ery to the Spanish Navy in early 2023. The linked into the system are two Weapon Pro- in later members of the class and can be programme encompasses the delivery of cessor Units (WPUs), six Weapon Interface retrofitted in the earlier ones. S -80 PLUS’s four boats alongside a training centre that Units (WIUs), a Sonar Array Suite (SAS) and modular design and the use of non-pen- incorporates both tactical and platform one Own Noise Monitoring in Submarine etrating masts will allow the crew accom- simulators. (ONMS) system. Integrating the combat modation to be moving from the forward Navantia based the S-80 PLUS design upon system’s sensors and weapons, the ICSC section to the central areas of the hull. With the requirement to conduct a wide range of enables all relevant data to be gathered, as- past construction problems now in the past, operations, including Above Surface War- sessed, and displayed for offensive, defen- Navantia is marketing the S-80 PLUS on the fare (ASuW) with selective land attack ca- sive or intelligence operations. Processing international market, including to India for pabilities, Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW), navigation data from multiple sensors and the P-75I programme. Special Forces support, Intelligence, Surveil- distributing the essentials to the respec- lance and Reconnaissance (ISR), and mine- tive combat system components, the ICSC Saab looks to export laying. A long-range submarine capable of also manages the submarine’s sensors and being equipped with AIP, the S-80 PLIS is weapon suite. The Swedish defence industry headed by characterised by a modular design allow- Important components of this suite include Saab is also looking for export opportuni- ing to be customised according to potential the sonar complex provided by Lockheed ties for its A26 family of submarines, also customer requirements. With a surface and Martin and SAES, a towed array sonar sup- known as BLEKINGE class. The submarine submerged displacement of, respectively, plied by SAES, a surface surveillance suite design is proposed in three export vari- 2,695 and 2,965 tonnes, an overall length that includes a Kollmorgen Electro-Optical ants (Pelagic, Ocean and Ocean Extended of 81 metres and a beam of 11.68 metres, (now L3Harris KEO) optronic non-penetrat- Range), with targets including the Dutch the boat is larger than the U212A design ing mast (Model 2010 OS) and an attack and Polish markets. but smaller than SUFFREN. A high degree of periscope (Model 2010 AP) with universal Saab’s latest SESUB 980 CMS is at the automation will allow a reduced crew of 32, modular masts by L3Harris Calzoni, the “heart” of the combat systems architecture with eight additional berths for Special Forc- Indra PEGASO RESM suite, ARIES-S radar used in the A26 and the upgraded GOT- es. The new submarine is equipped with a and Saab R4 AIS. The communications suite LAND class. In order to facilitate system in- platform management system developed encompasses Tecnobit’s LINPRO proces- tegration, future upgrading and expansion, and provided by Navantia Sistemas. This sor to manage tactical data through Link as well as to reduce costs, all applicable operates alongside the steering and diving 11/22 and SATCOM links. The S-80 PLUS is management and control systems are in- control system developed by Avio Aero. equipped with six torpedo tubes capable of terconnected through the vessel’s General Based on the latest version of the SUBICS launching a Spanish Navy-selected weapon Management Services System (GMSS) and (SUBmarine Integrated Combat System) inventory including Atlas Elektronik DM2A4 operated from common multifunctional suite designed by Lockheed Martin, the SEEHECHT/SeaHake Mod 4 torpedoes, consoles. According to Saab, this allows S-80 PLUS’s Integrated Combat System UGM-84 SUB-HARPPON Block II integrated systems, including the CMS, to Core (ICSC) was jointly developed by the missiles and mines. The submarine is also be individually upgraded or exchanged, US company and Navantia Sistemas and is fitted-for the Raytheon UGM-109 TOMA- thereby greatly reducing project risks as- structured on the use of open systems and HAWK cruise missile. sociated with complex and highly inte- COTS products. Designed to reduce life cy- An important feature of the S-80 PLUS’s grated systems. This architectural solution cle costs and offer configuration flexibility propulsion system is a new Navantia AIP is expected to be attractive to customers for later adjustments, the ICSC consists of suite called BEST (Bio-Ethanol Stealth Tech- who want to see their own industries and two redundant Navigation and Networks nologies), which is based on an Abengoa manufacturers involved in their submarine System Cabinets (NNSC). These feed the Ethanol reformer plus the Collins PEM Fuel procurement programmes. L

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 25 Marketing Report: Rubin Design Bureau

Rubin: A Global Brand in Submarine and UUV Design

This year, the Central Design Bureau for Ma- the Russian Empire notified naval architects Throughout the entire period of the Cen- rine Engineering Rubin celebrates its 120th I.G. Bubnov, M.N. Beklemishev and I.S. Gor- tral Design Bureau for Marine Engineer- anniversary. It is not that long as compared yunov of their appointment to undertake ing (CDB ME) Rubin’s industrial activity, to the extent of Russian history, which dates the design of semi-submerged vessels. In its team has successfully implemented the back over a thousand years. However, these May 1901, this group of specialists – called best and most advanced design solutions. 120 years encompass the entire history of the Submarine Construction Commission Amongst the most well-known results of Russian underwater shipbuilding, from the –designed the Russian Navy’s first combat our work are: first submarines designed by I.G. Bubnov to submarine. Named DOLPHIN, she marked • KASATKA: Our first submarine design today’s state-of-the-art modern strategic the beginning of professional submarine subject to serial production. nuclear-powered missile carriers (SSBN). project development in Russia. • MINOGA: The first Russian submarine During these years our Design Bureau has This stage was the starting point for forma- with diesel propulsion. changed its name more than a few times, tion of a Russian school of submarine de- • LENINETS: The first Soviet-era submarine but has always honourably and proudly ful- sign. Even at these earliest of stages, the specially equipped for minelaying. filled the task of securing defence capability designers developed a distinctive naval • Project 615: The first submarine equipped for Russia by creating the most advanced architectural approach, achieving optimal with a closed-cycle diesel engine. submarines. technical solutions for challenges related to • Project 644: The first submarine with The foundation of Rubin dates back to 4 manoeuvrability, the employment of power cruise missiles. January 1901, when the Naval Ministry of plants, and the launch of weapons. • Project 658: The first Soviet nuclear-pow- ered submarine with ballistic missiles. • Project 685: The submarine that has achieved the greatest diving depth. • Project 941: The world’s largest subma- rine. Currently, CDB ME Rubin is a diversified Photos: CDB ME Rubin design agency – a leader in the field of de- veloping a wide range of high-tech marine engineering products such as submarines, technical equipment for offshore oil and gas field development, and underwater robotic systems. CDB ME Rubin is an affiliate of the United Shipbuilding Corporation, which has consolidated most of the design bureaus, shipyards and other enterprises involved in the Russian shipbuilding industry. Design work for the Russian Navy remains a priority for CDB ME Rubin. Russia's political leadership, the Russian Ministry of Defence and the Chief Command of the Navy all give the highest priority to the maintenance and enhancement of Russia’s status as one of the world’s leading blue water maritime nations. To this end, CDB ME Rubin is actively in- volved in supporting the construction of ‘Borey’ class SSBNs. Furthermore, a special focus is given to the refinement of non- designs. Construction of modernised Project 636 diesel-electric submarines and delivery of these boats to the Russian Navy are now in progress. At the same time, special attention is being paid to expanding the series of advanced non-nuclear submarines of the ST. PETERS- Construction of modernised Project 636 diesel-electric submarines for BURG (‘Lada’) type, also of significantly up- the Russian Navy is currently ongoing. dated design.

26 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 The autonomous underwater vehicle VITYAZ-D is the first underwater robot to conquer the Mariana Trench.

Along with the successful work undertaken period CDB ME Rubin – in cooperation with at the ultimate depth of the World oceans, towards meeting the requirements of the leading Russian enterprises and scientific with its functionality being monitored by Russian Navy, particular attention is given agencies of various backgrounds – has ac- sonar communication channels. During to military and technical cooperation with cumulated significant experience in the crea- submersion, VITYAZ-D accomplished tasks overseas countries. CDB ME Rubin has been tion of unmanned underwater vehicles and encompassing the mapping, still and video engaged in this activity for more than sixty is continuing to accelerate its activities in this photography of the seabed, as well as sur- years. Over 110 submarines designed by field. CDB ME Rubin currently designs un- veying the surrounding environment. Rubin have been delivered to 15 countries. manned underwater vehicles of all classes. Evaluating the historical development of CDB Marketing activities for the promotion of During the last year, the autonomous un- ME Rubin, we may safely state that all our non-nuclear ‘Amur’ and Project 636 class derwater vehicle VITYAZ-D designed by Design Bureau’s activities have been targeted submarines to foreign markets are ongo- CDB ME Rubin has dived into the Mariana on the search for solutions in the fields of ing, as is the provision of work and services Trench. The duration of the mission, exclud- science, engineering and technology and on aimed at ensuring post-sales support for ing diving and surfacing, took more than their successful implementation in advanced previously delivered submarines. three hours. VITYAZ-D became the first designs. Our company’s main objective is to During the last decade, Russia has experi- underwater robot that has conquered this develop high-performance maritime equip- enced dynamic growth in the demand for trench. For first time ever, a super deep-sea ment incorporating state-of-the-art capabili- underwater robotics for military, scientific unmanned underwater vehicle had per- ties to meet the requirements of both Russian and civil engineering applications. Over this formed a multi-hour autonomous mission and international customers.

Particular attention is being paid to expanding the series of advanced ST. PETERSBURG (Project 677 ‘Lada’) type submarines.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 27  SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES European Submarines: Patience is the Key

Jaime Karremann

lmost all European countries that cur- The dialogue phase must be completed yard, so focusing on putting financial pres- Arently operate submarines are plan- by the end of 2021. However, a choice sure on your future spouse may not be a ning or building new boats. Some projects of a shipyard and a design is not eas- good start. are at an early stage, other programmes ily made. No fewer than six committees On the other hand, the demands of the are well advanced. This article highlights or teams play a role in the submarine Dutch Defence establishment are not in- some of the key European submarine pro- replacement. At the lowest level is the significant. The Dutch part of the North grammes. project team. This is the only team that Sea is too shallow for safe submarine includes submarine experts; one level up operations. During the Cold War, Dutch 1. The Netherlands – is a working group with a former subma- submarines operated mainly in the Med- High, Low Costs riner. Next are three groups and commit- iterranean and the Norwegian Sea. In tees with an admiral, general, financial addition, they must be able to sail to A programme that has been going on experts, as well as representatives from the Caribbean islands that fall under the since 2013 is the replacement of the four all other ministries. The highest subma- Dutch Kingdom’s responsibility. Dutch WALRUS class submarines, built by rine commission is chaired by the Prime the defunct shipyard RDM. In Minister Mark Rutte. Designs 2019, the first boat, HNLMS ZEELEEUW These committees must decide which (1990), became the oldest active Dutch yards are allowed to submit an offer. Ship- The expected result is a large diesel-elec- submarine in history. The Dutch Ministry yards need six months or more to draft tric submarine of about 3,000 tons that of Defence has promised that the subma- an offer for these kinds of major pro- can operate far from home. The Swed- rines will be replaced from 2028 onwards grammes. After that, a Best And Final Of- ish shipyard Saab Kockums, which is col- but, given the slow pace of the Dutch fer (BAFO) will be requested. However, the laborating with the Dutch yard Damen procurement programme in the past, this Dutch MoD aims at a contract signature in Naval, has therefore proposed a larger target is no longer feasible. the last quarter of 2022. So there does not version of the BLEKINGE class and added their experience of the COLLINS class, as well as Dutch lessons learned from the WALRUS class. The German ship builder TKMS offers a variant of the Type 212CD.

Image: Saab

Pictured is Saab Kockums' design study of the A26 or BLEKINGE class submarine – expeditionary version.

In line with the established procurement seem to be any time left in the schedule This 212CD E (E for Expeditionary) will process, after completion of a prepara- for contract negotiations. not only be bigger but will probably also tory phase, a dialogue phase started at Yet, the main reason for setting up this have more compartments and more the beginning of this year. Three remain- process was the idea of reducing the ac- diesel generators. Naval Group (France), ing shipyards, Naval Group, Saab Kockums quisition costs of the new submarines. with Dutch partner Royal IHC, has not and ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems (TKMS) While the is yet made anything public, except that are in talks with the Dutch Defence Ma- very satisfied with the current WALRUS the proposal is derived from the nuclear teriel Organisation (DMO). The shipyards class submarines, which turned out to be SUFFREN submarine. are asked questions and are challenged to very affordable, politicians in The Hague Insiders fear price and political pressure come up with proposals and solutions. All remain fearful of reputational damage will ultimately outweigh the Submarine contenders have already submitted a de- caused by over-priced submarines. Service’s requirements. According to sign, but those designs are still in a relatively Insiders who have spoken to the author them, relatively little attention is paid, early phase. The dialogue phase is the cru- criticise the focus on costs. After all, a con- for example, to sensors and weapon cial phase in the selection process and also tract signature is the start of a 40-year systems. But once the builder has been lays a foundation for the final design. marriage between the MoD and the ship- chosen, the sensor and weapon system

28 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 Marine Systems Setting tomorrow’s standards. The HDW Class 212CD submarine.

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record time of six years. That is faster than TKMS built the smaller Type 212A. The av- erage construction time of the completion

Illustration: TKMS of the first submarine of an order from the date of contract signing by the three shortlisted yards is 10 years. Another uncertain factor is the space available to the yards. This is a particu- lar concern with TKMS. All the contend- ers have offered to build the submarines in the Netherlands. Both Saab Kockums and Naval Group have attracted a Dutch partner. Two years ago, TKMS presented a plan to build its proposed submarines at the naval dockyard in Den Helder. Local politicians reacted positively, but the com- mander of the Dutch Navy has recently spoken out against submarine construc- tion at the naval base. A “Submarine Val- ley” outside the naval base is still possible, but TKMS would still lack a Dutch partner.

2. Here is a rendering of the Nowegian-German Type 212CD submarine. The Polish Submarine Service also has to be will also been more or less determined Record Time very patient. Poland has been planning to as well. It is known that the Dutch Navy replace their KILO class submarine ORP OR- would prefer the new British Sonar 2076, Once the contract is signed in 2022, there ZEL and the two second-hand KOBBEN class but this is exclusively linked to the Saab will hardly be any time left for the design- submarines for years. Several times replace- and Damen proposal. ers. The first boat will have to be built in a ments seemed to be visible on the horizon. SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES 

from Sweden in 2020: the two A17 SÖ- DERMANLAND class submarines dating from 1988 were to be sold to Poland. Saab Kockums would also update the KOBBEN class submarines. Photo: Marine Nationale Despite all these plans, it seems that no choice will be made in the short term. New submarines are not a priority, ac- cording to a tweet from Defence Minis- ter Marius Blaszczak in February. The pri- ority now lies with the MIECZNIK class coastal defence vessel. Whether Poland will buy second-hand submarines from Sweden depends entirely on the Swed- ish proposal, Blaszczak tweeted.

3. Norway and Germany

Turning to Norway and Germany, here some progress has been made finally. Breaking the surface is the first-of-class SUFFREN nuclear . Both countries formally announced in 2017 that they would jointly procure In 2016, the Polish government decided to The KOBBEN class submarines date from submarines but had already been in talks renew the fleet and new submarines were 1966 and 1967, whilst the ORZEL has with each other – and with the Nether- to be commissioned in 2025. In January been sailing since 1986. It has recently lands – for some time. Defence ministers 2018, the Polish MoD announced that a come to light that the torpedo tubes of Ine Eriksen Soreide, Ursula von der Ley- choice from the offerings of Naval Group, the ORZEL are no longer operational and en and Jeanine Hennis, got along well Saab Kockums and TKMS, would be made need to be repaired. and, for some time, it looked as if the that month. However, since then it has To fill the gap between these boats and three countries would jointly purchase remained silent. the new ones, a solution seemed to come the Type 212CD.

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However, the Netherlands dropped out why a coating was chosen in combination gether. This was claimed to be a unique op- and Germany and Norway continued talks with an angular shaped hull, possibly also eration. Although submarines have been on a joint basis. Even though the Nor- using a double hull. cut in half in the past, this has largely been wegian Submarine Service operates with to add an extra section. Incidentally, the new German built boats, long negotiations fol- 4. France PERLE will also be slightly longer. She is ex- lowed. Proposals from TKMS were rejected pected to return to service in 2023. several times. The replacement of the French RUBIS class In March, the Norwegian Ministry of Defence submarines is in a more advanced phase. 5. finally announced that an agreement has A year ago, after a three-year delay, SUF- been reached between Norway and TKMS FREN started initial sea trials. This first In Cartagena, the waiting of the Spanish on the submarines. Germany and Norway submarine of the BARRACUDA class, the Submarine Service seems to be almost will also undertake the joint procurement of nuclear attack submarines subsequently over as, on April 22, the first S-80 sub- missiles, in addition to the development of passed all tests. Due to the delays with marine ISAAC PERAL was launched. She the Future . SUFFREN and closure of the Naval Group is expected to be delivered in 2023. Origi- This does not mean that the procurement shipyard for two months due to COVID-19 nally, the first S-80 was to be put into ser- of the six submarines has been complet- suppression measures, the second sub- vice in 2011, but design errors made the ed. This summer, the German parliament marine (DUGUAY-TROUIN) will also arrive submarine too heavy, which would have must agree as well, after which the final late: likely during the second half of 2022. limited the boat's operation. The design of signature can be put on the contract. The The third boat, TOURVILLE, is delayed too the S-80 was subsequently adapted and first 212CD can then be expected in 2029. and will be delivered early in 2024. improved with help from abroad. The submarines will be a big step forward, Meanwhile, the RUBIS class submarines are While the S-80 submarine lacks innova- especially for Norway. The ULA class sub- still very much needed. When PERLE was tions such as optronic masts and casings marines were put into service in 1989 - badly damaged by fire in June 2020, it was over the diesel generators that have been 1992, have a displacement of 1150 tons feared that France would have to make do fitted to some contemporaries, the AIP and do not have Air Independent Propul- with fewer submarines until the six BARRA- system developed by Navantia looks very sion (AIP). Nevertheless, the German Na- CUDAs were all commissioned. However, promising. This fuel cell system, which will vy, which operates with the more modern despite the fire, the French Submarine Ser- only be ready in time for the third sub- Type 212A, will also add meaningful new vice turned out to have luck on its side. The marine, does not work with hydrogen capabilities with the ocean going 212CD. forward part of the older submarine SAPHIR, but with an ethanol reformer. As a result, Not much is known about the Type 212CD decommissioned in 2019, remained in good no heavy hydrogen cylinders need to be apart from some basic specifications. It is condition even though the nuclear reactor installed and there are also no logisti- expected to have a displacement of 2,400 in its aft end was no longer operational. As cal problems with obtaining hydrogen. tons, will have two diesels (instead of one the damage on the PERLE was located in Above all, a reformer provides a greater on the 212A) and AIP. In addition, TKMS the forward part, it was decided to combine range. Navantia is currently running tests has paid a lot of attention to targeting the two functioning parts. In February 2021, on land, but before we can see the new echo strength: the degree to which the SAPHIR and PERLE were cut and, then, in AIP installation on board, we will, again, submarine reflects a sonar signal. That is April, the two “good” sections welded to- have to be patient. L Photo: Navantia

ISAAC PERAL, the first-of-class S-80 PLUS submarine (S-81), here floating out, is planned to conduct the first sailing in early 2022 and be delivered in early 2023.

32 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES  All Hands off Deck: US & UK Navies Explore the Potential of Autonomous Surface Vessels

Richard Scott

ver time, both commercial ships and Onaval vessels have embodied increas- ing levels of automation as a means to improve safety, increase efficiency, and Photo: Rolls-Royce reduce crew size. The and machin- ery control space, for example, are both areas where the introduction of automated processes and decision support means that sailors increasingly play a monitoring or su- pervisory role. For example, while modern integrated bridge systems can programme a defined course for an autopilot to fol- low, it remains necessary for an officer of the watch to be present on a ship’s bridge to maintain a look out and take appropri- ate actions in the event of encounters with other sea traffic. Over time, ships have embodied increasing levels of automation in areas such as integrated bridge management. Advances in IT are now paving The Path to Autonomy the way for a new generation of autonomous ships that can operate independent of human intervention. Now, however, advances in information technology, digitisation and Artificial Intel- radio communication links which may be ty, and eliminating the possibility for hu- ligence (AI)/machine learning are paving degraded by environment or geography, man error, an autonomous and un-crewed the way for a new generation of autono- vulnerable to jamming, or potentially com- vessel offers new possibilities with regard mous ships able to steer, navigate and, promised by cyber-attack. to the more efficient ship design (in terms if necessary, make decisions about any In a fully autonomous ship, the vessel op- of both internal volume and fuel consump- change in control settings independent of erating system only requires to be given a tion). any human intervention. And while not all mission or goal by the operator, with all op- Of course, the introduction of autono- autonomous systems are unmanned, the erations undertaken on board without hu- mous ships into merchant marine service development of “un-crewed” ships imple- man interaction/intervention. That means brings its own challenges from a legal and menting advanced “intelligent” autono- the ship must sense the environment, fuse regulatory perspective. The operation of mous behaviours is increasingly the focus sensor feeds (organic and non-organic) remotely-controlled autonomous vessels of attention for the maritime sector. to build situational awareness, and then will need to be at least as safe as existing Remote operation represents a step on “think” for itself - by applying control and vessels if they are to secure regulatory ap- the ladder towards full autonomy. In this decision algorithms – so as to make deci- proval, the support of ship owners, opera- case, a human operator remains “in-the- sions and determine actions. The ship must tors, insurers, seafarers, and broader public loop”, albeit exercising ship management calculate consequences and risks, and also acceptance. and control from a remote location via a monitor its own heath and status. Navies are also seeking to embrace and communication link. In this case, some Navigation and collision avoidance is par- exploit the advantages afforded by au- form of AI-based planner may conduct ticularly important for remote and autono- tonomous shipping, albeit with different routine operations, but remote supervisors mous vessels given the implications for motives and means in mind. And while the will intervene to manage any deviations or safety at sea. The ship’s autopilot must merchant marine sector is already looking problems. Of course, this necessarily leaves be integrated with a collision avoidance at autonomous ships of significant size and remotely controlled vessels dependent on module that is programmed according to displacement, naval forces are – for the time the International Regulations for Preventing being at least – largely focused on relatively Author Collisions at Sea (COLREGS) such that it can small and agile Unmanned Surface Ves- navigate automatically in compliance with sels (USVs) that can serve as cost-effective Richard Scott is a well-known author the maritime “rules of the road”. force multipliers with direct application to and commentator on naval opera- The commercial marine sector sees huge so-called “dull, dirty and dangerous” mis- tions and technology. potential in autonomous shipping. As well sions. Examples include mine countermeas- as reducing crewing costs, increasing safe- ures, force protection against asymmetric

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 33  SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES threats, and Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) “collect”. Autonomous ships have several attractions to the maritime commander. USVs can re- main on task well for days or even weeks at a time, offering far greater persistence

than manned capabilities. Furthermore, Photo: Crown Copyright 2016 they may be deployed into high-risk en- vironments for wide area surveillance/ISR missions in the knowledge that damage or loss will not cost human lives. Also, with manned platforms becoming increasingly expensive to build, support and crew, autonomous vessels bring the potential for increased mass, expanded footprint and improved resilience. Indeed, USVs functioning as adjuncts to crewed warships will most likely change future con- cepts of operation (CONOPS), allowing for the disaggregation and dispersal of “sen- sors”, “deciders” and “shooters” in the kill chain. This concept of distributed mari- time operations, underpinned by a mix of manned and unmanned assets, is already being avowed by the US Navy. Yet while the potential of autonomous vessels is increasingly recognised by fleet planners and capability managers, there is still a journey to travel with regard to ma- turing autonomous technologies, devel- oping robust CONOPS, and creating the overarching system architecture(s) within which USVs can interface and interoper- A spectrum of aerial, surface and underwater robotic systems. Navies ate using common standards. Continued are seeking to embrace and exploit the advantages afforded by investment in Science & Technology (S&T), autonomy to perform so-called “dull, dirty and dangerous” missions. and the fielding of autonomy prototypes for operational experimentation, are both Work undertaken by the US Navy over the sensors, and provide/improve distributed serving to de-risk and demonstrate capa- last five years – informed by an extensive situational awareness and sensing to the bility, and inform future programmes of programme of concept development, war- battle force. record. gaming and experimentation – has identi- The LUSV is a larger (above 50 metres) plat- fied a requirement for two different USV form capable of deployments and trans- Unmanned Vision types - the Medium Unmanned Surface oceanic transits lasting several weeks. Op- Vehicle (MUSV) and the Large Unmanned erating in support of carrier strike groups, As so often, it is the US Navy that is develop- Surface Vessel (LUSV) - and as part of the surface action groups, amphibious ready ing the most ambitious vision of how sur- Distributed Maritime Operations concept. groups, or single units, LUSVs are intended face ship autonomy will serve to transform Allied to this is the development of an Un- to offer a reconfigurable, high endurance naval operations. US Navy leadership sees manned Maritime Autonomy Architecture platform with their own combat system autonomy, AI, machine learning and asso- intended to promote autonomy commonal- (including weapon payloads). ciated technologies an intrinsic part of its ity, and reduce acquisition costs across both PMS 406 is leading on the acquisition of response to the emergence of peer threats surface and undersea unmanned vehicles. prototype vessels to support the MUSV - notably China – and the return to "Great Systems development and acquisition ef- and LUSV future programmes of record. Power Competition". In particular, the po- forts are being managed by the Program To this end, it is working with a number of tential for a peer competitor to deny US Executive Office Unmanned and Small Com- S&T organisations, notably the Defense Ad- naval forces freedom of manoeuvre in the batants in the Naval Sea Systems Command vanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), Pacific is driving the service towards a larger, (NAVSEA), specifically the Unmanned Mari- the Office of Naval Research (ONR) and the more distributed, and more lethal fleet. time Systems Program Office (PMS 406). Office of the Secretary of Defense Strategic USVs are seen as fundamental to this vision The MUSV is characterised as a class 3 (be- Capabilities Office (SCO). given that they can be procured and oper- tween 12 metres and 50 metres in length) In addition, PMS 406 is closely aligned ated at a fraction of the cost of manned long-endurance distributed sensing plat- to the US Navy’s Surface Development ships. Accordingly, the service’s planned form capable of autonomous navigation Squadron 1 (SURFDEVRON). Established in Future Surface Combatant Force includes and mission execution. Operating as an May 2019 in San Diego, California, SUR- a fleet of unmanned platforms alongside extension of a carrier strike group or sur- FDEVRON is steadily building up its com- a mix of manned large surface combatants face action group, MUSVs will support the plement of USVs as part of a prototyping and small surface combatants. navy's ability to ‘collect’ using ISR and EW and experimental effort designed to de-

34 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES  Photo: US Navy Photo: US Department of Defense

LIBBY L McCALL – also identified by the name RANGER on AIS – is part of the Strategic Capa- bilities Office’s “Overlord” programme.

The medium displacement unmanned surface vessels SEAHAWK and intended to align with technology demon- SEA HUNTER sail out of San Diego in April 2021 to participate in the stration exercises associated with specific US Pacific Fleet’s Unmanned Systems Integrated Battle Problem 21. capabilities. This includes evaluation of a number of different autonomy technolo- velop and inform the MUSV and LUSV pro- An Experimental Fleet gies, different payloads, CONOPS develop- grammes. These will eventually comprise ment (including collaborative operations be- the prototype Medium Displacement Un- According to PMS 406, the scope and scale tween multiple unmanned assets operating manned Surface Vehicle (MDUSV) testbeds of research – requiring thousands of hours in proximity with each other) and reliability SEA HUNTER and SEAHAWK; four vessels of on-water testing time – justifies the build- assurance. from the SCO “Overlord” programme; and up of such a large experimental fleet. The SEA HUNTER is a 40-metre USV the first prototype MUSV. delivery schedule to the SURFDESRON is also originally procured by DARPA under the An-

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 35  SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES

Phase I activity focused on autonomy sys- tem integration, demonstration of navi- gational autonomy, and hull, mechanical Photo: L3Harris and electrical system reliability upgrades. Over 600 hours of autonomy testing was successfully completed during Phase I, in- cluding several long-range autonomous transits in a complex navigational envi- ronment. These completed in September 2019 with a successful demonstration of both “Overlord” vessels executing COL- REGS-compliant interactions. A follow-on Phase II has focused on the integration of government-furnished com- mand-and-control systems and payloads and more complex and challenging naval C L3Harris was in July 2020 awarded a US$35M contract by NAVSEA operations experimentation. Following two for the detail design and construction of the MUSV prototype. phases of testing under SCO oversight, the two “Overlord” vessels were transferred to SURFDESRON at the end of FY 2020. PMS 406 serves as the SCO’s execution agent for the Ghost Fleet “Overlord” ef- fort. Addressing the Surface Navy Asso- ciation annual symposium in January 2021, Pete Small, PMS 406 programme

Photo: Crown Copyright 2016 manager, said the “Overlord” programme had made “tremendous strides forward in demonstrating unmanned surface vehicle technology” over the previous 12 months. In May 2020, the – LIBBY L McCALL – also identified by the name RANGER on AIS – made an extended transit from the Gulf coast to the east coast of the United States, operating autonomously over sev- en days for over 3,000 nautical miles. Last September, LIBBY L McCALL/RANGER began an extended transit from the Gulf coast, through the Panama Canal, to the Dstl originally conducted MAST at-sea trials with an adapted west coast of the United States in sup- BLADERUNNER high speed craft. port of a full schedule of FY 2021 demon- strations with SURFDESRON. “This long ti-Submarine Warfare Continuous Trail Un- SEA HUNTER was transferred across from transit was over 4,700 nautical miles total manned Vessel (ACTUV) project. Developed DARPA to ONR in January 2018 for fur- travelled, and over 97% of those miles and built by a Leidos-led industry team, AC- ther concept and technology development. were accomplished in autonomy mode,” TUV was conceived to demonstrate a semi- SURFDEVRON took charge of SEA HUNTER Captain Small said. “The only time that autonomous, ultra-long endurance surface from the ONR at the end of 2019. vessel was not in autonomy mode was drone able to “track and trail” quiet diesel Leidos was in December 2017 contracted during the brief period of time it actually electric submarines. by the ONR to build a second MDUSV transited the Panama Canal. Almost as However, it was recognised early on that prototype, named SEAHAWK, incorpo- impressive was that that full transit was the core SEA HUNTER platform and au- rating lessons learned from the original remotely supervised by SURFDEVRON tonomy technologies were applicable to a SEA HUNTER. Specific modifications in- sailors from a shore-based control sta- broader range of missions and configura- clude an upgraded electrical system, a tion using a prototype common control tions for future unmanned maritime sur- payload mounting system and test op- systems software interface.” face platforms. As a result, DARPA and the erator control station. SEAHAWK was Arriving on the west coast in early No- ONR in September 2014 agreed to jointly handed over in April 2021 and will now vember, the LIBBY L McCALL/RANGER fund an extended test phase for the SEA join SURFDEVRON. participated in the “Dawn Blitz” exercise HUNTER demonstrator. In October 2016 The “Overlord” programme, part of the in December, successfully demonstrating testing began of SEA HUNTER’s sensing SCO's “Ghost Fleet” project, has sought COLREGS compliance, station keeping, and autonomy suites, and between Febru- to inform requirements development for loiter and transit missions. This marked ary and September 2017 the vessel under- the LUSV programme. Established in 2017, the first time an “Overlord” USV had in- took three progressively more challenging ‘Overlord’ has seen two existing commer- teracted with actual US Navy fleet assets. tests to integrate these suites and use them cial fast supply vessels – LIBBY L McCALL The two “Overlord” prototypes will con- compliant with COLREGS in operationally and RILEY CLAIRE – adapted for COL- tinue demonstrations during FY 2021. Ac- realistic scenarios. REGS-compliant unmanned operations. cording to Captain Small, the intention is

36 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES 

“to show increasingly complex and long Testbed (MAST) programme in partner- COLREGs, sea state monitoring, and the sur- operations in concert with fleet assets.” ship with L3Harris. veillance capability provided by an L3Harris Contracts were awarded during FY 2020 Having originally conducted MAST at-sea WESCAM electro-optical infrared system. for the construction of two additional trials with an adapted BLADERUNNER high Dstl is continuing to progress MAST-13 “Overlord” prototypes. These are cur- speed craft, Dstl let a contract with L3Harris research and experimentation activity, in rently in construction, and will provide in early 2018 for the design and build of the conjunction with L3Harris: the craft has also additional capacity for test and demon- new testbed craft known as MAST-13. An participated in a number of Royal Marines’ stration events. aluminium-built, custom design based on Autonomous Advance Force exercises. Meanwhile, in July 2019, PMS 406 issued a high speed semi-planing hull form, the In March 2021 L3Harris delivered a near a request for proposals (RFP) for MUSV 12.7-metre MAST-13 is outfitted to enable identical high-speed autonomous test- development. Following evaluation of the easy integration of additional payloads: bed, given the name MADFOX [Maritime four proposals, a team led by L3Har- the cabin offers space for rack-mounted Autonomy Demonstrator For Operation- ris was awarded a US$35M contract by servers, and standard network interfaces al eXperimentation], to the RN’s NavyX NAVSEA in July 2020 for the detail design and construction of the MUSV prototype. The contract includes options for up to eight additional MUSVs, together with logistics, engineering and technical sup- Photo: MoD/Dstl port and services, which could bring the cumulative value up to US$281M. Delivery of the MUSV prototype is planned for Fiscal Year 2023. The design successfully bid by L3Harris Technologies combines the company's proprietary AS- View autonomy technology with a pur- pose-built 60-metre mono-hull platform based on a commercial offshore supply vessel. As prime contractor, L3Harris MAST-13 is being used by Dstl to test innovative technologies such is taking responsibility as systems inte- as novel algorithms, artificial intelligence, and sensors. grator while also providing the mission autonomy and perception technology; and power supplies allows suppliers to programme. NavyX is an accelerator pro- naval architecture and systems engineer- bring their systems on board and plug into gramme designed to demonstrate innova- ing group Gibbs & Cox is serving as the the host infrastructure. tion in autonomous systems and artificial MUSV ship design agent and engineering The command and control system is based intelligence, and to provide a route map plant automation lead; Crowther on the core ASView product previously for subsequent exploitation by the RN. is supporting ship design activities; and developed by L3Harris, atop which sits the While MAST-13 is being used by Dstl to Swiftships will build the MUSV prototype MAST Advanced Autonomy system. It is this test low Technology Readiness Level inno- in Morgan City, Louisiana. additional autonomy module which, inte- vations, such as novel algorithms, artificial As regards the LUSV, NAVSEA in Septem- grated with ASView, executes the higher intelligence, and sensors, MADFOX will be ber 2019 issued a RFP for the award of mul- level COLREGs and behaviours. employed by NavyX to explore operating tiple conceptual design contracts. The RFP As a testbed, MAST-13 is serving two pri- and operational issues such as safety, regula- characterised the LUSV as “a high-endur- mary functions. First it is an operational tory compliance, mission profiles/payloads, ance, reconfigurable ship able to accom- demonstrator to enable the RN and Royal and integration in the wider fleet. modate various payloads for unmanned Marines to evaluate use cases and con- NavyX has also received an unmanned Pa- missions to augment the Navy’s manned cepts of operation. Second, it establishes cific 24 rigid inflatable boat developed by surface force”. Six contractor teams – led a baseline autonomous surface capabil- BAE Systems’ Maritime Services business. by Huntington Ingalls, Lockheed Martin, ity on top of which new functionalities An adaptation of the 7.8 metre PACIFIC 24 Bollinger Shipyards Lockport, Fincantieri can be assessed (the architecture of the Mk 4 used as the RN’s standard ships’ sea Marinette Marine, Gibbs & Cox and Austal system is designed to allow third-party boat, the autonomous variant is the prod- USA – were awarded LUSV study contracts sensors or algorithms to be easily intro- uct of a research and development effort in September 2020. duced to permit comparative assess- undertaken in conjunction with L3Harris ments against the baseline). (which is providing its COLREGS-compliant UK Technology A significant milestone was achieved in De- autonomous navigation software) and MSI- Demonstration cember 2019 when MAST-13 demonstrated Defence (which has provided its SEAHAWK a fully autonomous return crossing of the Multi-Weapon Station for integration). While unable to match the span of re- English Channel. In company with a manned Another important strand of maritime sources available to the US Navy, the UK mother ship, the USV sailed south from the autonomy S&T in the UK is the develop- Ministry of Defence (MoD) and the Royal Solent to the 12-mile limit of France and ment of the Maritime Autonomous Plat- Navy (RN) are also investing in develop- back. The round trip took about five hours, form Exploitation (MAPLE) information ment and experimentation of maritime and covered a distance of over 120 nauti- framework. MAPLE has been iteratively autonomous systems. As part of this cal miles, with MAST-13 achieving speeds of developed by Dstl and a QinetiQ-led in- work, the MoD’s Defence Science and over 30 knots. Various aspects of MAST-13’s dustry team to facilitate the integration of Technology Laboratory (Dstl) is man- advanced autonomy were tested, includ- multiple unmanned systems into a single aging the Maritime Autonomy Surface ing autonomous route planning in line with command information environment. L

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 37  SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES RSS INDEPENDENCE: New Approaches to Defending the Littoral

Hsing Lim

ommissioned on 5 May 2017, RSS IN- CDEPENDENCE is the first of eight IN- DEPENDENCE class Littoral Mission Vessels (LMV) to enter service with the Republic of Singapore Navy (RSN). The contract to build the LMVs was awarded to ST Engineering (Marine) in 2013 and the ships were con- structed at the ST Engineering (Marine) Benoi Shipyard situated in the Jurong In- Photo: Singapore Ministry of Defence dustrial Area. The LMVs were the product of a joint-design by Saab Kockums AB and ST Engineering. Saab Kockums AB was also the builder of RSN’s refurbished ARCHER class submarines, and the ’s VISBY class stealth corvettes, which formed an important reference for the LMV design. The newly built ships were intended to re- place the eleven (originally twelve) aging FEARLESS class patrol vessels which had served the Singapore Navy for over two decades. Based on official sources, four of the FEARLESS class patrol vessels will be A total of eight INDEPENDENCE class LMVs have been delivered to the refurbished into SENTINEL class Maritime Republic of Singapore Navy. Security and Response Vessels (MSRV) and two are currently in service to support the Design Characteristics erate for an extended period of time and LMVs at the time of writing. Most of the also to deploy beyond the littoral into the LMVs inherited the names of their FEAR- Similar to the ’s Littoral waters of the Indian Ocean and the South LESS class predecessors (namely RSS IN- Combat Ships (LCS), the LMVs adopted the China Sea. DEPENDENCE, RSS SOVEREIGNTY, RSS concept of “mission modularity” and can Each LMV is managed and operated by a UNITY, RSS JUSTICE, RSS DAUNTLESS and be easily configured to a specific mission lean crew of 23 (down from the original 30 RSS FEARLESS), although RSS INDOMITA- operation requirement in a short amount of the FEARLESS class patrol boats) despite BLE and RSS FORTITUDE are exceptions to of time. Each LMV is 80 meters (262 feet its larger size. This is due to the introduction this approach. 6 inches) in length and 12 meters (39 feet of highly advanced and automated systems The LMV is one of three new types of 4 inches) in beam with a displacement to the ship, though it can carry around an surface ship that will be introduced into of around 1,180 to 1,320 tons, depend- additional 30 personnel for expanded or RSN. The other two are the 5,000 tonne ing on the equipment loaded onboard. specialised missions. The Singapore Armed Multi-Role Combat Vessel (MRCV) and That displacement figure is greater than Forces as a whole has been facing a short- the 14,000 tonne Joint Multi Mission Ship the combination of both FEARLESS class age of combat-fit professional military per- (JMMS) that will be constructed by local patrol boat and VICTORY class “light” sonnel in recent years due to demographic shipyards over the coming decade. They corvette (500 and 600 tons respectively), trends. A high level of automation is there- form part of RSN’s strategic plan to ex- thus leading to some military analysts and fore sought; with a reduction of crews of pand and modernise its fleet as well as to strategists to compare it with a “normal” future warships a major consideration for significantly enhance the navy’s combat ca- corvette, in terms of displacement and the upper echelon of Singapore’s Defence pabilities. This includes widening the range combat capabilities. establishment. of missions it can embark on in the future, Utilising a Combined Diesel And Diesel (CO- Ease of accessibility and simple maintenance including humanitarian roles. DAD) propulsion arrangement, each LMV were also factored in when designing the is powered by four MTU 20V 4000 M93L LMVs. As a result, all elements of the LMV’s Author diesel engines that each produce 4.3MW Bridge, Combat Information Centre and (5,770 ship horse power) for a total output Machinery Control Room are co-located in Hsing Lim is a strategic consultant of 17.2MW (or 23,100 ship horse power). the Integrated Command Centre (ICC). This who advises governments and think- They can cruise at 18 knots and achieve a is different from the arrangement in the tanks around the world on defence, maximum speed of 27 knots. They have FEARLESS class ships, where these func- intelligence and security matters a range up to 3,000 nautical miles (5,560 tions were located at separate locations or kilometres). This allows the LMVs to op- on different decks. Although this new ar-

38 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES 

gapore during IMDEX Asia 2013. The new GFCS is based on existing GFCS currently in service with the six FORMIDABLE class frigates, and four ENDURANCE class Land- ing Ship Tanks (LSTs) of the Singapore Navy. The Sagem GFCS, capable of operating concurrently from several multi-function consoles, is integrated into the ship’s main Photo: Singapore Ministry of Defence ST Engineering supplied Combat Manage- ment System (CMS) that links the ship’s main and secondary guns, radar, optronics and navigation systems. The CMS has an open architecture that allows for easy in- tegration, ensuring flexibility and scalability for future upgrades and enhancement.

Armament

The main gun of the LMV is the highly The LMVs were constructed at the ST Engineering (Marine) Benoi popular and reliable OTO MELARA 76mm Shipyard. This picture shows the launch ceremony for FEARLESS, Super Rapid, built by the Italian defence the final member of the class. company that now forms part of the De- fence Systems Division of Leonardo. It rangement integrates the management of lose much of their effectiveness in severe is able to fire at a maximum rate of 120 navigation, engineering, and combat func- downpours or storms. rounds per minute with an engagement tions to achieve greater operational effec- The Littoral Mission Vessels are also range of up to 16 kilometres. It is capable of tiveness for maritime security operations, it equipped with the indigenously developed automatic loading via a revolving magazine is possible that a single hit on the ICC from STELOP 360 all-round surveillance system which holds 80 rounds and reloading can hostile fire could wipe out the ship’s entire and Compass D electro-optical director. easily be accomplished by two sailors even command function, incapacitating opera- According to the developer, the former is when the gun is firing. The 76mm OTO tions and thus crippling the ship entirely. an all-weather day & night maritime surveil- MELARA gun is no stranger to the RSN as lance system capable of providing real time it is in service with all of RSN’s current fleet Sensors automatic vessel and swimmer intrusion of surface warships including the newly detection and alert, maritime vessels navi- furbished MSRVs. It is worth noting that The principal “eye” of the LMV is the gation collision and obstacle avoidance. It the guns on the LMV are of the traditional NS100 medium to long range Active Elec- is able to provide a configurable integrated dome shape instead of those with stealthy tronically Scanned Array (AESA) 3-dimen- maritime surveillance video and synthetic external features, unlike those fitted to sional air and surface surveillance radar picture and incorporates a user friendly the FORMIDABLE class frigates. The OTO supplied by Thales of France. Housed in a common control interface. MELARA 76 mm gun can also be found on distinctive integrated mast atop the ICC, The LMV’s unique Gun Fire-Control System many of the newer surface combat ships the LMVs are among its first users. The (GFCS) was jointly developed by Sagem of the neighboring Indonesian Navy and E/F-band AESA radar uses dual axis multi- (now part of Safran) of France, which is a . beam processing to significantly enhance long-standing partner to the RSN, and the Complementing the 76mm gun are two the ship’s situational awareness, enabling it Defence Science and Technology Agency 12.7mm HITROLE (Highly Integrated Tur- to identify the most prominent threats for (DSTA) of Singapore. The contract to de- ret, Remote, Overhead, Light, Electrical) robust weapons prioritisation in the littoral velop the new system was signed in Sin- remote controlled weapon stations (also environment. Notably, it has the ability to detect a high variety of targets simultane- ously in a single operational mode. The LMV’s situational awareness and navigation are supported by the Sharp- Eye navigation radar system supplied by Hensoldt UK (formerly Kelvin Hughes). SharpEye is recognised as the world’s first affordable navigation and surface search Photo: Rolls-Royce Power Systems pulse Doppler radar sensor, improving detection ranges of small targets. It con- sists of no moving components and thus requires low maintenance and has a low cost of ownership. Singapore is a tropical country and heavy rain is very common in the region. SharpEye radar is able to mini- mise cluttering within its detection range The LMVs are powered by four MTU 20V 4000 M93L diesel engines that as compared to traditional radars, which each produce 4.3MW. Maximum speed is 27 knots.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 39  SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES

significantly enhanced hit probability un- der adverse combat or weather conditions. Besides an eye-safe laser range finder, the gun utilises mounted-on electro-optical and forward-looking infrared directors for day and night operations respectively. It has an automatic target tracker as well as an integrated computer to calculate firing so- Photo: Singapore Ministry of Defence lutions. The TYPHOON is particularly useful in dealing with swarm attacks by hostile el- ements using small and fast-moving boats. A noticeable weapon enhancement over the previous FEARLESS class is the LMV’s incorporation of 12 vertical launch cells armed with French-made VL MICA-M anti-air and anti-missile defense missiles. Developed by MBDA Missile Systems, the VL-MICA is an all-weather short range A view of INDEPENDENCE at the time of her initial delivery. vertical launch surface to air missile (SAM) The integrated mast that houses the ships Thales NS 100 surveillance for point and close-area defense against radar and other sensors is prominent in this view. a wide range of aerial threats such as air- craft, helicopters, missiles, precision guided munitions and smart bombs. The MICA system is preferred over the ASTER system which is installed on the larger FORMI- DABLE class frigate, due to the suitability of its reduced footprint for small combat ships as well as cost considerations. Despite lacking the unique combination of aero- dynamic control and direct thrust vector Photo: Singapore Ministry of Defence control commonly known as “PIF-PAF” in the ASTER system, the MICA system of- fers good capabilities at shorter ranges. The system can be autonomously guided with an extremely short reaction time and has a multiple target capability for defence against saturation anti-ship attacks. That is This view of INDEPENDENCE at sea shows the large helicopter deck and a major advancement as compared to the the aft launch and recovery position used to deploy RHIBs and USVs. manually-operated MISTRAL man-porta- ble air defense systems (MANPADS) which was the primary anti-air weapon of LMV’s predecessors. The LMVs also features non-lethal weap- ons, including two LRAD555X Long-Range Acoustic Devices with xenon lights and two water cannon systems. The LARD500X is a low power all-weather communication de- vice which creates an instant acoustic fence Photo: Singapore Ministry of Defence using a variable beam width using clear long range directional communication to give a greater coverage. Highly intelligible voice messages can reach a distance up to 2,000 meters or a maximum range of 650 meters over 88 dB in noisy environment. One obvious absentee from the LMV’s The PROTECTOR USV can be deployed from the LMV’s launch and outfit is the Leonardo A244-S Mod 1 (or recovery system. Mod 3) light-weight torpedoes which were previously installed on six of the twelve built by Leonardo) and a single 25mm TY- Launcher to be mounted without any intru- FEARLESS class patrol vessels. The RSN has PHOON weapon station stabilised gun sup- sive installation. The “Mini-Typhoon” gun confirmed that the LMVs itself will be with- plied by Rafael of Israel. The HITROLE is a variant selected by the RSN for its LMVs is a out fixed Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) highly versatile weapon system and allows lightweight, stabilised remotely-controlled capabilities. In their place, however, is a a 7.62 mm Machine Gun or 12.7 mm Ma- weapon station. It is an optimal solution helipad (without hangar) that enables the chine Guns or a 40 mm Automatic Grenade for small warships like the LMVs, with a operation of a mid-size helicopter such as

40 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 SHIP DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGIES 

well as mine countermeasures operations. The LMV's launch-and-recovery system, located at the ship’s stern, can house up to

Photo: Hsing Lim two Rigid-Hulled Inflatable Boats (RHIBs) o Israeli Rafael’s PROTECTOR Unmanned Surface Vessel (USV).

Conclusions

Singapore has regularly provided assis- tance to neighbouring and friendly coun- tries with its military assets, for example in response to events such as natural dis- aster and transportation mishaps, as well as on anti-piracy operations. The new warships are tasked with safeguarding The second LMV SOVEREIGNTY. The LMVs are set to become the the shores of the island nation, as well as workhorses of Singapore’s navy. conducting maritime security operations more effectively and efficiently. Flex- the Sikorsky S-70B SEAHAWK of the RSN 70B operations will provide the LMV with a ibility in equipment loads means these or the Airbus Helicopters AS332 SUPER PU- potent anti-submarine capability. ships can take on a wider range of mis- MA of the Republic of Singapore Air Force The ship’s open deck can also be used to sions which may not have been as easily (RSAF). The S-70B is primed for anti-sub- deploy unmanned systems such as the performed by its predecessors. They will marine missions, as it is equipped with APS Boeing Insitu’s ScanEagle Unmanned Aer- no doubt become the workhorses of the 143 surveillance radar, the Raytheon AAS- ial Vehicle (UAV) for surveillance and the Republic of Singapore Navy, shouldering 44 electro-optical sensor system, a dipping Remote Environmental Monitoring UnitS the responsibility of protecting the na- sonar (L3 Helicopter Long Range Active (REMUS) Autonomous Underwater Vehi- tion’s sea lines of communication as well Sonar - HELRAS) and Whitehead A244S cle (AUV) for seafloor mapping, under- as ensuring the safe and open passage of Torpedoes. The possibility of supporting S- water surveying, search and recovery as its waters. L

REUNITE IN ROSTOCK Undersea Defence Technology (UDT) brings together military, academia and industry professionals to explore new technologies and developments within one of the harshest environments known to man. The 2021 edition is scheduled for 15-17 December. As organisers, Clarion Events have introduced a new safety framework to ensure the health and wellbeing of attendees in response to Covid-19. For more information on new and enhanced precautionary measures, please visit the event website.

Gold Sponsor: Bronze Sponsor: Organised by: FOR MORE INFORMATION: [email protected] +44 (0)20 7384 7788 www.udt-global.com  MARITIME INDUSTRY The Threat of Hazmat Terrorism at Sea

Anna Paternnosto

Recent events in Beirut’s port have drawn international attention to the urgent need for increased security at seaports, especially in relation to the transport and storage of hazardous materials. Although the explosion in the port of ’s capital seems to be the result of negligence, the tragic incident should draw our at- tention on the potential threat posed by criminal and terrorist groups in ports and in the seaborne shipping domain.

Beirut’s wake-up call

On the 4th of August 2020, a massive explosion shook Beirut. A thick smoke cloud surrounded the entire city turning Lebanon’s capital into a vision of “Hell on Earth”. An initial explosion and fire were followed by a devastating blast. The explosion was heard as far away as the island of Cyprus, which is located more than 200 km from Beirut. Seismographs registered waves equivalent to a 3.3 magnitude earthquake. In the apocalyp- tic and chaotic moments after the blast, Photo: Mahdi Shojaeian, Mehr News, Wikimedia Commons many healthcare facilities and hospitals were declared “non-functional”. In ad- dition to the impact on the healthcare system and infrastructure, already under immense pressure from COVID-19, the The massive explosion in the port area of Beirut injuring more than 6500 explosion had devastating effects on people and affecting the lives of hundreds of thousands, should serve housing, businesses, food, education, as a wakeup call on the vulnerability of ports to neglected hazardous cultural heritage, and tourism. More than materials. 6,500 people were injured and over 200 lost their lives. Furthermore, 300,000 MV RHODUS. Furthermore, according to edented, the events leading up to it were people were displaced due to the de- investigations, evidence showed that the more common than we may think. struction and damage on housing. ammonium nitrate was kept in proxim- Hazardous substances such as chemicals, The blasts originated in a warehouse in ity of a stash of fireworks. Although in- radiological materials and explosives are the port of Beirut where more than 2,700 vestigations on the exact causes of the shipped by sea daily. Every year hundreds tons of ammonium nitrate, a chemical incident are still ongoing, results indicate of thousands of containers loaded with substance commonly used as an agri- inaction, negligence and corruption as cargo are abandoned at ports all over the cultural fertilizer and for explosives in the root causes that led to the dramatic world. Although the transportation of the mining sector, were unsafely ware- event. The detonation at Beirut’s port re- hazardous materials is highly regulated, housed. The large amount of highly ex- sulted in one of the biggest non-nuclear many of these reach ports through illegal plosive material was stored in the port of explosions in history. routes, such as the global waste trade. Lebanon’s capital for more than six years Within this context, a major challenge after the abandonment of the is represented by the fact that seaborne Hazardous materials containers cover an enormous volume of Author Like in the case of Beirut, seaports are a the global trade and usually undergo soft vital component of a country’s infrastruc- inspections, providing opportunities for Anna Paternnosto is the Director of ture, representing a lucrative source of in- illicit traffics. Most of the illicit waste is Governmental Affairs at IB Consultancy, come and an essential hub for the supply originating from Western countries and an independent defence and security and storage of goods. However, amongst is then shipped to Asia and Africa where consultancy firm specialized in CBRNe the goods that are regularly shipped via the prices for the disposal are much lower threats. sea and stored at seaports are hazardous and the opportunities for illegal aban- Before starting her career within the substances that require extensive secu- donment in ports much higher. CBRNe sector, she worked at the Aus- rity measures which are often, and for Beirut’s events should serve as a wake- trian Mission to NATO. various reasons, not implemented. While up call on the vulnerability of ports to the Beirut explosion itself was unprec- neglected hazardous materials. Even

42 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME INDUSTRY 

zations. Large quantities of hazardous substances such as the poorly stored ammonium nitrate at Beirut’s port and marine shipments of chemicals or radio- logical materials are potentially attractive terrorist targets. The quantities of haz- ardous materials transported on vessels and warehoused at ports are typically comparable to the amounts stored at large chemical plants and very often tran- sit (or are stored) near populated areas. If vessels and storages would be success-

Photo: IB Consultancy, NCT Europe 2019 PRO Trainings fully attacked and used as weapons, this could have a catastrophic impact on the population and the environment. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, around 90% of world’s trade is seaborne. Yet, of the 500 million containers shipped yearly in the Technologies to detect chemical and radiological materials become basic trade supply chain, only 2% of them are instruments in port and container inspection processes. inspected. These data demonstrate why it is of utmost importance to increase the though there is no evidence of the in- ark (NJ). More recently, in April 2021, a security measures in vessels and at sea- volvement of terrorist groups in the ex- newlywed couple was arrested at the ports. After the 9/11 attacks, most of the plosion, Beirut’s events should keep us port of Newark as they were attempting counterterrorism efforts were focused on alert about the catastrophic potential of to board a cargo ship that would bring the protection of airports and airplanes, terrorist groups getting access to large them to to join the Islamic State. and “maritime terrorism” remained a amounts of hazardous materials. For many years, the relative openness smaller area of concern. However, if we of maritime transportation has been ex- analyse some of the most “nightmare Terrorism at sea ploited by transnational criminal groups. scenarios”, the need for increased atten- It is now apparent that the threat poten- tion towards maritime counterterrorism In countries with political instability and tial has increased even more through ter- efforts becomes obvious. high corruption, these dangerous sub- rorism, or even worse, the link between Amongst the most commonly scenarios stances such as chemicals and radiological criminal activities and terrorism. examined by maritime security experts materials can easily end up in the wrong and legislators are the threat of dirty hands. When stored in poor conditions The “nightmare scenarios” bombs in containers, the attack on Liq- at ports, terrorist groups could easily get uified Natural Gas (LNG) takers and the access to these materials. Furthermore, The above listed cases are just a few ex- attack on a passenger . due to the relatively lax security measures amples of the opportunities that mari- Terrorist attacks in ports with radiologi- on the movement of seaborne contain- time transport gives to terrorist organi- cal dispersion devices (or dirty bomb), ers, seaports and the maritime shipping industry remain an attractive field for ter- rorist groups, either to target or to exploit for illicit traffic. Terrorist groups such as Al-Qaeda have already demonstrated the potential of sea transport exploitation. In 1998 the group transported explosives to shortly before these were deployed in the bomb attacks on the US embassies in Kenya and that killed more than 200 people. In October 2002, the French oil Photo: IB Consultancy, NCT USA 2019 PRO Trainings MV LIMBURG carrying crude oil from to Malaysia was hit by suicide bombers through a small boat loaded with explo- sives. After the impact, the ship caught fire and leaked large amounts of oil into the Gulf of Aden. Al-Qaeda claimed re- sponsibility for the attack. Furthermore, in March 2003, AI-Qaeda offered to in- vest hundreds of thousands of dollars in a transport company in exchange for ac- Hazardous materials require specialised equipment to be handled and cess to containers from to New- detected as well as specialised training.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 43  MARITIME INDUSTRY

specifically the smuggling and/or deto- ways terrorist may target an LNG tank- of dangerous containers and the unsafe nation of a dirty bomb in a shipping con- er: ramming, by driving another vessel storage of hazardous substances in ports tainer are recurring scenarios studied by into an LNG taker; triggered explosion, are all issues of concern in the context of maritime terrorism researchers. Although through explosives such as mines; ex- counterterrorism. much attention is paid to the threat of ternal attack, for example through the Developing countries, very often marked dirty bombs, there are divergent opinions firing of missiles; and hijacking, the most by political instability and high corrup- about the capabilities of terrorist groups catastrophic scenario of all, involving tion, are also the major destinations for in obtaining and handling radiological terrorists taking control of a tanker and illicit hazardous waste traffic. If laying materials. Many terrorism researchers sailing towards a populated area and abandoned and undetected, containers view a dirty bomb attack as likely due to detonating the cargo. Many experts be- of waste can pose a significant threat. Terrorist groups can get access to aban- doned or poorly stored hazardous sub- stances such as chemicals, explosives and radiological material and use them to conduct attacks. With the global maritime trade constant- ly growing, ports become more essen- tial in national economies and undergo constant expansion, very often close to highly populated areas. Ports and ships security is therefore a matter of essential concern. Narcotics and weapons smug- gling are traditionally areas of main focus, however, the transport and smuggling of hazardous substances requires increased Photo: IB Consultancy, NCT South America 2019 PRO Trainings attention. Furthermore, the issue of haz- ardous waste tends to be seen as a mat- ter of environmental concern rather than of public security. A shift in perspective is needed in order to address the issue with the correct means. First responders in – capacity building programs are key to the It is essential that technologies to detect improvement of safety and security standards in maritime hubs. chemical and radiological materials be- come basic instruments in ports and con- the relatively easy accessibility and lack lieve that the concern of an attack on tainers inspection processes. Hazardous of international control of the materi- a LNG taker is overestimated and that materials require specialized equipment als required to build one. Port operators such an attack might be very difficult to to be handled and detected as well as have even testified before US Congress accomplish. specialized training. In today’s intercon- stating that they believe the use of such Another “nightmare scenario” related to nected world in which trading routes bombs in US ports “is just a question of maritime terrorism is the potential attack connect every country of the world with time”. Although many experts consider on a passenger ferry. In February 2004, each other, enhanced inspection of con- dirty bombs as one of the most likely this scenario became concrete when a tainers before they reach a port should maritime terrorism scenarios, others be- bomb detonated on the ro-ro (roll-on/ be in every state’s interest. lieve the likelihood of terrorists being able roll-off) ferry SUPERFERRY 14 in the Phil- Furthermore, capacity building programs to acquire, and especially handle highly ippines. The explosion of a television case require additional resources as they are radiological material without the proper containing a TNT bomb started a fire that key to the improvement of safety and shieling is highly unlikely. A more realistic led to the sinking of the ship. Although security standards in maritime hubs in result may be a “weaker” dirty bomb, the blast was initially declared as being developing countries. It is of utmost im- easier to handle and with less impact. caused by a gas explosion, later inquir- portance that capacity building programs Despite the different perspectives on ies showed evidence of a bomb planted address also this issue corruption. Beirut the likelihood and the strength of a dirty by the terrorist group Abu Sayyaf. 116 events have highlighted the potential cat- bomb attack carried on a container ship, people were killed resulting in the Philip- astrophic impact of negligence and cor- the psychological effects on the general pines’ worst terrorist attack to date. ruption and has served as an eye opener public of the successful transportation of on the potential scenario of terrorists get- a dirty bomb by a terrorist organization Conclusions ting access to neglected cargo. on a container ship (even a “weak” one) Although the international community would be exponential. It appears that while terrorist attacks at and national governments have already Another scenario of concern is a poten- sea may be more difficult to execute and taken numerous steps to improve the tial terrorist attack on a Liquified Natural have occurred less frequently than other security of ships and ports, more needs Gas (LNG) tanker. A 2004 report from types of attacks, they remain a significant to be done to prevent terrorists from National Sandia Laboratories stated that threat and require continued policy ad- getting access to them. A Beirut type of a potential terrorist attack on LNG tank- aptation. The significant amount of haz- scenario involving a terrorist organization ers is “credible and possible”. Further- ardous materials being transported on a could have even more catastrophic con- more, the report assesses four potential daily basis on ships, the abandonment sequences. L

44 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME INDUSTRY  The Ship That Launched 1,000 Memes – and Nearly Destroyed 12% of World Trade

Dr Salvatore R Mercogliano

he grounding of MV EVER GIVEN from T23 March to 29 March 2021 captured the world’s attention. Many people asked, how could such a modern and large vessel find itself with its bow rammed into Asia, its stern aground on Africa, and its mid-ship astride one of the major maritime choke- points in the world? Amidst all of this, ships traveling between Europe and Asia piled up Source: Egyptian satellite TV channel TeN 27 March 2021, Screenshot by hum in the anchorages off Port Said and Suez, hoping that the Suez Canal Authority, and eventually SMIT Salvage, could clear the con- The EVER GIVEN seen here blocking the Suez Canal. tainership and allow a resumption of normal trade. Her removal after six days opened the efficiency, and environmentally improved, and transportation to the consignee. Dur- floodgate of vessels looking to traverse the the ships were 1,309 feet long and 193 feet ing World War II, an American Liberty ship canal and resume the international flow of wide, and they could not transit the Panama had the ability to transport 10,000 tonnes of goods and allow military vessels – such as Canal – including the new lane opened in cargo. It would take days, or even weeks, to the USS DWIGHT D EISENHOWER (CVN- 2016. They were capable of speeds of 22 individually load, block and brace individual 69) Carrier Strike Group – to perform their knots and could carry 18,000 containers. cargo within the holds of the ships. Sailing missions. But behind the veneer of memes By comparison, when the first container- at a speed of 11.5 knots, once they arrived, it and jokes the grounding of EVER GIVEN ex- ship, SS IDEAL X, was introduced in 1956 took nearly as much time to unblock and un- posed the fragile nature of global trade and by Malcolm McLean, she could only carry stow the cargo. The TRIPLE E's could move the maritime infrastructure that supports it. 58 boxes. A little over a half a century later, twenty times the cargo, faster and more this had expanded over 300-fold. This was efficiently with a fraction of the crew. It is The Ever-Growing necessary as world maritime trade boomed difficult to definitively answer the question if Containership from 880 million tonnes in 1956 to 8,775 the ULCSs were built to support the increase million tonnes in 2011. Today it peaks at over in world trade, or if the ULCSs facilitated the One of the many questions asked follow- 11 billion tonnes daily. growth themselves. ing the event concerned the size of EVER Container ships not only carried more cargo, Prior to the Triple Es, McLean, and his com- GIVEN. At 1,300 feet in length, 200 feet but they improved all aspects of the process, pany Sea Land, along with Maersk, continu- across, drawing nearly 48 feet of water, from loading, to movement via truck or rail, ally pushed the envelope of containership with a deadweight capacity of 200,000 to ports, stowage aboard ships, offloading, construction. In 1972, McLean introduced tonnes, and capable of carrying 20,000 Twenty-foot Equivalent Units (TEUs), she is one of the largest ships in the world. Part of a new generation of Ultra Large Con- tainer Ships (ULCSs), these behemoths were ushered into the world when Maersk Lines introduced their new TRIPLE E class in 2011. Touted for their economy of scale, energy Photo: Suez Canal Authority Author Dr Salvatore R Mercogliano is a former merchant mariner, having sailed and worked ashore for the Mili- tary Sealift Command. He is an asso- ciate professor of history at Campbell University and an adjunct professor at the US Merchant Marine Academy. Heavy earth-moving equipment is pictured here, labouring to free the EVER GIVEN.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 45 so highlighted another vital aspect of world maritime infrastructure: shipyards. When Malcolm McLean built his SL-7s, he went overseas to Germany and the Neth- erlands since he did not want to be con- strained by construction and differential subsidies available under the Merchant Marine Act of 1936. Similarly, he built the Econships in Korea. Most Maersk ships were built in their own yard in Denmark, Odense Steel Shipyard, but following the global re- cession of 2008, Maersk closed the facility. In February 2011, Maersk contracted with

Photo: CNES 2021, Distribution Airbus DS Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineer- A satellite image, taken 25 March, shows parts of the traffic jam ing to build 10 ships for US$1.9 billion. A adjacent to the Suez Canal caused by the EVER GIVEN's obstruction. few months later, in June, they exercised an option for an additional 10 for a similar price. the SL-7s, which at 33 knots were the fastest Daewoo in Korea were the flagships of the MAERSK McKINNEY MOLLER was handed cargo ships in the world. Unfortunately, the American merchant marine, but suffered over to the company from Daewoo on 2 July timing for their operation coincided with the from one serious shortfall. Learning his les- 2013. The last of the twenty, Mathilde Mae- OPEC embargo and the skyrocketing cost of son from the SL-7, McLean opted for fuel rsk, followed on 30 June 2015. A total of 20 fuel. This ultimately led to Sea Land selling efficiency and carrying capacity over speed. ships were launched in two years and four the ships to the U.S. Navy for conversion into The ships were agonisingly slow at 16 knots. months, a mindboggling delivery schedule. Fast Sealift Ships. Today the eight ships, ap- A new competitor, Evergreen Marine, ap- A look at a list of the ULCSs reveals that they proaching their 50th anniversary, remain as peared on the scene and offered a similar follow the trend of world ship construction elements of the aging Maritime Administra- around-the-world service, with both east today where more than 90% of all com- tion Ready Reserve Force. Maersk adopted and westbound service, and faster vessels. mercial ships are built in either Japan, the Re- a more conservative approach to speed This trade-off between cargo capacity and public of Korea, or the People’s Republic of and focused on carrying capacity with the speed could only be overcome by increas- China. Except for the Philippines, with about introduction of their L-class in 1980. At 24 ing the overall size of the vessel. Maersk ac- four percent, the remaining six percent is knots and able to carry 3,400 containers, complished this by introducing the R-class spread around the world with no other na- almost three times that of the SL-7s, the Ls in the early-1990s (6,000 TEUs), the S-class tion having a single percentage of construc- marked the first of several innovative jumps in the late-1990s (8,000 TEUs), the E-class in tion. In many ways, the demise of commer- in containership size over the next few dec- the mid-2000s (12,500 TEUs) and then the cial shipping in the United States and across ades. Ironically, the L-class would also end TRIPLE E's in the early 2010s (18,000). Europe, along with the economic recession up with the US Navy after the Persian Gulf The roll out of the TRIPLE E's was a master of 2008, and the need to further expand War when converted into the SHUGHART performance by Maersk. They invited the on the size of ships like the TRIPLE E's, pro- class roll-on/roll-off ship for the Military Seal- world’s maritime press and influencers to moted the shipbuilding race between these ift Command. Korea for the launch of MAERSK McKIN- three East Asian countries. Like the Dread- Concurrently, McLean, then at the helm of NEY MOLLER. Concurrently, the Discovery nought race of the early twentieth century, United States Lines in the early 1980s built a Channel developed a multi-episode series these three nations are aligning their ship- dozen large vessels intended to inaugurate on the vessel. Maersk even had fellow Dan- yards into larger entities to outbid, out pro- an around-the-world service. Capable of ish company Lego unveil a set featuring the duce, and outlast those of their neighbours. carrying 4,258 boxes, the Econships built by vessel. The construction of the 20 vessels al- In 2015, Maersk followed up with Daewoo and ordered eleven 2nd generation TRIPLE E's, each capable of carrying over 20,000 con- tainers. Passing that mark led to a full-on competition between the major carriers, including COSCO, Evergreen, ONE, CMA CGA, Mediterranean Shipping Company and HMM, fielding 77 ships, with follow- on orders on the book for an additional 56 ULCSs with ships capable of carrying up to 24,000 boxes included in the mix. Of the nine major container lines, which possess 82.7% of the world container capacity, none are American-owned or flagged and are structured into three large alliances – 2M, The Alliance and the Ocean Alliance – that dominate the world’s trade routes. As the vessels continue to grow, the infra-

Source: Egyptian satellite TV channel TeN 27 March 2021, Screenshot by hum structure to support them must adjust to The head of the Suez Canal Authority (SCA) Osama Rabie checks accommodate them. Along the East Coast the situation and the circumstances in person. of the United States, cities and states un-

46 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME INDUSTRY  dertook massive dredging projects to allow Egyptians to extract US$916 million from packages – the Military Sealift Command entry of these larger containerships, but Evergreen for the event, is likely to cause contracted with seven American firms to not the ULCSs as they could not navigate companies and nations to reconsider their ensure there was enough container capac- the new lane of the Panama Canal. This use of the canal. One nation looking at the ity between the continental US and South- required dredging down to 50 feet and in incident in a positive light is Russia. Their at- west Asia to support military forces. A little the case of New Jersey, raising the height tempts to entice cargo into the Arctic and over a decade later, with the adoption of the of the Bayonne Bridge to permit vessels to utilise the Northeast Passage seems now to Maritime Security Program to ensure that a pass underneath. That cost was borne by appear as a more viable solution, although fleet of US flagged vessels were available, the citizens of those communities for ships some firms, such as MSC, indicate they are along with the vast networks of many of the registered and owned overseas and cargo not interested. companies, such as Maersk, American ships being distributed throughout the nation. For China, their concern over the closing of were able to sustain Department of Defense The chasing of infrastructure goals might their sea lanes of communication has been forces throughout the wars in have been what caught up with EVER GIV- the paramount reason for the growth of the and . EN in the Suez on 23 March. PLA Navy and their efforts to develop bases However, today the infrastructure and As the ship headed north that morning in in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean, trade of the United States is in peril. Failure the lower section of the Suez, her size and astride their major trade routes. Taking the to incorporate the commercial maritime dimensions provided little clearance with the writings of Alfred Thayer Mahan literally, they sector into national defence planning doc- bank and bottom. Sailing at a high rate of realise that the role of the military is to sup- uments and provide visible and vocal sup- speed, almost 13 knots, the ship could have port their economic endeavours, protect the port is undercutting the industry. Ships that experienced squatting where the stern sinks supply of raw materials – such as bulk mate- make up the afloat prepositioning force, down lower in shallow water at speed. Ad- rial from South America, Africa, and Australia the surge sealift, and the domestic Jones ditionally, if she came too close to one of the – and exports of their finished products. Act fleet need replacement as they are ag- ing. Investment into national shipbuilding would have an impact on military vessel construction by employing more workers into this industry instead of the boom-and- bust cycle which requires repeated training and loss of experience. An examination of Chinese shipyards reveals commercial ships Photo: Suez Canal Authority being built alongside new frigates, destroy- ers, and aircraft carriers. It is strange to see the world’s fleets building vessels larger than FORD (CVN-78) class car- riers and competing in trade that at one time was being battled over by national fleets. Today, international corporations, with ships flying the of open registries, dominate The EVER GIVEN blocked the Suez Canal for six days. the world’s oceans but with little means of protection. This is readily apparent to the In- banks, suction could have pushed off the It is noteworthy that while China has ap- dian crew, on-board the Taiwan-based MV bow, while sucking in the stern. The reports peared to have learned this lesson from his- EVERGREEN vessel, managed by a German of high winds that day would have been tory and the recent past, the United States firm, with an American classification soci- an issue with a surface area equivalent to a fails to heed this concern. America lags in ety, owned by a Japanese company, with 14-story building a quarter of a mile long. infrastructure, as the repeated announce- insurance in Great Britain, and trapped in Other factors, such as the introduction of ments by presidents of infrastructure bills Egyptian waters. new Very Low Sulphur Diesel fuel in 2020 and programs indicate. The current backlog That is the situation facing world trade has caused engineering issues in many ves- of containerships off the West Coast, par- and maritime infrastructure today that is sels and could have contributed to a poten- ticularly the ports of Los Angeles and Long largely absent from most military and na- tial engine casualty. Plus, there is always the Beach are not so much an issue with the val discussions but essential to the world’s possibility of pure human error that might ports but the ability to get the cargo off the economy and the military’s logistics. Fail- have contributed to the closing of the canal terminals via road and rail and into the interi- ure to invest in domestic infrastructure for almost a week. or of the United States – that was the precise and trade will place nations at the mercy issue that Malcolm McLean attempted to of forces beyond their control. While that Broader Implications alleviate with the advent of containerisation may be sufficient for many nations, any in the 1950s. country wishing to be considered a sea Regardless of the cause, the closing of the The military learned this lesson during the power should heed the words of Mahan, canal marked an important event not just in Vietnam War, when Sea Land was con- as recently recapped by Andrew Lambert the world economy but the shipment and tracted to provide eleven containerships in “What is a Navy For?” and consider, protection of trade. While the event was to alleviate a similar backlog of breakbulk “What is a Merchant Marine For?” L over quickly, a long-term closure, such as ships. The commercial sector viewed the what happened during the Suez Crisis or success in the Vietnam War as validation. This article was originally published by the Six Days War, would have global ramifi- In the Persian Gulf War, while ammunition US-based Center for International Mari- cations. The vulnerability of the chokepoint was shipped much as the Phoenicians did time Security (CIMSEC) and provided to to an accident, and now the efforts by the in ancient times – in separate bundles and MSD as a courtesy.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 47  MARITIME INDUSTRY The Security Situation in the Mozambique Channel

Helmoed Römer Heitman

he Mozambique Channel has begun insurgents are still holding at the time of ly, there was no mention of communications Tto draw attention as a result of the writing. In March 2021 they also seized and, intelligence or inshore forces. No decision expanding Ansar al Sunna insurgency in for a while, occupied Palma, adjacent to the had been taken by mid-May 2021. the Cabo Delgado province of northern Total gas facility at Afungi. That led Total Meanwhile Mozambique agreed on 10 Mozambique, particularly because of the to withdraw pending the provision of ef- May to accept a 60-strong special forces threat to the major offshore gas projects. fective security, putting the entire project at training team from Portugal. The European The insurgents’ use of boats has already risk. The Mozambique security forces have Union is also considering deployment of a been noticed. So far, these have only been proved too weak, ill-trained and ill-equipped military training mission, which would ab- used for attacks on Mocimboa da Praia and to counter the insurgency and the govern- sorb the Portuguese contingent. islands off the coast. There is, however, ment remains coy about accepting help, The Mozambique Channel is a choke point clearly a risk to offshore gas fields, as hap- prioritising sovereignty while the insurgency that was long overlooked, partly because pened off , as well as a risk of piracy grows. It did contract the Russian Wagner there is the shorter route using the Suez to fund the insurgency. The possibility of Group, which withdrew after suffering casu- Canal, and partly because ships can go wider maritime terrorism on behalf of the alties, and the South African Dyke Advisory around Madagascar. But it carries some Photo:

The landing party from SAS AMATOLA meets with a liaison officer from Mozambique.

Group. However, its forces were too weak 30% of world tanker traffic, as well as car- to contain the insurgency, although they did go between South America and the Persian rescue civilians at Palma. Gulf, Pakistan and western India, giving a Finally in April Mozambique agreed to ac- daily average of some 60 tankers and cargo cept a Southern African Development ships in the Channel or its approaches. The Community (SADC) ‘technical team’ to as- Channel is also critical to Mozambique and sess possible military assistance. That team to , with most of the latter’s recommended deployment of a light infan- imported oil moving through the Channel try brigade of three battalions (620 troops as does its trade with the Mediterranean,

Photo: South African Navy each), two special forces squadrons, an en- the Persian Gulf, Pakistan and the western The boarding team from SAS gineer squadron and support elements. Air seaboard of India. Apart from seaborne DRAKENSBERG is ready to go. support would need to comprise two attack trade there are valuable fish stocks, par- helicopters, two armed and two utility heli- ticularly tuna in the northern part, where IslamicAuthor State, to which the insurgents claim copters, two light UAVs and four transport international fleets take some 10,000 tons links, cannot be discounted. aircraft. A maritime element of two frigates annually. TheHelmoed Cabo Delgado Roemer insurgency Heitman ishas an devel- with organic helicopters and UAVs, a sub- The Channel is also a narcotics route, with opedindependent from minor defence attacks analyst on villages based and marine and a maritime surveillance aircraft cannabis, heroin and crystal methamphet- alongin Pretoria, roads to South the occupationAfrica. of Mocim- to interdict supply routes and disrupt mari- amine moving from Asia to Mozambique in boa da Praia in 2017 and 2020, which the time crime would also be required. Strange- dhows and larger cargo ships. Transhipped

48 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 to small craft off the coast, the narcotics move overland to South Africa and onward to Europe. To give just one example, on Photo: South African Navy 21 January 2021 the French frigate NIVOSE found 417 kg of meth amphetamine and 27 kg of heroin aboard a dhow. This is not new. In 2012 a dhow supposedly fishing in the channel was boarded by the South Afri- can Navy’s SAS DRAKENSBERG and found to have only unused nets aboard, clearly having been about other business. Cocaine A boarding party from a South African frigate is observed approaching also moves through Mozambique. One a Namibian trawler in the Mozambique Channel. ship en route from West Africa to Mozam- bique was shadowed by a South African the confines of the Channel, particularly as – usually one ship and one aircraft – in frigate but dumped its illicit cargo before both coasts are under-policed and none of a large area, they had a real impact. In being boarded. At least 45 kg of cocaine the littoral countries have effective navies. 2012 the then Chief of the Mozambique later washed up on beaches. Even Tanzania to the north has only a very Navy remarked to the Chief of Staff of the The Mozambique Channel first drew in- small navy of coastal craft and no maritime SA Navy that general maritime crime in terest in late 2010, when Somali pirates aircraft, while underfunding has left much the Channel had decreased dramatically attacked several ships in the northern of the South African Navy tied up along- since the inception of the patrols. approaches and the northern part of the side, and the SA Air Force without proper However, by 2013 tight funding limited SA Channel, which triggered patrols by the maritime patrol aircraft. Navy operations, with former strike craft South African Navy. Somali piracy has, for The pirate attacks of late 2010 led to SA deploying instead of frigates and the base now, been largely suppressed. However, Navy patrols in the northern part of the at Pemba being closed. More recently there is the risk of people in the impover- Channel from January 2011, under the the patrols have become sporadic as the ished coastal regions of Mozambique and terms of an agreement with Mozambique stretched South African defence budget Madagascar turning to piracy for income, and Tanzania. Those patrols were initially keeps the navy’s ships alongside, and with- as could the insurgents in Cabo Delgado. conducted by frigates with SUPER LYNX out air support since the closing of the for- The coastlines of both countries are well helicopters and the combat support ship ward base at Pemba. suited to such activity and the Channel SAS DRAKENSBERG with ORYX helicop- The patrol arrangement was in any event has internal choke points around the Co- ters. Special Forces and Maritime Reaction weakened by not including Madagascar moros, Mayotte and the Glorioso Islands in Squadron teams were embarked for board- and Comoros – more for lack of authority the north, Juan da Nova in the centre near ing operations and to follow up suspicious to act in their waters than for any participa- its narrowest – 140 nm – section, and the activity ashore. The ships also carried Mo- tion by their very small forces. It also left out Bassas dos India reef and Europa Island in zambique Navy liaison officers. France, which also has possessions in the the south. The ships were supported from a forward Channel. The French Navy carries out oc- Of most immediate concern from the mari- base established at Pemba, where the SA casional patrols in the Channel depending time perspective, is the insurgents’ use of Air Force stationed a C-47TP maritime on available resources. boats at Mocimboa da Praia and in raids surveillance aircraft and sometimes a Looking forward there is a clear case for on offshore islands. They are also reported Cessna CARAVAN fitted with an optronic preventative patrolling of the Mozambique to have captured some larger boats that at- turret for coastal surveillance. The SA Na- Channel to avoid having to deal with more tempted to rescue people off the beach at vy on at least one occasion also deployed complex piracy and maritime terrorism Palma in March 2021. This presents a risk of a submarine to develop the intelligence threats later. But given the weakness of re- piracy to fund the insurgency and of mari- picture, particularly monitoring activity at gional navies and the lack of maritime sur- time terrorism or guerrilla operations similar night. She called at Pemba during her pa- veillance aircraft, there are real limits to what to those of the Movement for the Emanci- trol, causing considerable unease among they can do, even assuming better funding pation of the Niger Delta (MEND) and the those engaged in illicit activities, given of the South African Navy and Air Force. Niger Delta Avengers, as well as to the at- that they had no way of knowing where Perhaps it is time for the major maritime tacks in waters around Yemen. That threat she might be once she was back at sea. trading nations to join in a patrol system or would be exceedingly difficult to counter in While these patrols involved small forces to assist regional countries with appropri- ate equipment and funding. India has set an example, entering into an agreement with France in 2020 to conduct maritime air surveillance by P8I patrols in the western Indian Ocean, including the Mozambique Channel. But occasional missions by a mari- time patrol aircraft will not suffice; what is needed is a standing presence. Properly funded, the South African Navy and Air Force could provide that, and it would be in South Africa’s own interest. As this is unlikely to come about in even the medium Boarding party from SAS DRAKENSBERG checking a dhow that claimed Photo: Captain (N) Mike Boucher, South African Navy term, so security in the Mozambique Chan- to be fishing but had only unused nets and no fish aboard. nel will be left up to others. L

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 49  MARITIME INDUSTRY The Sea in Focus – Germany's Sea Trade as an Element of a Globalised Economy

Ludolf, Baron von Löwenstern

The importance of the sea for the globalised economy can hardly be overestimated. A strong navy is needed to protect vital sea routes.

lmost 90 per cent of world trade is con- 2020. Its 2,715 merchant ships represented nationally operating major shipping compa- Aducted by sea. The Covid 19 pandemic the fifth largest fleet in the world on the nies, port companies and states. These alli- has not changed this, even though the same basis in 2019. Globally, the world’s ances are also crucial for the infrastructure volume of world trade shrank by as much merchant fleet has over 55,000 seagoing of global communication. For example, the as a third due to the interruption of supply vessels whilst world container throughput internet, which is often cited as an example chains. In addition to the trade in consumer increased by 1.9 per cent over the course of of the innovative power of private compa- goods, the international energy trade is also 2019 to reach a total of 694 million Twenty- nies, is largely based on a state-subsidised mainly carried out by sea and around a third foot Equivalent Units (TEUs). Fifteen million network of submarine cables. of freight volume is accounted for by crude of these passed through German ports, oil alone. If crude oil is the blood of the with Hamburg in the lead. With some 9.3 Global Free Trade and world economy, then shipping is its circula- million containers handled, the ancient Free Sea Lanes tory system. Hanseatic city ranked 17th in the world. The maritime sectors of shipping, seaports As is well known, China’s industrialisation Compelling by Numbers (with their hinterland connections), ship- is based on the import of raw materials. For building and the associated supply industry example, the country absorbs two-thirds With 1,061 ships on the basis of the nation- are of outstanding importance to Germany. of global iron ore exports, much of which ality of their owners, Germany had numeri- Of these, shipping is the core industry in come from Australia and . And – like cally the largest container fleet on 1 January the German maritime cluster, generating a Japan and South Korea – China is also de- Photo: MSC

Gigantic container vessels are used for logistic transports of Chinese goods to Europe.

Author turnover of around €50Bn each year and pendent on oil from the Gulf region. Given employing up to 400,000 people. this situation, it would be logical – for ex- Captain (Reserve) Ludolf Baron Passenger shipping is also growing strong- ample – if trade routes between the Persian von Löwenstern, German Navy, ly also, even though Covid-19 deeply cut Gulf and East Asia were controlled by the entrepreneur, co-founder and volume. There are currently around 6,500 Gulf States or by China. However, they are chairman of the European Strategic passenger ships worldwide. Of these about currently in the US’ hands. Institute, is an expert at the German 450 are cruise ships, owned by an indus- The US guards the most important sea Maritime Institute, and a special rep- try dominated by a little over 50 shipping routes to the East and maintains numer- resentative of the Deputy Chief of companies. ous military bases in the Gulf to secure its Naval Operations. International shipping is based on a net- regional supremacy. Control of the world’s work of strategic alliances between trans- sea routes remains the responsibility of the

50 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME INDUSTRY 

US Navy. Of its eleven aircraft carriers, four usually operate in the world regions most important to the USA: Europe, East Asia and the Persian Gulf. In 2018, the US Navy Photo: US Navy declared the Indian Ocean and the Pacific as a unified area of operations as part of attempts to integrate India into the alliance against China’s military and maritime he- gemony in the region. The importance of a maritime power rises and falls with its presence at the straits or so-called bottlenecks of the main shipping routes. These include: 1) the Strait of Gi- braltar and the Suez Canal, which connect the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean; 2) the be- tween Sumatra and the as a connection between the Indian Ocean, The DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER (CVN-69) carrier strike group transits the the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean; Strait of Gibraltar in March 2021. The importance of a maritime power and, 3) the Strait of Hormuz at the exit of rises and falls with its presence at the straits of the main shipping routes. the Persian Gulf, through which a quar- ter of global oil trade passes. It is an open Australia, Japan, and South states – unity is the exception rather than question who will control these straits in Korea. The RCEP agreement reduces tar- the rule. the future as China continues on its way iffs, establishes uniform rules and facilitates Hoping that everything will be better un- to becoming the world’s number one eco- supply chains. Before the Covid-19 crisis, der a Biden presidency is not enough. The nomic power. RCEP states accounted for 29 per cent of US has long-held, fixed, geo-political and global trade volume – slightly less than the geo-strategic goals that might not coincide China's Growing Importance EU’s 33 per cent. Experts expect the share with European interests. For example, the of the RCEP community to continue to rise. Biden presidency continues to: oppose the The centre of gravity of world politics In short, the Europeans are not catching Nord Stream 2 Baltic Sea pipeline; demand is certainly shifting from the West back up, but falling further behind. Increasingly, achieving agreed levels of defence spend- to Eurasia and from the Atlantic to the Europe lacks geo-strategic independence ing by NATO members; and, if interpreted Pacific; and it is China that is playing the from the rest of the world. correctly - want the maintenance of an even central role in this.China increases its claim greater distance from China. as a superpower geo-politically and mili- Between the Frontlines of However, the world is complicated and de- tarily, expanding its fleet to secure sup- Global Politics mands leadership. Without US intervention, ply routes and prevent containment by US Islamic State (Daesh) cannot be defeated; bases and allies. In days gone by, the Silk Germany and the EU are global maritime and, without its European presence, Russia Road – or, more precisely, the Silk Road players in trade, so they find themselves be- remains a threat. Many Asian states also System – was China’s artery to the rest tween the frontlines and in a geo-politically want more American involvement in their of the “Known World”, i.e. the ancient and geo-economically precarious position. region as a counterbalance to China. empires of the Greeks and Romans that Relations with the United States have been The US published its new maritime strat- once formed Europe. strained and the relationship with China is egy on 17 December 2020 under the title The Silk Road’s new successor is the Belt also in question. Moreover, there is often “Advantage at Sea”. The focus is on China and Road Initiative, beginning in 2012 with much dissent within the EU community of and Russia as the “two greatest threats to the Trans-Eurasia Express, a goods train connection between Duisburg, Germany and the central Chinese trading metropolis of Chongqing. It runs through the mid- dle of the Eurasian continent with a journey time of 16 days. A desirable side effect of Photo: Adobe Stock these revitalised land routes is that they can- not be blocked by warships. Last November, China concluded the world’s largest free trade agreement with 14 Asia-Pacific states. The Regional Com- prehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) covers 2.2Bn people and about one third of the world’s economic output. China en- gages with the 10 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN - Vietnam, Singa- pore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, Myanmar, Brunei, Laos and The clash of containers: trade rivalry between the United States and Cambodia), and key US regional allies of China is a fact of life in the 21st Century.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 51  MARITIME INDUSTRY

the era of global peace and prosperity”. dealing with the many challenges it faces Particular importance is attributed to com- when securing the global sea routes and petition with China due to its growing eco- can use military force to protect national nomic and military strength, its increasing Photo: US Navy and European interests if necessary. aggressiveness and its apparent intention Rainer Brinkmann, Deputy to dominate regional waters as its own, Chief of Naval Operations and Com- reshaping the international order in its fa- mander of the Fleet and Support Forces, vour. The strategy document further states: recently summed the situation up as fol- “Until China chooses to act as a responsible lows: “Global economic interdependen- actor rather than use its power to advance cies – and our vulnerability to disruptions authoritarian interests, it poses the most of a rule-based order – give rise to the comprehensive threat to the United States, indispensable need to contribute to inter- our allies, and all nations that support a free national crisis management. The global and open system.” The document notes deployment of our armed forces must be that the services need to work together The US Navy, Marine Corps, and taken into account in planning if we want today to make preparations for a high-end Coast Guard released a new to protect ourselves against crises rever- war with China. However, just as impor- tri-service maritime strategy in berating from the periphery to the cen- tantly, they also need a strategy and the December 2020. tre of Europe…Against the background right tools to counter the day-to-day com- of the emergence of new geopolitical petition posed by China, even in grey areas. up and securing central technological ca- centres of gravity in the Asian region, we pacities in Europe. will have to think more intensively than The European Union The maritime space continues to be of before about the organisation of burden high geo-strategic as well as of high geo- sharing between Europeans and Ameri- With more than 500 million inhabitants, economic importance the in 21st century. cans. As Europeans, we will have to take the EU internal market is the largest com- Including overseas territories, the EU has on more tasks around the European and mon economic area in the world in terms a coastline of 89,000 km and an Exclusive African continent in the course of a shift of of gross domestic product. As an associa- Economic Zone of over 25Mn square kilo- American engagement to the Asia-Pacific tion of states, the EU is the largest pro- metres. Moreover, 90 per cent of external region. Yes, we (might) even have to make ducer of goods and, together with the trade and 40 per cent of the EU’s internal a solidarity contribution in the Asian re- United States and China, is one of the trade is conducted by sea, while about 80 gion for our American partners.” largest trading powers in the world. In per cent of Europe’s oil and natural gas the competition for future technologies production comes from the North Sea, the A Geo-Political Perspective with China and the USA, Europe needs Mediterranean and the Adriatic. a strategic industrial policy that goes be- As the most populous country and the larg- Discussions of geo-politics are too often yond national special interests and devel- est economy in the EU, Germany should conducted with all kinds of dubious meta- ops approaches to promote companies in make a significant contribution to setting phors, which include “the international key sectors and keep them in Europe. This the EU’s long-term course. Germany’s de- community” or even “global free trade”. is not a matter of nurturing individual na- pendence on foreign trade is obvious, and A term like the “liberal international order” tional champions, but rather of building it needs a strong navy that is capable of only makes sense if one reads it as being synonymous with American power and capital interests. If one analyses the work- ings of an international system like that of maritime trade, then one will discover a Photo: US Navy different world. Namely, the harsh realities of controlled sea lanes, alliances between oligopolistic companies and governments, quasi-colonial military dependencies, and imperial surveillance techniques. Despite all these nationalist overtones, many problems can no longer be mastered at the level of nation-states. Therefore, the EU must form its own consensus vis-à-vis actors such as the US, China and India. By formulating its own interests and express- ing them clearly. Left on their own, Ger- many and the other European states are not even remotely capable of asserting themselves in order to be accepted as geo- political players. The EU must learn the language of power. If we accept uncertainty, change and an ex- traordinarily high level of dynamism as the A SEA LYNX helicopter of the German Navy during a boarding operation. determinants of our time, then we will find Will the German Navy soon protect sea lanes of communication to Asia? ways and means to shape them. L

52 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE  A Renaissance in Amphibious Warfare

Sidney E. Dean

mphibious warfare has come under in- Acreased scrutiny in recent years. While there have been small-scale landings in re- cent decades, the last major amphibious assault was conducted during the Korean War. Today, American and European ma- Photo: US Marine Corps rines tend to be airlifted into theatres of op- eration, and deploy hundreds of kilometres inland. Some critics have even advocated abolishing amphibious units or reducing and incorporating them into the army. However, this negative atmosphere is changing. Taking only the United States Marine Corps (USMC) as an example, the force is reducing personnel but investing heavily in modernisation and new op- U.S. Marines with 3rd Marine Regiment scope out their terrain during erational concepts that will reinvigorate an amphibious assault exercise. The USMC is investing heavily in amphibious capabilities. European navies modernisation and new operational concepts that will reinvigorate retain their own marine corps and naval amphibious capabilities. commando units, while Russia and China rely on them for offensive operations in the Black Sea and Arctic or for a potential inva- sion of Taiwan. The demise of amphibious warfare seems a thing of the past.

US Marine Corps – Photo: US Marine Corps New Strategies for a Changing Environment As USMC Commandant General David Berger put it last year, the Corps is return- ing to its maritime roots, and operationally integrating much more closely with the US Navy (USN). An experimental regiment is currently honing new concepts of opera- tion to enhance mobile warfare capabilities in the littorals and against near-peer adver- saries. The USMC reorganisation is to be The EABO concept could see USMC units establishing short term completed by 2030. airfields for refuelling and re-arming F-35 strike fighters. The catalyst is clear: an increasingly as- sertive China is threatening US allies and To counter this development, the Pentagon for amphibious operations. The new Ex- partners in the western Pacific. Contain- is enhancing the US capability for large- peditionary Advanced Base Operations ing China has become the top strategic scale or distributed joint operations, with (EABO) concept gives the USMC a central objective of the United States, on par with each service bringing in unique capabilities. wartime role in this region. containment of Russian aggression in the The USMC is expected to make a signifi- The new operational concept calls for the European theatre. China’s expansion of cant contribution to supporting the other USMC to conduct a so-called “island hop- armed forces, development of force projec- services, and to achieving strategic and tac- ping” campaign as part of a greater joint tion assets (including long-range missiles, tical objectives. campaign. Small, highly mobile USMC aircraft carriers, and long-range combat units, operating in a dispersed manner, aircraft), and military occupation of artificial Expeditionary Advanced would penetrate the opponent’s outer islands in the East and South China Seas all Base Operations in the defensive ring to land on inhabited or converge to create a potent Chinese Anti- Western Pacific uninhabited islands and atolls around the Access/Area Denial (AA/AD) capability. This East and South China Seas. Here they in turn will make it increasingly difficult for Any future war between the United States would conduct quick strikes against Chi- US armed forces to attack mainland Chi- and China would likely be fought in and nese forces, then relocate quickly – within nese positions without significant risk to around the littoral waters and island chains hours or days – to evade counterattack. ships or aircraft. of the western Pacific, an area well suited These coup-de-main strikes could be

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 53  MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE

points to a strength of circa 1,800-2,200 Marines, augmented by a small number of US Navy sailors in support and special- ist roles. Primary subordinate units of the MLR will be the Littoral Combat Team, the Photo: US Marine Corps Littoral Anti-Air Battalion and the Littoral Logistics Battalion. The Combat Team will be centred on an infantry battalion, en- hanced by smaller support elements and a long-range anti-ship battery. Missions will be executed by small component units op- erating in a distributed manner rather than by regiment or battalion strength units; depending on the mission and operational environment, deployed forces could be as small as a reinforced platoon, or as large as a company. The exact composition of an operational unit will depend on the mis- Marines “seize” a small airfield at the Ie Shima Training Facility, sion. Overall, platoon-level units are being Okinawa, Japan, as part of an EABO exercise in December 2020. tasked with missions previously assigned to the company level, adding considerable aimed against Chinese garrisons on the ships and submarines. This new opera- responsibility to individual soldiers as well islands, especially against missile-artillery, tional capability to control chokepoints, in- as unit leaders. air-defence or radar positions constituting hibit enemy access to the high seas, or even The MLR will be significantly smaller than enemy AA/AD assets. Alternately, these deny the enemy the use of the littorals is the current standard USMC infantry regi- USMC units could establish short term a core goal of the EABO concept and the ment (3,400 personnel), but it will incor- airfields for refuelling and re-arming F-35 enhanced USMC-Navy expeditionary inte- porate some elements not integrated into strike fighters; this would significantly ex- gration. the current units. This includes the low- tend the range of the ship-borne aircraft, level air defence, which is increasingly vital and permit airstrikes to be launched from Marine Littoral Regiments to combat UAVs and cruise missiles. The unexpected directions. These USMC units first permanent MLR is expected to stand will also be equipped with land-attack To implement the EABO concept (and max- up during Fiscal Year 2022, and be based missiles, anti-ship missiles, air and missile imise its overall amphibious capabilities) the in Hawaii. Two additional regiments are defence weapons, and/or electronic-war- USMC is reorganising with the goal of en- planned, and will likely be stationed in Ja- fare/cyberwarfare systems. hancing mobility. All armoured battalions pan and on Guam. Using these temporary footholds to attack and heavy artillery batteries are being elimi- Chinese shore bases, warships and aircraft, nated. Three new formations designated as Testing and Experimentation they will establish their own AA/AD zones Marine Littoral Regiments (MLR) are being blocking passage of Chinese vessels and established. These units will be specifically The USMC is currently focused on refining aircraft, and create uncertainty among en- trained and equipped for mobile offensive the EABO doctrine a, having published a emy forces. In addition to conducting their operations in the littorals and on island ar- “Tentative Manual for Expeditionary Ad- own offensive operations, these ground chipelagos. vanced Base Operations” in 2019. This units will also conduct threat and target The final structure of the new type of preliminary guideline will be revised and reconnaissance for US and allied aircraft, unit is still being devised. Initial planning refined to accommodate lessons learned during field experiments to be conducted over the next two years. The next iteration of the manual is formally planned for 2023. A major early test of a typical EABO sce- nario was conducted during Exercise Noble Fury conducted in October 2020. During this Photo: US Marine Corps test, a 100-strong unit of the 2nd Marine Regiment captured an airfield on the Japa- nese island of Ie Shima. High Mobility Artil- lery Rocket System (HIMARS) artillery was flown in by C-130 and deployed in a simu- lated anti-ship role. After firing its volley, the artillery was immediately taken aboard the C-130s and flown out before the firing posi- tion could be targeted. The infantry unit re- mained on the island to further support 7th Fleet operations, evading opposing force US Marines prepare to extract from Ie Shima, Okinawa, Japan during units until evacuated via CH-53E helicopter. the Castaway 21.1 exercise. The use of light, highly mobile forces is key One month earlier, the Hawaii-based 3rd to the EABO concept. Marine Regiment – a subordinate unit of

54 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE 

ture to reduce the likelihood of detection/ location; and training on a broader array of weapon systems, reflecting the need for smaller units to conduct a broader array of tasks. Marines are also being prepared Photo: US Marine Corps to operate independently and without backup for prolonged periods, if necessary (“task-based operations” requiring lower- echelon leaders to execute mission orders without upper-echelon guidance). The infantry school’s new capstone scenario deploys trainees to an advanced expedi- tionary base environment where they must independently conduct representative mis- sions – and survive – for five days.

Technology for EABO

The USMC is acquiring new technology The USMC test fires a truck mounted variant of the Kongsberg NAVAL suited for the future warfare scenarios. STRIKE MISSILE. Such equipment is crucial to new sea denial-based The focus includes long-range precision amphibious strategies. strike options, platoon and squad level un- manned surveillance and reconnaissance the Okinawa-based III. Marine Expedi- Training Reform aircraft, and new mobility platforms. tionary Unit (MEU) – was designated the To implement the sea denial strategy which formal testbed unit for MLR organisation- While the EABO concept is still being re- constitutes one of the core missions under al structure and operating tactics; it will fined, USMC infantry training is already EABO, the USMC plans to acquire truck- be officially reflagged as the 3rd MLR this being adjusted to reflect the renewed mounted anti-ship missiles. The most year. The experiment is scheduled to run emphasis on amphibious operations. The promising concept to date consists of a re- through 2023 to determine in detail what pilot programme was launched in January configured and optionally unmanned Joint organisational and tactical aspects will or at the School of Infantry – West (Camp Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) mounting the will not work in an operational context. Pendleton, California), followed in April at Kongsberg NAVAL STRIKE MISSILE, a sea- The regiment participated in two joint the School of Infantry – East (Fort Geiger, skimming and stealthy precision weapon force exercises conducted on Hawaii and North Carolina). The new (and experimen- with a nearly 100 nautical mile range. The Okinawa in March of this year – Spar- tal) 14 week infantry course is five weeks vehicle would be capable of mounting dif- tan Fury and Castaway. The test scenario longer than before. It adds curriculum el- ferent missile systems as well, maximising distributed elements of a Marine Air- ements designed to optimise Marines for flexibility for the tactical units. Ground Task Force (MAGTF) over a total the new focus on littoral warfare and to One major concern is in-theatre transport. of five islands to simulate the presumed prepare them to face near-peer opponents. Mobility and speed are the keystones to operating scenario in a war with China. Additions include enhanced “aquatic con- the entire EABO concept. Future plans in- Command and control, logistical sustain- fidence” training to ensure that combat- clude procurement of Light Amphibious ment, and operating tactics of the dis- quipped personnel can reach shore if they Warships (LAW) for troop transport, and tributed unit were all scrutinised. Overall disembark from a vessel which cannot long-range unmanned surface vessels for the proposed EABO/MLR formations and beach; reduction of electromagnetic signa- resupply, reconnaissance, and potentially tactics proved successful. The next step is testing the unit and the EABO concept as part of the bilateral Ex- ercise Talisman Sabre 21 to be conducted in Australia this summer. This is the first of several exercises to be conducted to- gether with allies throughout the Indo- Photo: US Marine Corps Pacific region over the next 12 months. “What we want to try to do is open the aperture to bring in our allies and part- ners because they’re very excited about these concepts and I think they also ap- preciate the need to operate this way in this current environment,” said Colonel Michael Roach, commanding officer of the 3rd Marine Regiment, during a USNI News interview in April. Future exercises will also be conducted on a larger scale, covering greater distances and a larger The USMC is experimenting with a wide range of robotic systems as it number of islands. modernises for the latest iteration of amphibious warfare.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 55  MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE

capability in 2028. It replaces the nearly 50 year old Amphibious Assault Vehicle, and features Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) level occupant protection. The US Navy continues to modernise its amphibi- ous warship fleet. Future vessels of the AMERICA (LHA-6) class amphibious assault ships will be equipped with a well deck for

Photo: Netherlands Ministry of Defence launching ACVs as well as LCACs (Landing Craft Air Cushion), reflecting the increased emphasis being placed on enhancing tradi- tional amphibious assault capabilities.

European NATO Amphibious Forces The United States is far from the only nation setting stock in amphibious forces. A good Many European NATO partners maintain a significant amphibious dozen European NATO members maintain capability. Here, the Dutch 21st Raiding Squadron trains in assaulting some form of marine corps/naval infantry a port target. force or a corresponding army amphibious group, including five with a brigade-sized as weapons platforms. However, neither operations, to defend and northern force. International cooperation and train- vessel category is expected to be opera- Europe against potential Russian incur- ing are routine within NATO, especially tional in sufficient numbers for years to sions. The Virginia-based Expeditionary among the alliance’s smaller marine forces. come. Interim solutions include high speed Strike Group 2 (ESG 2), a joint Navy-USMC Six European nations – France, Italy, the such as the USN’s Expeditionary operational command, is particularly ori- Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the Unit- Fast Transport catamarans, and the leasing ented toward operations in the European, ed Kingdom – as well as the US participate of commercial high-speed, shallow draft African, and Middle Eastern theatres. in the annual flag-officer level Amphibious transports. Larger scale amphibious landings also re- Leaders Expeditionary Symposium (ALES). main a vital capability of the USMC. The These meetings serve to improve interoper- Traditional Amphibious past few years have in fact seen a renewed ability, command and control, and force in- Operations emphasis on this skill set, which atrophied tegration of NATO’s amphibious forces, in during the nearly twenty-year engagement order to enhance collective defence at the While the USMC is being given a major role of the Marine Corps in Afghanistan and Major Joint Operation plus (MJO+) level. for operations in the Indo-Pacific region, Iraq. Ship-to-shore manoeuvres against de- A 2019 study commissioned by US Marine and EABO is considered a key element for fended beachheads are increasingly being Forces Europe/Africa concluded that NATO a future major war, the Corps is not plac- incorporated into USN-USMC exercises. (including NATO Europe) maintains consid- ing all its eggs in one operational basket. Here, too, the Navy and Marine Corps are erable amphibious capacity, but is still not The USMC currently has nine active duty modernising to reflect new tactical realities. integrating and coordinating sufficiently infantry regiments, only three of which are The USMC is introducing the next-genera- to maximise these forces’ contribution to to be converted to LMRs. Some of the re- tion Amphibious Combat Vehicle (ACV), deterrent and combat operations. “Exist- maining units are being trained for Arctic which is expected to attain full operational ing national and bilateral brigade-size Am- phibious Task Groups (ATGs) maintain the requisite shipping, connectors, and land- ing forces to conduct multi-brigade opera- tions, but further evolution of candidate C2 (Command and Control) constructs are required to realise this capability and en- hance interoperability among ATGs,” the report found. As a positive note, “there is

Photo: Russian Ministry of Defence an emerging consensus around a baseline C2 structure – termed the centralised Am- phibious Task Force (ATF) – for NATO am- phibious operations in an MJO+ scenario. This construct, developed by ALES stake- holders, offers a mechanism to leverage NATO's amphibious capacity by aggregat- ing national and bilateral capabilities into a coherent C2 structure.” The report did note an across the board atrophy of knowledge and experience in Russian ZUBR class air cushion landing craft on exercise. large-scale amphibious operations among Russian maintains powerful amphibious forces. all the nations’ services. Recommendations

56 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 Masthead Maritime Security & Defence include revising current operating doctrine or developing Volume 1 new doctrine tailored to multinational amphibious opera- Issue 03/21 (June 2021) tions above the brigade level. The study also advised aug- ISSN 1617-7983 menting centralised ATF staff and devising a long-term Published by training plan aligned with NATO's exercise programme. Mittler Report Verlag GmbH Opposing Forces A company of the TAMM Media Group

Potential opponents of the US and its allies also support Editors-in-Chief: Capt. (ret) Hans Uwe Mergener (hum), Conrad Waters (cw) major amphibious forces, and assign them critical aggres- Managing Editor: Jürgen Hensel (jh) sive roles. Russia’s Naval Infantry (Morskaya pekhota Rossii) Online Editor: Jack Richardson (jr) currently comprises some 35,000 personnel organised into 10 mechanised amphibious brigades or regiments and two Publisher: S A Elliott (se) full-strength special operations or reconnaissance brigades, Regional Correspondents augmented by cadre units. At least one brigade is assigned /NATO: Joris Verbeurgt, Denmark: J. Bo Leimand, India: Suman Shar- to each major fleet (Pacific, Northern, Baltic and Black Sea), ma, Israel: Tamir Eshel, Italy: Luca Peruzzi, The Netherlands: Jaime Karremann, Russian Federation: Yury Laskin, Spain: Esteban Villarejo, USA: Sidney Dean and is capable of joint operations with the combat fleet as well as with combat aviation. Moscow is currently enhanc- Layout: ing its amphibious capabilities with an eye to operations in CREATIV.CONSULTING GmbH, Meckenheim, Germany the Arctic, Baltic and Black Sea theatres. Production: With regards to technology, major modernisation ef- Lehmann Offsetdruck GmbH, Norderstedt, Germany Emirates Printing Press, Dubai, UAE forts include the Project 23900 LHD type amphibious assault ship and the VPK-7829 BUMERANG amphibious Office Address: assault vehicle. According to various reports by the TASS Mittler Report Verlag GmbH Beethovenallee 21, 53173 Bonn, Germany news agency, the 204 metre long Project 23900 vessels Phone.: +49 228 35 00 870, Fax: +49 228 35 00 871 will displace between 25,000 and 30,000 tons. They will [email protected], www.mittler-report.de accommodate 900-1,000 marines and 75 vehicles. The flight deck can operate up to 16 helicopters and four Managing Directors: Peter Tamm, Thomas Bantle armed reconnaissance UAVs, while the well deck holds Advertising, Marketing and Business Development Stephen Barnard four LCACs. Two ships are currently being built in Crimea. Phone: +49 228 35 00 886, Mobile: +44 7984 033154 Unlike the French MISTRAL class amphibious assault ships [email protected] Russia had originally ordered, the Project 23900 will be Stephen Elliott capable of operations, enhancing Moscow’s Phone: +49 228 35 00 872, Mobile: +49 1590 173 0346 offensive capabilities against Norway, Iceland, and Alas- [email protected] ka. The BUMERANG amphibious infantry fighting vehicle Waldemar Geiger is currently undergoing testing. It can be armed with ei- Phone: +49 228 35 00 887 ther a 30mm or 57mm gun, with an unmanned anti-tank [email protected] variant available. According to TASS, it can operate in Jürgen Hensel Phone: +49 228 35 00 876, Mobile: +49 176 2386 3904 Sea State 3 and features 12 hours endurance in water, [email protected] which would enable it to debark an amphibious vessel Dr. Andreas Himmelsbach more than 100 kilometres offshore, increasing the odds Phone: +49 228 35 00 877 of landing undetected. [email protected] China’s amphibious capabilities include two People’s Lib- eration Army divisions (a total of six manoeuvre regiments Advertising Representative, Russia & CIS: plus combat support), an amphibious armoured brigade, Laguk Co., Yury Laskin, General Director plus a 10,000 strong Marine Corps with two amphibious Krasnokholmskaya Nab., 11/15, 132, RF-109172 Moscow, Russian Federation brigades. Amphibious transport capabilities include eight Phone: +7-495-911-1340, Fax: +7-495-912-1260, Email: [email protected] Type 071 amphibious transport docks, approximately 50 Exhibition Management and Advertising Administration: Renate Herrmanns landing ships and more than 70 landing craft. A new class Advertising Accounting: Sabine Rump of Type 075 amphibious assault ship is also currently being Subscription/Reader Service: introduced into service. Supported by missile artillery and Mittler Report Verlag GmbH combat aircraft, these units form the key to any future Beethovenallee 21 invasion of Taiwan, and present a considerable resource 53173 Bonn for contesting US, Japanese and Australian forces in any Phone: +49 228-35ßß8-70 western Pacific island campaign. Email: [email protected] Of course various US allies in the Asia-Pacific region, in- Maritime Security & Defence, © Mittler Report Verlag GmbH cluding Australia, Japan and South Korea maintain re- spectable amphibious capabilities as well (the Republic The views expressed are not necessarily those of the editor or publisher. of Korea or RoK Marines have a strength of 29,000, con- All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without prior written permission of the publisher in Bonn. stituting the largest amphibious force outside the major powers). Whether in the Atlantic, the Arctic or the Indo- Cover photo: Mission completed – F-35B completes sea test on ITS CAVOUR, Pacific realm, amphibious forces are enjoying great inter- ©Courtesy Italian Navy est within their respective military establishments, and Annual subscription (from 09/21, 4 issues): €25,00 incl. postage promise to play significant roles in future conflicts. L

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 57  MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE The Italian Navy: Getting Ready to Operate the F-35B JSF

Guy Toremans

The Italian Navy is in the midst of renewing its tactical air component – the Gruppo Aerei Imbarcati (GRUPAER) “Wolves”. The 17 McDonnell Douglas HARRIER AV-8B Plus jump jets are being replaced by 15 Lockheed Martin F-35B LIGHTNING II Joint Strike Fighters (F-35B JSFs).

taly’s participation in the Lockheed Mar- Itin F-35 LIGHTNING II Joint Strike Fighter programme is the result of a strategic vi- sion that, through several parliaments, has been considered as the best platform to Photos: Italian Navy satisfy the operational needs of the Ital- ian Armed Forces. The Italian involvement in the F-35 programme was initially deter- mined in 1998 with a US$10M contribution to the F-35 JSF Concept Demonstration Phase. Subsequently, in April 2009, Parlia- ment approved the acquisition of both F- 35A and F-35B fighter aircraft variants. It was originally planned that 69 F-35As and 62 F-35Bs would be acquired but this was later cut to 60 F-35As and 15 F-35Bs for the Aeronautica Militare and 15 F-35Bs for the Marina Militare. The navy’s first F-35B was delivered on 25 January 2018. Escort- ed by a F-2000A , a KC-767 tanker for in-flight refuelling and a C-130J configured with an oceanic search- ITS CAVOUR pictured exiting the dry dock at Taranto whilst in the course and-rescue capability, the aircraft took off of undergoing modifications to make her suitable for F-35B operation. from the F-35 Final Assembly and Check Out Facility at Cameri, Italy on 1 February was the application of a non-skid thermally up to two levels below the flight deck to and landed the same day at the Naval Air protective deck coating capable of with- ensure greater crew comfort. Station of Patuxent River in Maryland, US. standing the extreme temperatures ema- Having successfully completed a 17-month After being submitted to the Electromag- nated by the F-35B’s engines. The solution overhaul on 6 May 2020 and regained her netic Environmental Effects certification at involved the spraying of Thermal Metal operational readiness, the Italian Navy’s the Battlespace Simulation Test Center, the Spray (TMS), a combination of aluminium flagship sailed from her homeport of Taran- aircraft flew to the Marine Corps Air Station and titanium, capable of resisting tempera- to on 28 January 2021 for a three month (MCAS) in Beaufort, South Carolina where tures of up to 1,500 °C. All areas of the deployment to the US East Coast. Initially it was assigned to Marine Fighter Attack flight deck involved in F-35B activities, such planned for November 2020, the deploy- Training Squadron 501 (VMFAT-501) of the as the landing spots, the entire runway and ment was delayed until end-January 2021 Marine Corps' F-35B Training Center. On 13 the ski-jump, have been coated with this due to the Covid pandemic. June 2019 the second F-35B left Cameri to TMS. Other works included the installation This deployment – and the introduction of join the first aircraft. The navy will receive of metal reinforcement structures under- the F-35B – comes at an important time for its third F-35B in June 2021. neath the landing spots, modifications to the Italian Navy. 2021 marks the 160th An- In order to enable its current aircraft car- the ammunition and spare part compart- niversary of the Marina Militare, the 10th rier, ITS CAVOUR, to operate F-35B JSFs, ments, upgrades of the aviation support Anniversary of ITS CAVOUR as the navy’s the Italian Navy had to submit the carrier facilities, the installation of additional guid- flagship and the 30th Anniversary of the to substantial modifications. A major task ance lights, a Special Access Program Facil- Gruppo Aerei Imbarcati ‘Wolves’. ity (SAPF) locker for the management of Author classified information, an increase in the MSD spoke with Rear Admiral Placido aviation fuel storage capacity by approxi- Torresi – Commander Italian Naval Avia- Guy Toremans is a freelance naval mately 300 m3 and enhancing the thick- tion – and Captain Giancarlo Ciappina – journalist based in Belgium. ness of the insulating material of the ceil- Commanding Officer ITS CAVOUR – ings and bulkheads in all the compartments about the transition to F-35B operations.

58 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE 

MSD: Admiral Torresi, what are the major challenges in preparing GRUPAER to oper- ate the F-35B? RADM Torresi: First, allow me a brief di- gression to highlight the importance of the conversion of our fixed wing air component to these 5th generation multi-role aircraft that will form the main weapons systems of our carriers (Ed. ITS CAVOUR and ITS TRIESTE). The F-35B incorporates the most modern technologies currently available, such as its intrinsic stealth design, integrat- ed avionics, advanced radar, and unparal- leled sensor and data-processing systems. The aircraft are even capable of merging all data gathered by their on-board sensors and automatically forwarding these data to command and control nodes, as well The F-35B has a huge advantage over enemy aircraft. Barely detectable as to the maintenance and logistic supply by an adversary’s radar systems, it can penetrate hostile environments chains. The transition from the HARRIER and evade the most advanced enemy defences. AV-8B Plus to the far more capable F-35B is, indeed, quite demanding. Fortunately, I miliarisation with the aircraft, the so-called can count on very motivated and profes- Introduction to Fighter Fundamentals, with sional personnel. Our goal is to have this classroom courses, technology-driven aca- transition completed by 2024. The major demics (Ed. internet, satellite broadcasts challenge, from an operational point of and audio and video conferences) and view, is to balance the number of person- training flights with the Northrop T-38 TAL- nel allocated to the F-35B programme and ON aircraft. Then they commence to train those remaining in the AV-8B Plus line in in the F-35 Full Mission Simulator, starting order to maintain the operational readiness with the basics of taking off and landing, of the GRUPAER. Another issue involves then continuing across the full spectrum the reassessment and adjustment of our of missions with each session gradually in- training programs. Our pilots and technical creasing in difficulty. Thereafter they start personnel must master new competencies basic flights with the F-35B. This phase cul- in order to be able to employ the aircraft to minates with passing the Naval Air Training its fullest potential. In my opinion, this calls and Operating Procedures Standardisation for a change of mentality. check flights –called the NATOPS Check. Having successfully passed NATOPS, the MSD: I dare suppose you have to introduce pilots are qualified to fly the F-35B and new procedures and tactics to operate the start the second phase, during which they F-35B? Rear Admiral Placido Torresi – have to perform different tactical flight mis- RADM Torresi: Obviously, the arrival of Commander Italian sions. I cannot divulge details but this phase the F-35Bs fundamentally alters the meth- is quite similar to the one that they went ods by which we will conduct our air op- GARIBALDI and ITS CAVOUR (Ed. For ex- through as AV-8B Plus pilots. erations at sea. The arrival of the F-35Bs ample during Operation Unified Protector From this year onwards, our new pilots calls for the review of our procedures and off Libya in 2011). They are trained at US coming out of their jet training will learn to concept of operations in order to allow us Marine Fighter Attack Training Squadron fly the F-35B as their first fighter jet. Their to exploit the jets’ technical superiority, as 501 (VMFAT-501) based at Marine Corps training starts at the US Navy Flight Schools, well as how to handle its highly classified Air Station (MCAS) Beaufort on South where they will fly in a T-6A TEXAN II tur- information and equipment. Switching to Carolina. Their training takes between 12 boprop aircraft of Training Air Wing Five at this new aircraft requires our pilots to learn and 18 months. As of today (Ed. March NAS Whiting Field in Milton, Florida. Then numerous new concepts, procedures and 2021) we have five pilots training in the then go for advanced training on the T-45C techniques. USA. The very first pilot qualified to fly the GOSHAWK aircraft. Upon their graduation F-35B completed his training in September as naval aviators they will commence train- MSD: What criteria did prospective pilots 2020 and upon his return in Italy he was ing on the F-35B. Of course, all pilots will have to comply with in order to get se- appointed as commander of GRUPAER and have additional training to prepare them lected to fly the F-35B and when did their is now in charge of coordinating the squad- for future tasks that they will have to un- training commence? ron’s transition. dertake, especially from aboard the aircraft RADM Torresi: The first batch of pilots carrier. chosen to make the transition to the F-35B MSD: What are the different phases pilots are highly qualified AV-8B Plus pilots who had to go through to be qualified to fly MSD: Can you provide some details about gained a lot of experience during numer- the F-35B? the F 35B simulator? ous exercises – and even in real combat RADM Torresi: Their training consists of RADM Torresi: Due to the ever increas- missions while embarked onboard the ITS two main phases. The first one involves fa- ing complexity of aircraft, and the associ-

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 59  MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE ated costs of building and operating these innovative aircraft, synthetic training is of utmost importance, not in the least to save on operating costs and but also to cut air- craft’s actual flying times. Our pilots are ex- posed to any type of air and surface threat, with scenarios that would be difficult, or even dangerous, to undertake when flying in a real jet. The simulator allows them to get as familiar as they can before actually start flying in an F-35B.

MSD: Given the intensive and demanding training programme, have there been any drop-outs amongst the pilots? RADM Torresi: We did not have any drop- outs. Due to our pilots’ previous qualifica- tion on the AV-8B Plus jets, and their sig- nificant amount of flight hours, our pilots readily assimilated all the new material. It is also the case that flying such an innovative aircraft makes them highly motivated and proud. Flying an F-35B is the “icing on the Picturered here is Capt Giancarlo Ciappina (left) – the Commanding cake” of any pilot’s career. Officer of the ITS CAVOUR.

MSD: I suppose that the technical person- Upon completion of her post modernisa- as the AV-8B Plus Harriers. The programme nel also had to receive training in the US? tion work-up period ITS CAVOUR sailed also presented the opportunity to prepare RADM Torresi: Yes. Being a fundamen- from Taranto Naval Base on 28 Janu- my flight deck personnel for the upcoming tally different jet, the F-35Bs’ maintenance ary 2021 for her “Ready for Operations” trials with the F-35B and enhance overall is completely different as well. After an campaign. We asked Captain Ciappina coordination between our Combat Infor- initial theoretical and virtual maintenance what was on the agenda upon leaving her mation Centre, Flight Control and Bridge course at the Integrated Training Center homeport. teams. After this exercise, we commenced at Eglin Airforce Base in Florida, the engi- our preparatory training ahead of the de- neers and technical support personnel join Captain Ciappina: After leaving the “Mar ployment to the United States to conduct VMFAT-501 in Beaufort for their “on the Grande” in Taranto we completed a two the initial integration trials for the F-35B. job” training, tailored according to their day cycle of training activities that focused After a brief stop at Rota Naval Base in respective speciality, such as propulsion on air operations, and training serials, with Spain on 2 February 2021 we crossed the systems, avionics, etc. The large number particular emphasis on air-defence. This Atlantic. Prior our arrival at Norfolk Naval of flights conducted with the F-35B at the short training programme allowed us to at- Station on 13 February 2021 we exercised MCAS ensures that our personnel can tain our Carrier Qualification (CQ) and Deck with the US Navy’s destroyer STOUT (DDG- carry out a wide range of maintenance Landing Practice (DLP) certifications. We 55), F/A-18 Super Hornets from GEORGE activities on the aircraft and, as such, gain performed day and night flights with two W. BUSH’s (CVN-77’s) Carrier Air Wing 7 excellent hands-on experience. SH-90 and two SH-101 helicopters as well and a P-8 POSEIDON MPA of Patrol and Reconnaissance Wing 11.

MSD: Once at Norfolk Naval Station what was on the programme? RADM Torresi: As you know the goal of this “Ready for Operation” campaign, which will last three to four months in to- tal, is to put ITS CAVOUR through an in- tensive test period, called the First of Class Flight Trials-Fixed Wing (FOCFT-FW). This is aimed at the integration of the F-35B and certifying ITS CAVOUR to operate our own F-35Bs. The campaign kicked-off with a 10 day preparatory phase at the naval base. Personnel from the F-35 Patuxent River In- tegrated Test Force or ITF (Ed. the organi- sation responsible for analysing the flight trials) embarked on board and assisted the On 1 March 2021 two specially instrumented American F-35Bs belonging crew and flight deck personnel with the to Air Test and Evaluation Squadron VX-23 from Naval Air Station Patux- preparations for receiving the F-35B. ITS ent River landed onboard ITS CAVOUR for the very first time. CAVOUR then sailed from Norfolk on 28

60 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 February to commence her four weeks of aircraft wings. The ship’s crew was also put towards ITS CAVOUR’s Initial Operational at sea tests. through general tests such as maintenance Capability. We are already planning to land and inspection activities related to the air- onboard HMS QUEEN ELIZABETH later this Captain Ciappina: During the period craft; chaining, refuelling and defuelling the year and we are also looking into possible alongside at Norfolk Naval Station, we per- aircraft; practising taxiing, take-off and land- interactions with the US Navy. Based on the formed several activities in preparation of ing evolutions; connecting and disconnecting F-35Bs’ current delivery rate, we expect ITS our scheduled “at sea” trials. Some 173 en- bomb; as well as Logistical Test and Evalu- CAVOUR to reach her “Initial Operational gineers, technicians and bridge operators ation trials such as performing a simulated Capability” by the end of 2024, when we from the ITF came on board. They assisted Lift Fan Removal and Replacement using the will have eight F-35B aircraft and 12 quali- my crew during their familiarisation of the ship’s nitrogen generating plant. fied pilots. Her “Full Operation Capability” necessary skills to support the forthcoming (Ed. Shortly after our interview ITS CAVOUR is anticipated to be achieved when all fifteen operations with the F-35B, such as move- returned to Norfolk on 26 March, having F-35Bs have arrived. So there are still a few ments on the flight deck and in the hangar, successfully completed all the planned tests. more years to go. take-off and landing signals, and simulated crash and salvage procedures, as well as procedures for other emergencies. The flight deck was kitted out with telemetry and data recording equipment, as well as specially-de- signed LED-lighting to aid the planned night time landings. Once this equipment was in- stalled, the ITF team carried out several tech- nical tests, including the fly-over of an F-35B while we were still in the harbour in order to test communications and calibrate telemetry reception. This fly-over allowed us also to calibrate our Joint Precision Approach and Landing System, which had been installed during ITS CAVOUR’s major overhaul.

MSD: What test and trials are on the agenda during the four weeks at sea? RADM Torresi: We needed to test both the aircraft and ship during intensive tests in or- der to certify that ITS CAVOUR is ready to operate the F-35B. On 1 March 2021 two specially instrumented American F-35Bs be- ITS CAVOUR also conducted tests with MV-22 OSPREY tiltrotor aircraft longing to Air Test and Evaluation Squadron during the course of her US deployment. VX-23 from Naval Air Station Patuxent River landed onboard for the very first time. From In all the two F-35Bs carried out over 50 MSD: I suppose the deployment delivered then on the test flights proceeded in incre- flight missions, some 120 vertical landings far more than the initial integration of the F- mental steps and in a wide range of load, and as many short take-offs with and with- 35Bs with ITS CAVOUR. What is your overall motion, wind, and environmental condi- out the use of the ski jump). assessment so far? tions. After completion of all scheduled tri- RADM Torresi: Being a decisive force als ITS CAVOUR returned to Norfolk to allow MSD: When will the first Italian F-35Bs start multiplier, the F-35B greatly enhances the Integrated Test Force team to analyse all flying from ITS CAVOUR? the potential of our carrier with capabili- the collected data and issue an Interim Flight RADM Torresi: During the first half of April, ties that are essential in both today’s and Clearance (IFC), declaring ITS CAVOUR safe ITS CAVOUR is scheduled to operate with US tomorrow’s conflict scenarios. Thanks to operate F-35Bs autonomously. Navy MV-22 OSPREY aircraft in order to define to its stealth features and its particularly their flight clearance onboard. Thereafter our advanced sensors, the F-35B is able to Captain Ciappina: The purpose of our “at own F-35Bs and pilots will embark onboard deliver a huge advantage over potential sea” phase was to verify the technical and for about one week while ITS CAVOUR is sail- enemy aircraft and to penetrate a hos- structural compatibility of the F-35B and the ing in the vicinity of Beaufort. This period will tile environment saturated with anti-air suitability of on-board arrangements and allow our pilots to conduct their carrier quali- defences. This significantly enhances our supporting equipment. The most impor- fications. Moreover, give standardised NATO capabilities to control a wide area of sea tant activity was calculation of the F-35B’s procedures, our pilots will be qualified to land and airspace. The campaign also provides operational limits. The first week was used on board any carrier within the Alliance that new perspectives for co-operation with to generate all necessary flight test data and operates the F-35B Joint Strike Fighter. our allies. Combined with the mobility, environmental parameters to develop the op- flexibility and autonomy of ITS CAVOUR, erating bulletin for the forthcoming flights. In MSD: What is next on the agenda? the F-35Bs will set a new standard in the the following weeks we carried out multiple RADM Torresi: ITS CAVOUR is scheduled to Italian Navy and the ski-STO (ski-Short Take Off) and VLs (Vertical return to Taranto by the end of April 2021. in general. Landings) during both day and night opera- After some well-earned leave, we will com- tions with “clean wings” Then, on 14 March, mence a cycle of training activities to in- The Interview was conducted by dummy stores were put underneath the crease our operational capabilities, working Guy Toremans.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 61  MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE MV POLARSTERN’s MOSAiC Expedition A portrait of endurance and strategic research in the remoteness

Felix Lauber and Thomas Wolf Wunderlich

In September 2019 the German research icebreaker POLARSTERN departed Tromsø in Norway to commence a year-long mission drifting in the Arctic ice. Facing some of the world’s harshest, fastest-changing and most dangerous climatic conditions in one of its most remote locations, the ship’s crew and scientists must have felt some of the same excitement and trepidations experienced by the Arctic explorers of yesteryear as they embarked on their lengthy mission. MSD presents some of the implications of a voyage into ice, light, darkness and … seclusion.

The Mission

Promoted as the largest polar expedition in history, MOSAiC – the Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate – was organised by an international consortium of leading polar research insti-

tutions led by the Alfred Wegener Institute, Photo: Copyright Stefan Hendricks Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Re- search (AWI). The expedition was charged with making the most intense observations ever undertaken at the Arctic – arguably, the epicentre of global warming – with the aim of gaining a better understanding of a broad spectrum of factors impacting climate change. Uniquely, the expedition took 389 days in the region, thereby experiencing an unprecedented full polar winter on site. PO- LARSTERN drifted 3,400 km on a zigzag- ging course, covering a distance of 1,923 km in the process. 2 floes were used. 337 scientists and experts and 105 crewmem- POLARSTERN firmly embedded in the floe – October 2019. bers of Polarstern were part of MOSAiC. 20 countries or respectively 37 nationalities were involved. More than 80 institutes par- ticipated in the mission. Around 150 people Alfred Wegener Institute Authors were ‘on site’ at any given time. In addition, As a Helmholtz centre for polar and there were hundreds of people on the sup- marine research the Alfred Wegener Felix Lauber served in the German ply vessels and on land who supported MO- Institute works in the cold and temper- Navy before he had a short time on SAiC‘s research and logistics. The mission’s ate regions of the world. The institute merchant vessels. He joined the re- total budget was in excess of €140M, with was named after the German polar ex- search fleet of the shipping company operating costs (excluding instrumentation plorer who discovered the continental Laeisz. After three years on Research and research personnel) estimated at circa drift, Alfred Wegener. It is a foundation Vessel METEOR and since then ten € 200,000 per day. under public law and member of the years on the Polar Research and Sup- Helmholtz Association - the largest sci- ply Vessel POLARSTERN. Mission Challenges entific organisation in Germany. The in- Thomas Wolf Wunderlich a stitute was first launched in 1980 with qualified engineer in nautical science/ POLARSTERN has carried out numerous only a handful of employees - today maritime transport. After a start on missions to the Polar Regions in the near that number has risen to more than a container ships, he switched to RV 40 years since she was delivered in 1982. thousand. Although based in Bremer- POLARSTERN to become one of the She can not only navigate safely in the pack haven, it also operates other facilities responsible captains. In the MOSAiC ice zone but can also easily break through in Germany: Potsdam, Helgoland and expedition, he administered leg 4 and 5. 1.5 metres of ice and through more by Sylt. ramming. Nevertheless, the conditions in-

62 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE 

MV POLARSTERN Type: Icebreaker, Re- search vessel Tonnage: 12,614 GT Displacement: 17,300 tonnes Length: 117.91 m (386 ft Photo: Copyright Lukas Piotrowski 10 in) Beam: 25 m (82 ft 0 in) Draught: 10.7 m (35 ft 1 in) Installed power: 14,120 kW (18,940 hp) Speed: 15.5 knots Capacity: 124 Crew: 44 Owner: Bundesministerium Rosmorport’s ice breaker the KAPITAN DRANITSYN closing for first für Bildung und resupply in December 2019. Forschung Operator: Alfred Wegener herent in the MOSAiC mission presented to venture outside. Severe storms also in- Institute (AWI) new dangers for this mature ship and her hibited operations outside the vessel, chal- Manager: Reederei F. Laeisz experienced crew. An expanded time in lenging the ship’s physical endurance and GmbH shipyard hands was therefore required the mental toughness of her personnel. before MOSAiC commenced to allow the Port of registry: Bremerhaven, Ger- necessary modifications to be made for Remoteness: POLARSTERN operated at many extended Arctic operation. distances of c. 1,500 km to the nearest hu- Ordered: 28 August 1980 Amongst the most significant of the many man settlement in the course of MOSAiC. Builder: Howaldtswerke- challenges faced on the MOSAiC expedi- This figure might seem completely normal Deutsche Werft, tion were: to the average seafarer. However, PO- and Nobiskrug, LARSTERN’s most northerly position was Rendsburg Temperatures: The vessel, her crew and 88°36’ N during the Arctic winter, a fact the embarked scientists were exposed to inevitably drawing attention to the difficul- Laid: 22 September lengthy periods of extremely low tempera- ties involved in handling any emergency in 1981 tures to an extent rarely experienced be- a situation that might well be beyond the Launched: 6 January 1982 fore MOSAiC. Temperatures ranging from capacity for external assistance. Certainly, Completed: 8 December 1982 -30°C to below -40°C were encountered when a vessel is encased in ice and unable for many weeks at a time. Although PO- to move under the envelopment of a se- LARSTERN is capable of sustained opera- vere winter storm, the practical remoteness repatriation, deliveries of supply and the tions down to -50°C, wind chill tempera- felt by its personnel was more than usually provision of other support could last for tures as low as -70°C made it dangerous pronounced. Delays to crew or researcher weeks. The remoteness highlighted the re- ality of being stranded and the fact that the expedition was essentially at the mercy of “winter impassability”. Supply and Sustainment: A major con- sequence of the climatic conditions and remoteness inherent in MOSAiC were practical difficulties associated with sup- ply and sustainment. The necessity for

Photo: Copyright Evgenii Salganik frequent resupply was reduced by careful advanced preparations to assess precisely what would be required and “stuffing” stores to their full capacity. In addition, care was taken to ensure POLARSTERN’s “residents” would have enough vital sup- plies to survive the winter as a failsafe against support vessels being unable to deliver what was needed. However, re- supply and crew changes both remained essential to mission success and unexpect- June 2020: Arctic Summer – MOSAiC’s team witnesses the floe’s starting ed events were to impact how these were disintegration. performed.

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 63  MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE

For example, the use of partner vessels leaving POLARSTERN drifting alone and five weeks rather than the envisaged ten from China and Sweden was planned as firmly embedded in the floe for the fol- days in the face of thick ice flows. KAPI- part of resupply operations but these ar- lowing months. TAN DRANITSYN’s own fuel supplies were rangements had to be changed due to Initial Resupply: The first resupply opera- depleted to the extent that arrangements COVID-19 pandemic restrictions. Fortu- tion was undertaken by Rosmorport’s had to be made for her refuelling on the nately, vessels from Alfred Wegener In- ice breaker the KAPITAN DRANITSYN in return voyage. Nevertheless, the Russian stitute and Rosmorport – as well as other December 2019. The Russian ice breaker icebreaker reached the floe in which PO- German vessels – performed their missions experienced some difficulties reaching LARSTERN was embedded at the end of successfully. In total, seven ships were en- POLARSTERN due to adverse weather February, mooring around half a mile from gaged in supply operations, transporting conditions that tested the limits of its the German research vessel in the same thousands of tonnes of fuel, large quan- technical capacity, running constantly at ice floe. Provisions and crew were trans- tities of provisions, spares and scientific full power for two days to cover the final ferred by snow tractors, making the end equipment and hundreds of personnel. 50 nautical miles to the German ship’s of the mission’s second phase. During this In spite of the ultimate success achieved, position. Indeed, the KAPITAN DRANIT- time, on 24 February 2020, POLARSTERN the uncertain supply situation certainly SYN’s crew joked that MOSAiC would had drifted to position 88°36’ N, just 156 km from the North Pole and the furthest north a vessel had ever ventured during the Arctic winter. When Plan B Fails: The next scheduled re- plenishment and crew transfer was due to take place early in April. This was due to take place by aircraft, with helicopters in

Photo: Copyright Markus Rex place as back-up. However, the unexpect- ed arrival of the global pandemic and the paralysis of international travel meant that these arrangements were no longer pos- sible. Moreover, the collapse of the airstrip prepared on the strip further complicated matters. POLARSTERN was left to fend for herself until another alternative could be arranged. Various options – including bringing for- ward the next resupply mission sched- uled to be performed by the Swedish December 2019: The POLARSTERN photographed here enveloped in an icebreaker ODIN – had to be discounted. Arctic winter and shrouded in total darkness. Ultimately it was decided to interrupt the mission and POLARSTERN made an had the potential to have a material im- now take place with two ships because unplanned voyage to undertake refuel- pact on morale as supplies dwindled in the they would probably get stuck in the ice ling, resupply and personnel exchanges face of logistical and climatic challenges. too! There was some seriousness behind with two German vessels in the waters POLARSTERN might have been a modern the humour, as the Russian ship’s crew off Svalbard, some eight weeks later than ship operating in the 21st Century but sup- were aware that this was a potential dan- planned. Autonomous measuring devic- ply remained as much of a challenge for ger on the following resupply mission in es were left on the floe for the month the MOSAiC as it did for previous generations the face of deteriorating winter condi- ship was away. Whilst the mission had of Arctic explorers. tions. been interrupted, these arrangements The initial resupply operation was con- ensured POLARSTERN was ultimately Mission Highlights ducted bow to stern, making best use able to return to the floe to complete the of limited capacity. The exchange expedition’s objectives. A Successful Start: The Russian icebreaker of around 100 personnel and the supply A Safe Return: POLARSTERN’s return AKADEMIK FEDOROV accompanied PO- of fuel and provisions took five, long and to the ice floe in June 2020 started a LARSTERN from the departure port of exhausting days. KAPITAN DRANITSYN new chapter. The MOSAiC team could Tromsø, assisting her in searching for a made her way back to Tromsø to prepare witness the natural end of what had suitable ice floe to “park”. This was se- for the next resupply voyage, leaving PO- become their home for several months. lected on the basis of scientific require- LARSTERN to commence the MOSAiC The floe’s disintegration lasted for sever- ments, navigational fundamentals and mission’s second phase. By this time, PO- al weeks until the end of July 2020. The the reality of conditions on the ground. LARSTERN had advanced 200 km on the crew’s depression was tangible when The need for ice thick and stable enough floe, with a total distance of 720 km cov- the floe broke. A new phase started: all to establish a floating base camp around ered due to the zigzag nature of the drift. the base’s remaining equipment had to the ship was a particularly important re- Around 20 terabytes of data had been be collected, including scientific devices quirement. POLARSTERN was refuelled collected by the ship’s scientists. that had been deployed in the wider by AKADEMIK FEDOROV and final sup- Lucky for a Second Time: In the course of area around the floe at the expedition’s plies and heavy equipment such as snow- KAPITAN DRANITSYN’s second voyage to beginning. Their positions were known tractors were transferred. In mid-October POLARSTERN, climatic conditions deterio- and had followed the same direction of 2019 AKADEMIK FEDOROV departed, rated further. The voyage to the ship took drift as the main flow.

64 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE 

By mid-August, the final supply run was ment driven by CO2 will not work at all, the levels achievable by the cheapest na- completed by the Russian icebreaker AKA- Firefighters need a safe place for donning val communications systems in civilised DEMIK TRYOSHNIKOV in the drifting ice their equipment and cannot use breathing latitudes. However, POLARSTERN’s use of the Greenland Sea. After staying in apparatus in unsheltered areas as the air of fibre optic-based compasses and satel- the area of the MOSAiC floe for another in the cylinders can be cooled to such an lite-based sensors meant that navigation couple of days for final measurements PO- extent that it could freeze their lungs. was not a problem. LARSTERN made her way further north Lifeboats needed thorough heating and and reached the North Pole on 19 August davits manual care. CO2-inflated life Issues related to Extended Darkness: 2020. Choosing a new floe and setting vests would not work and life rafts had Illumination was restricted in order to up scientific equipment close to the pole, to be heated due to their CO2 inflation reduce the impact on natural conditions measurements continued through to 20 system. Even the ship’s outer illumination and associated scientific measurements. September 2020. had to be adjusted, with regular bulbs Psychologically, the effects of permanent The time came to return home to Bremer- dealing with the extreme temperatures darkness observed with respect to mis- haven. After 389 days – of which ten best. Cranes and hydraulic systems all sion personnel included tiredness, faster months were spent embedded in the floe have temperature limits, which rarely exhaustion and a negative impact on – the period of isolation ended when the exceed -30° C. Under these conditions mood. People who managed to perform ship docked on 12 October 2020. most wires are also at the limit of their well in these conditions encouraged that flexibility also. The effects on machinery of others. ‘Radio MOSAiC’, a broadcast Lessons Learned installations were mitigated by adjust- from the ship to the floe containing ment of the ventilation system, mostly by news, food menus and music was anoth- The extended duration of the MOSAiC reduction of the fresh air intake. er motivating feature. Darkness provided expedition resulted in several lessons be- ing learned that could have significant value for future missions in an area of increasing strategic importance.

Vulnerabilities whilst operating in Heavy Ice: Equipped with a Polar Class

2 (PC2) hull, POLARSTERN’s main vulner- Photo: Copyright Liana Nixon abilities are her two propellers, thrusters, rudder and the various sounding devices attached to her keel. Although ice pres- sure in excessive amounts was experi- enced, the hull coped exceptionally well with these challenges and even the ship’s paint refused to move. However, ice ac- cumulation in the propeller’s Kort nozzles and the thrusters were problematic and caused minor damage. The heavy ice in which the vessel was embedded for sev- POLARSTERN was up to 1,500 km from the nearest human settlement. eral months would probably have been too great for conventional icebreakers to The list of dangers, the impact on particu- beautiful imagery but enlarged the threat withstand. lar equipment and potential mitigation posed by polar bears due to the increased Although the ice floe was thick and measures is long and extremely specific. risk of close contact. Other concerns such strong, attempts to build a runway for air The impact of Adverse Weather: as navigation on a floe or working in the support and emergency response proved Rapidly changing weather conditions darkness proved to be of lesser concern problematic due to ongoing movement, occurred hand-in-hand with changes than expected. storms and ridging. to the ice. During stormy phases, wind chill temperatures dropped to -70° C, Climatic Change: Observations sug- Difficulties operating in Low Tem- visibility reduced and ridges occurred. gested significant reductions in the qual- peratures: POLARSTERN’s Polar service However, the major threat was the pe- ity, thickness and coverage of the Arctic temperature is -40° C, with operations riod after a storm, when the pressure ice were observed. The melting process in temperatures below that figure rated on the ice reduced and cracks opened. was rapid after the beginning of the as service in adverse conditions. Danger Some equipment was lost in these con- summer season. The route by which the to the ship could occur at temperatures ditions and scientific arrangements had North Pole was reached were known as below -53° C, the steel-built limit. How- to be rapidly rearranged by all available previous areas of old ice through which ever, the lowest temperature measured personnel. navigation would be almost impossible. was -42° C and then only for a short time. However, in 2020, ice was not an ob- Low temperatures did affect fire-fighting Communications Problems: A sense of stacle. POLARSTERN could sail from the equipment. Foam will freeze immediately remoteness was exacerbated by the low North Atlantic to the North Pole in five at -40°C and fall as snow, although a fluid quality of communication. All available days with interruption or any reduction core will reach the potential fire. After use, means – including Kepler, the brand-new in performance. It remains to be seen to the foam system will be out of action due Iridium Certus system and the Pactor ra- what extent the ice can solidify again in to rapid icing. Mobile fire-fighting equip- dio modulation mode – never reached the next winter season. L

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 65  MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE European Maritime Engagement in the Strait of Hormuz: A Simple Mission in a Complex Area

MSD 1-21 provided insights into the EMASOH/Operation AGÉNOR from the bridge of a Danish frigate participating in the European Maritime Surveillance Mission in the Strait of Hormuz. We continue to look further into this maritime security initiative in which Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, and Portugal are participating. Maritime Security & Defence spoke with Commodore Carsten Fjord- Larsen before he handed over responsibility as Force Commander to his Danish compatriot, Commodore Anders Friis. The change of command ceremony was held 17 April 2021 at the Headquarters in the French military base in Abu Dhabi. Photos: EMASOH Commodore C. Fjord-Larsen led Operation AGÉNOR as Force Commander from 13 January 2021, during which time four destroyers and frigates and three maritime pa- trol aircraft successively provided reassurance to merchant shipping.

MSD: Concerning the situation in the Strait of Hormuz: What is your threat or risk as- sessment? Commodore C. Fjord-Larsen: The situa- tion is relatively calm, and it appears that the various actors are acting professionally and within their normal operational pat- tern. But as we recently saw with the in- cident relating to MV HELIOS RAY, it is a complex area where incidents can happen at short or with no notice. Due to this com- plexity, assets from AGÉNOR are operating with a de-escalatory posture. Our meas- ured naval presence is aimed at having a deterrent effect on any illegal activity that may place obstacles in the way of the free movement of shipping. Operation AGÉNOR aims to enhance mari- time awareness and security in the region in full compliance with the UN's Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and with respect for the regions territorial waters and airspace. It is an operation with a “light footprint”. We are not here to “fix the situation”, nor es- COVID procedures were followed throughout the Change of Command tablish sea control in the traditional sense Ceremony on 28 Aprl 2021 in Abu Dhabi.

66 Maritime Security & Defence · June 2021 MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE  of a maritime operation, but to provide assurance through a de-escalatory pres- ence. But operating in this complex area, where minor incidents can escalate quickly, requires continuous surveillance. Conse- quently, monitoring maritime activities is a pre-requisite in order to have an up to date picture of what is happening and to detect any anomalies. MSD: What are the Commodore's final conclusions on EMASOH? Perhaps you could start from a European perspective? Commodore C. Fjord-Larsen: It is a quite simple mission in a complex area. The core of the mission is to reassure maritime shipping. We are not here to point fingers towards spe- cific actors. The need for an independent, un- biased assessment of the situation in the area is important for EMASOH as a European-led mission. It is my firm belief that we are doing the right thing with Operation AGÉNOR. I think that the diplomatic route, supported by our military de-escalatory posture, is the A French naval photographer takes still photos as part of observation most effective way to obtain good results in operations. the long run. Through this posture, we aim to contribute to stability and reduce the risk MSD: What are your final conclusions on and Maritime Special Forces – to AGÉNOR. of misperceptions and misunderstandings. EMASOH from a Danish (national) point of Denmark has also contributed staff officers Any enduring easing of tensions can, in my view? to the operation since its establishment in eyes, only be reached through diplomacy. Of Commodore C. Fjord-Larsen: It is not new January 2020. course, we always try to make improvements for Denmark to lead international naval forc- These previous contributions, of course, to the way we manage the operation. But the es. Denmark is the world's fifth-largest ship- give us a first-hand impression of what basis is reassurance through a de-escalatory ping nation. Therefore, it is also a core task the area of operations is like, and these, posture. for the navy to help ensure the free move- together with the knowledge we gain We are eight European countries who know ment of shipping – and we have both the from the French headquarters, are es- each other from NATO – but this is neither a skills and experience to lead international sential building blocks in solving the task. NATO mission, nor an EU mission nor a UN forces in this task. Moreover, the fact that we are pulling mission. As participating countries, we are From August to December 2020, Denmark our weight in this way allows us to build on our own. But this operation does show contributed the frigate IVER HUITFELDT and credibility with respect to Denmark’s ef- shows the possibility for inter-operational her crew – including also a Seahawk heli- forts towards assuring the free flow of European teamwork in a complex area. copter and soldiers from the commerce at sea.

Observation by helo and Eyeball Mark I

June 2021 · Maritime Security & Defence 67  MARITIME OPERATIONS & DOCTRINE

MSD: A number of other national and international naval operations with more or less the same objectives are ongoing in the same areas as EMASOH. How effective is cooperation with Photo: French Navy them? Commodore C. Fjord-Larsen: I think that freedom of navigation is a focal point for all the operations you mention. My focus is solely on EMASOH and oper- ation AGÉNOR. Eight European countries have given us a task. That is my priority. As a natural part of our work, we ex- change information and attempt to avoid any friction with other regional organisa- tions and operations as we go about our mission of reassuring shipping.

MSD: What is your assessment or per- spective on the incident of MV HELIOS RAY? Could EMASOH forces do anything in that? If not, why not? Surveillance at sea is often compared to looking for a needle in Commodore C. Fjord-Larsen: At the haystack because miniscule targets are sought while a vast surface. time of the incident, our assets were not in the area. But of course, if any The political track is led by a Senior Ci- ing able to respond swiftly to any activity ship or is in some kind of risk vilian Representative (SCR). Actually, this in the operational area. Since our juridical or danger, we are committed to assist is the Danish Ambassador to Libya, Julie basis is UNCLOS, we do perform escorts and help according to the international Elisabeth Pruzan-Jørgensen. or inspections. We conduct reassurance laws at sea. The SCR and political representatives by means of a measured naval presence. If Incidents like this happen with no warn- from the eight countries gather regularly a specific merchant ship reaches out to us, ing and without any possibility of pre- at both levels – the Ministries of Foreign we can be present in order to monitor and dicting where and when it is going to Affairs and the Ministries of Defence. to report the vessel's free movements. But happen. After the incident, our maritime They discuss and assess the region's situ- when one of our assets sees a ship from patrol aircraft managed to get photos of ation and subsequently issue guidelines one of the contributing countries, we send the vessel. Beyond this evidence of the for EMASOH. them a call, telling who we are and that physical damage, we are not able to make At the operational level, Operation AGÉ- we will be in the area. any further assessment of the incident. NOR is led by a French Operation Com- mander from his Operational Headquar- MSD: Is this a suitable set-up? MSD: Could you please explain the way ters, OHQ. The Operation Commander Commodore C. Fjord-Larsen: It is my that EMASOH operates? How is the po- is currently Rear Admiral Jacques Fayard. firm belief that we are doing the right litical guidance that you operate under At the tactical level, there is a Task Force thing with Operation AGÉNOR. I think translated into practical tasks such as es- (TF 474), currently led by the Danish Force that the diplomatic route, supported by corting, inspection and shadowing? Commander. TF 474 assets operate within our military presence which is de-esca- Commodore C. Fjord-Larsen: Eight the framework of several tactical docu- latory in our attitude, is the most effec- European countries provide support to ments and are further directed and guided tive way to obtain good results. I have EMASOH. This is comprised of two ele- by day-to-day messages. The Staff of the a well-functioning and relevant dialogue ments: a political or diplomatic track and a Commander of TF 474 is in direct contact on both the political and diplomatic level. military track, called Operation AGÉNOR. with TF 474 assets 24/7/365, thereby be- And, I think this is an essential pillar of the EMASOH mission. We do our best with the assets at hand. My focus is getting maximum effect out of the assets assigned to this operation. With the number of units currently being rela- Photo: French Navy tively small, our tactical possibilities are somewhat limited and, as such, require a dynamic and flexible approach. Obviously, I would like to see more assets joining the operation in order to maintain maritime awareness and provide assurance. How- ever, it is up to the participating countries to decide how they plan to contribute.

A French MPA helps to provide complete situational awareness This interview was conducted by for EMASOH. Hans-Uwe Mergener.

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