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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Ultra-High Accelerating UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Ultra-High Accelerating Gradients in Radio-Frequency Cryogenic Copper Structures A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Physics by Alexander David Cahill 2017 c Copyright by Alexander David Cahill 2017 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Ultra-High Accelerating Gradients in Radio-Frequency Cryogenic Copper Structures by Alexander David Cahill Doctor of Philosophy in Physics University of California, Los Angeles, 2017 Professor James Rosenzweig, Chair Normal conducting radio-frequency (rf) particle accelerators have many applications, includ- ing colliders for high energy physics, high-intensity synchrotron light sources, non-destructive testing for security, and medical radiation therapy. In these applications, the accelerating gradient is an important parameter. Specifically for high energy physics, increasing the ac- celerating gradient extends the potential energy reach and is viewed as a way to mitigate their considerable cost. Furthermore, a gradient increase will enable for more compact and thus accessible free electron lasers (FELs). The major factor limiting larger accelerating gradients is vacuum rf breakdown. Basic physics of this phenomenon has been extensively studied over the last few decades. During which, the occurrence of rf breakdowns was shown to be probabilistic, and can be charac- terized by a breakdown rate. The current consensus is that vacuum rf breakdowns are caused by movements of crystal defects induced by periodic mechanical stress. The stress may be caused by pulsed surface heating and large electric fields. A compelling piece of evidence that supports this hypothesis is that accelerating structures constructed from harder materials exhibit larger accelerating gradients for similar breakdown rates. One possible method to increase sustained electric fields in copper cavities is to cool them to temperatures below 77 K, where the rf surface resistance and coefficient of thermal ii expansion decrease, while the yield strength (which correlates with hardness) and thermal conductivity increase. These changes in material properties at low temperature increases metal hardness and decreases the mechanical stress from exposure to rf electromagnetic fields. To test the validity of the improvement in breakdown rate, experiments were conducted with cryogenic accelerating cavities in the Accelerator Structure Test Area (ASTA) at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. A short 11.4 GHz standing wave accelerating structure was conditioned to an accelerating gradient of 250 MV/m at 45 K with 108 rf pulses. At gradients greater than 150 MV/m I observed a degradation in the intrinsic quality factor of the cavity, Q0. I developed a model for the change in Q0 using measured field emission currents and rf signals. I found that the Q0 degradation is consistent with the rf power being absorbed by strong field emission currents accelerated inside the cavity. I measured rf breakdown rates for 45 K and −4 found 2 ∗ 10 /pulse/meter when accounting for any change in Q0. These are the largest accelerating gradients for a structure with similar breakdown rates. The final chapter presents the design of an rf photoinjector electron source that uses the cryogenic normal conducting accelerator technology: the TOPGUN. With this cryogenic rf photoinjector, the beam brightness will increase by over an order of a magnitude when compared to the current photoinjector for the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS). When using the TOPGUN as the source for an X-ray Free Electron Laser, the higher brightness would allow for a decrease in the required length of the LCLS undulator by more than a factor of two. iii The dissertation of Alexander David Cahill is approved. Robert N. Candler Troy A. Carter Pietro Musumeci James Rosenzweig, Committee Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2017 iv For Mom and Dad, who always inspire me. v Table of Contents 1 Introduction to Normal Conducting Radio-Frequency Linear Accelerators1 1.1 Historical Development of Radio-Frequency Linacs...............1 1.2 RF Acceleration..................................3 1.2.1 Figures of Merit..............................5 1.2.2 Traveling Wave and Standing Wave Structures.............7 1.2.3 Comparison to Superconducting Linacs................. 10 1.3 RF Photoinjectors as Electron Sources..................... 11 1.3.1 Design of Electron Guns......................... 11 1.3.2 Relevant Theory............................. 13 1.3.3 Examples of Photoinjectors....................... 18 1.4 Applications of Normal Conducting High-Gradient RF Technology...... 20 1.4.1 Applications for Bright Beams...................... 22 2 Physics of RF Breakdowns ............................. 24 2.1 Field Emission Currents............................. 24 2.2 Physical Description of an RF Breakdown Event................ 27 2.3 Review of High-Gradient RF Breakdown Experiments............. 29 2.3.1 Early Work on High-Gradient Systems................. 31 2.3.2 Research in Breakdown Physics of TW structures for NLC/GLC... 32 2.3.3 State of the Art High-Gradient TW Structures for CLIC....... 34 2.3.4 Studies of RF Pulsed Heating...................... 38 2.3.5 Review of SW Single-Cell Breakdown Physics Program at SLAC... 40 2.4 Theoretical Developments in the Understanding of RF Breakdowns..... 46 vi 3 Cryogenic Normal Conducting Resonant Cavities .............. 49 3.1 History of RF Cavities at Cryogenic Temperatures............... 49 3.1.1 High Power Tests............................. 50 3.2 TE Dome Cavity................................. 51 3.2.1 Low Power Copper Measurements.................... 54 3.2.2 High Purity Copper Samples....................... 54 3.3 X-Band Single-Cell Cavity............................ 56 3.3.1 Experimental Setup............................ 57 3.3.2 First Structure.............................. 64 3.3.3 Low Power Measurements of Second Structure............. 64 3.3.4 Improvement of Diagnostics and Model of RF System......... 67 3.4 S-Band Pillbox Cavity.............................. 71 3.4.1 Low Power Measurements........................ 74 3.4.2 Direct Skin Depth Measurement..................... 77 3.5 Design for S-Band Single-Cell Cavity...................... 79 3.5.1 Design Considerations.......................... 79 3.5.2 Thermal Considerations......................... 83 3.5.3 Mechanical Drawings........................... 87 4 High Power Tests of the Cryogenic X-Band Single Cell Structure .... 89 4.1 Degradation of Quality Factor in High-Power Tests.............. 89 4.1.1 Evidence of Quality Factor Degradation................ 89 4.1.2 Calculating Gradients with Dynamic Quality Factor.......... 90 4.1.3 Results of Dynamic Quality Factor Model............... 93 4.1.4 Missing Power............................... 96 vii 4.2 Breakdown Rates in the Cryogenic Accelerating Structure.......... 102 5 Ultra-High Brightness Cryogenic Copper RF Photoinjector: TOPGUN 106 5.1 Automation in SUPERFISH........................... 106 5.1.1 Geometry................................. 107 5.1.2 Optimization Loop............................ 108 5.2 TOPGUN RF Design............................... 112 5.2.1 Design Considerations.......................... 112 5.2.2 TOPGUN Fields and RF Parameters.................. 114 5.2.3 Thermal Considerations......................... 116 5.2.4 Conceptual Layout............................ 120 5.2.5 C-Band TOPGUN............................ 121 5.3 Mode Launcher.................................. 125 5.3.1 Original S-band Mode Launcher..................... 125 5.3.2 Calculation of Quadrupole Kick..................... 126 5.3.3 Minimized Quadrupole Field Mode Launcher.............. 127 5.3.4 Comparison................................ 127 5.3.5 Engineering................................ 130 5.4 Emittance Optimization with a Genetic Algorithm............... 133 5.4.1 Simulation Setup............................. 133 5.4.2 Genetic Optimizer............................ 135 5.4.3 Emittance for Different Cathode Cell Lengths and Bunch Charges.. 136 5.4.4 Time of Flight and Energy........................ 139 6 Conclusion ....................................... 141 6.1 Future Directions................................. 142 viii A Skin Depth in Normal Conducting Metals ................... 145 A.1 Normal Skin Effect................................ 145 A.2 Anomalous Skin Effect.............................. 146 A.2.1 Effective Skin Depth........................... 148 A.2.2 Dependence on RRR........................... 151 B Derivation of Fields in a Resonant Cavity ................... 153 B.1 Definition of Basis Modes............................ 153 B.2 Perturbation due to Skin Depth......................... 155 B.3 Perturbation due to Coupling Waveguide.................... 156 B.4 Derivation of Differential Equation....................... 158 B.5 Constant Cavity Parameters........................... 161 C Equivalent Circuit Theory ............................. 163 C.1 LRC circuit.................................... 163 C.2 Impedance..................................... 164 C.3 ABCD Matrix Cascading............................. 166 C.3.1 VNA model for Waveguide Connection................. 166 C.3.2 Equivalent Circuit for High Voltage Coaxial Feedthrough....... 168 C.4 Time-Varying Fields............................... 170 C.5 Full RF System Model.............................. 171 Bibliography ....................................... 174 ix List of Figures 1.1 A diagram of a Widerøe
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